Published by:

Federal Ministry for

Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ)

© Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH,

Division 44: Environmental Management, Water, Energy, Transport
Eschborn December 2000

Development of EIA Instruments

Phone: (+49) 6196-79-1372
Fax: (+49) 6196-79-7144

E-mail: uvp@gtz.de

Author: Jürgen Porst

Technical supervision: Hermann Rump (KfW) (in overall charge), Roger Wolf (GTZ)

Responsible: Burghard Rauschelbach

 Page 1

Contents

1 Scope...................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Overview ...................................................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Definition of used oil..................................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Origination of used oils ................................................................................................................ 4

2 Environmental impacts and protective measures................................................................................... 5

2.1 Used oils as an environmental problem....................................................................................... 5
2.1.1 Danger for soil, water, air and health................................................................................. 5
2.1.2 International conventions................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Avoidance of used oils - substitute materials and areas of use................................................... 6
2.3 Collection of used oils .................................................................................................................. 7
2.3.1 General conditions in the Federal Republic of Germany that can also be applied to
developing countries.......................................................................................................... 7
2.3.2 Collection methods in industrialised countries .................................................................. 8
2.3.3 General conditions in developing countries....................................................................... 9
2.4 Transport of used oils ................................................................................................................ 10
2.4.1 The Federal Republic of Germany as an example of handling in industrialised
countries .......................................................................................................................... 10
2.4.2 Developing countries ....................................................................................................... 10
2.5 Reuse of used oils ..................................................................................................................... 10
2.5.1 The situation in industrialised countries........................................................................... 10
2.5.2 Possibilities in developing countries ................................................................................ 11
2.6 Disposal of used oils .................................................................................................................. 12
2.6.1 Routes to sustainable used oil management in developing countries ............................ 12

3 Notes on the analysis and evaluation of environmental impacts ......................................................... 14

4 Interaction with other sectors................................................................................................................ 16

5 Summary assessment of environmental relevance.............................................................................. 17

6 References ........................................................................................................................................... 19

APPENDIX 1 ..................................................................................................................................... App. 1, 1

APPENDIX 2 ......................................................................................................................................App. 2, 1

APPENDIX 3 ......................................................................................................................................App. 3, 1
 Page 2

Abbreviations
AbfG Waste Avoidance and Waste Management Act
AltölV Used Oil Ordinance
BImSchG Federal Act on Air Pollution Control and Noise Abatement
BImSchV Federal Pollution Control Act – Implementing Ordinance
BbodSchG Federal Soil Protection Act
GC-MS Gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry
KrW-/AbfG Closed Substance Cycle and Waste Management Act
PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
PCB Polychlorinated biphenyls
 Page 3

1 SCOPE

1.1 Overview
Used oil arises wherever work is carried out with oil and where it is put to use for a
particular purpose: this means primarily in the lubrication and maintenance of
engines, motors, machines and vehicles, but also when filling and emptying tanks or
other facilities or structures containing oil, such as transformers, hydraulic equipment
or ships’ hulls. Other sources are leaks from such facilities or structures, and during
metalworking. Careful collection and at the same time strict separation according to
the type of oil are the most important starting points for preventing problematical
environmental impacts and negative effects on human health. Soil, groundwater and
surface water, in particular, are endangered by the introduction of used oil, and along
with these protected resources the health of the population is also put at risk.
Moreover it is not only the hydrocarbons contained in the used oil which constitute a
contamination risk, but much more so it is the toxic substances that they may contain,
such as heavy metals or certain halogenated organic compounds.

1.2 Definition of used oil

Because of the danger to the environment and health from inappropriate
management of used oil and in view of the possible content of problematical foreign
substances (such as heavy metals, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) or other
halogen compounds), used oils require special handling. In the Federal Republic of
Germany and in most industrialised countries, used oil is classed as hazardous
waste. The collective term “used oil” includes used and contaminated mineral oils, oily
residues from containers, emulsions, and water-oil mixtures. In the industrialised
countries the term used oil tends to be defined more according to the disposal
channel than according to the material composition.
In contrast with the complicated legal context applicable in Germany (for further
details refer to Appendix 1), in developing countries used oil, sometimes also referred
to as “waste oil” or “oil waste”, is usually defined in simple terms: generally speaking,
used or waste oils are used, semiliquid or liquid substances consisting entirely or
partially of mineral oil or synthetic oils (PCBs, glycols, esters of phosphoric acid etc.).
Accordingly, used oil is oil that has taken up foreign substances or impurities and can
no longer be used for lubrication purposes.
It may contain small quantities of toxic substances which are liable to degrade the
quality of air, soil and groundwater if it is not handled and disposed of in an
appropriate manner.
It is not always the case that other residues that should be classified as used oil or
drums/containers contaminated with used oil are recognised as such in developing
countries and are handled and disposed of accordingly:
! Synthetic oils
! Used brake fluids
! Certain solvents, petroleum naphtha, white spirit
! Oil filters
! Contaminated containers
! Oily residues from receptacles
Oil emulsions are stable mixtures of mineral oil and water obtained by the addition of
emulsifying agents. Emulsions of this type are produced during metalworking, in
particular. Drawing oils usually contain halogens, and cutting oils usually contain
sulphur. Used oil-water mixtures occur for example as separation products in oil and
 Page 4

petrol separators in refineries, tank farms, filling stations etc., or as bilge oils in the
shipping industry, where they can cause problems when ships undergo overhaul in
dockyards or if they are illegally dumped at sea. Synthetic oils and halogenated
organic compounds such as cooling, hydraulic and electrical insulating oils are often
toxic compounds.

1.3 Origination of used oils

Used oil arises wherever fresh oil is put to use or consumed and where it is changed,
stored, handled or disposed of.
The most significant and, in terms of volume, largest proportion is used lubricating oil
from internal combustion engines (petrol and diesel engines) in road transport and –
especially in the case of island nations – in shipping, including oil collected in oil
separators at filling stations. In comparison, residues of oils used in fixed locations
(transformers, hydraulic installations, mechanical oils such as drilling and cutting oils)
play a relatively minor role, but because of the important principle of separate
collection they should not be neglected.
In order to decide what is to be done with used oil, it is necessary to know the
quantities arising in individual countries and regions and the sources of generation.
The example in Appendix 2 is intended to illustrate what data is required in order to
record the quantities of used oil arising so that an effective collection and disposal
system can be devised.
In developing countries, most of the used oil that is generated originates from
lubricating oil in the transport sector; the quantities of hydraulic oil and transformer oil
are relatively small. Agriculture (irrigation pumps etc.) and the energy sector (small-
scale power stations with diesel engines) are the second most significant source.
Most used oil arises in urban centres and along major roads at filling stations and
motor vehicle repair shops, and in some cases also at do-it-yourself oil-change
stations on major roads.
 Page 5

2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES

2.1 Used oils as an environmental problem

2.1.1 Danger for soil, water, air and health

If used oil is not disposed of properly, there is a risk that it and any other substances
that it may contain will enter natural cycles and the food chain via water, soil and the
air. In this way, hydrocarbons, heavy metals, PCBs and other halogen compounds
sometimes contained in used oil pose a risk to human health and impede the growth
of plants and their ability to take up water. As little as one litre of used oil, it is often
said, contaminates one million litres of groundwater or surface water. This is because
the concentration of oil in the water is then 1 ppm (part per million) or 1 microlitre per
litre, a level that is seen as the upper limit that can still be considered tolerable.
The quality of used oils is determined mainly, apart from their content of middle
distillates and highly volatile components, by the treatment of lubricating oils with
additives and the conditions under which the oils are used. Additives serve the
purpose of improving viscosity or flow properties, for example, or of reducing wear. In
connection with the question of additive treatment, the growing use of synthetic oils is
a significant factor.
! The infiltration of oil into soil as a phase or in dissolved form constitutes above all a
long-term threat to groundwater and hence potentially to drinking water quality.
Both the biodegradation of oils in soil and the discharge of the substances into
groundwater proceed very slowly.

2.1.2 International conventions

The Basel Convention and the Montreal Protocol are both of significance in
connection with used oil.
Basel Convention:
Since 1992, trade in hazardous waste has been regulated in the signatory countries
to the Basel Convention1. Amongst other things the Convention advocates the
elaboration of appropriate provisions and regulations on the management of
hazardous waste as one of the most important preconditions for the cross-border
movement of wastes, among them also used oil. As a result of numerous cases of no
longer needed toxic substances and hazardous waste being exported from countries
with strict regulations (usually industrialised countries) to countries with no statutory
waste disposal regulations or with less strict laws, serious environmental and public
health problems have repeatedly arisen in developing countries. As it is common
practice in those countries, for example, for waste to be sorted into recoverable
resources and residues by hand on the landfill sites by “waste scavengers”, there is a
constant risk to health.
The Convention governs the cross-border movement of such waste substances and
obliges the signatory states to handle hazardous waste in an environmentally
acceptable manner and to dispose of it accordingly.
The most important principles are as follows:
! In accordance with the requirement for environmentally acceptable handling,
transboundary movements of hazardous waste are to be restricted to a minimum.

1
The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal
was adopted in 1989 and entered into force on 5 May 1992
 Page 6

! Hazardous waste should be treated and disposed of as close as possible to the

place of its origin.
! The amounts of hazardous waste should be reduced and also minimised at
source (avoidance principle).
! In order to achieve the objectives, the transboundary movement of hazardous
waste is monitored and supervised, and unauthorised trafficking is prevented. The
Convention supports environmentally acceptable hazardous waste management,
promotes cooperation in this field and develops technical guidelines.
Montreal Protocol:
The “Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer”2, adopted in
1987, relates to protection of the atmospheric ozone layer. The concern of the
Protocol is to protect human health and the environment against detrimental effects
that are caused by the emission of ozone-depleting substances, primarily certain
halogenated hydrocarbons (chlorofluorocarbons). The discharge and production of
these substances are regulated, as is the process of bringing them into circulation.
Particular support is provided to developing countries in this respect.
The Convention has an indirect connection with used oil: if used oil is mixed or
contaminated with substances containing halogens and is incinerated, provision must
be made for the emission of halogenated hydrocarbons to be reduced accordingly, or
incineration should be avoided altogether.

2.2 Avoidance of used oils - substitute materials and areas of use

Considerable environmental pollution is caused by engine oil being changed too
frequently and by leaks from hydraulic systems. Even in the industrialised countries,
the consumption of lubricants and the generation of used oil could be reduced by
approximately 30 % within about 5 years through better maintenance and design of
engines, gearboxes and machines.
The consumption of fresh oil could be reduced if non-container-bound dispensing
facilities, for example pumps with nozzles similar to those used for petrol pumps,
were provided more often at filling stations instead of cans, because considerable
residual amounts are left in the containers. Moreover, this would also allow more
precise metering when replenishing the oil in vehicle engines.
Much greater potential savings can be achieved solely by extending the oil change
intervals for motor vehicles. Passenger cars can run for 30,000 km and trucks for up
to 100,000 km with a single oil filling without damaging the engine. Oil changes at the
specified regular, relatively closely spaced service intervals are often unnecessary
when using high-quality oils – usually branded oils in high performance classes,
which age only slowly.
More attention can also be paid to reducing oil consumption in the development of
new engines. Hundreds of thousands of tonnes of engine oil are burned in a country’s
road traffic every year; the waste products from this together with those from the fuel
and the exhaust gases are released into the air. Some of the oil that is used for
cooling in metalworking also escapes into the air. The evaporation or atomisation of
cooling lubricants such as these can be reduced by using better machine tools, low-
emission oils and exhaust air filters.
Unnecessary consumption of fresh oil occurs as a result of leaks from poorly
maintained hydraulic systems (presses, lifting platforms, diggers, agricultural and
road construction machines). Not inconsiderable quantities of hydraulic oils, which

2
“as adjusted and amended by the last Meeting of the Parties in Montreal, 15-17 September 1997; this entered
into force on 4 June 1998”. Source: UNEP Internet Web page, December 1999
 Page 7

often find their way into the soil, can be saved through improved maintenance and
handling.
Oil-smeared piping and equipment, but also empty containers that are disposed of
without being cleaned, are a further source of contamination. A large amount of oil is
also lost during the shredding or other forms of disposal of scrap vehicles, because
until now the salvage operators have often not drained the engines. In the Federal
Republic of Germany the proper draining of scrap vehicles is made mandatory by the
Scrap Car Ordinance (Altautoverordnung), which has been in force since April 1,
1998.
So-called once-through lubricants for chainsaws and for corrosion prevention, but
also form oils, release agents or carrier oils for the application of crop pesticides
should be replaced by quickly biodegradable alternatives. Such alternatives should
also be sought for lubricants and hydraulic fluids of which part are produced from
vegetable oils.
Other measures in the fields of avoidance/reduction and reuse/recovery, applicable
above all to companies, are listed in the following; they are implementable in
developing countries within the framework of existing or specially initiated projects:
! Disclosure of deficiencies and strengths (positive starting points) through
audits and the introduction of good housekeeping practices above all through
personnel training
! Prevention of leaks, overflows and spills through appropriate training of staff
and through the use of requisite equipment
! Use of dispensing equipment, catch pans, funnels and drip collectors
! Separate collection and avoidance of cross contamination of different waste
streams; reduction of the contamination of used oil with foreign substances, in
particular halogenated and other organic substances, heavy metals etc.
! Oil changes should not be carried out because a certain time interval has
elapsed but only after true running times or when certain levels of
contamination are reached
! Log books should be kept and other quality assurance measures introduced in
order to prevent the accumulation of outdated oil products
! In addition to the reprocessing and heat-recovery incineration of used oils,
other safe possibilities for their use should be found in the company:
promotion of innovation
! Used oil can also be added to asphalt as a thinner or for plastification
! In the case of heat-recovery incineration of used oil, it is an important
condition that the oil should contain no halogenated admixtures because they
can be converted into toxic dioxins and furans in the course of combustion
! A service can be set up to ensure the safe disposal or cleaning of oily rags
! The correct methods of handling and disposing of fresh and used oil should be
set out in simple work instructions which are put on show at the places of work

2.3 Collection of used oils

2.3.1 General conditions in the Federal Republic of Germany that

can also be applied to developing countries
Since 1986 the disposal of used oils has been carried out in accordance with the
provisions of the legislation on waste management. Details are set out in the
Altölverordnung (Used Oil Ordinance), which also remained in force after the
Kreislaufwirtschafts- und Abfallgesetzes (Closed Substance Cycle and Waste
 Page 8

Management Act) came into effect. The principles and regulations laid down in the
Altölverordnung include in particular the following aspects which can be used as a
model for setting up a used oil management scheme in developing countries:
! Determination of reprocessable used oils and of reprocessing procedures,
with possibilities being left open for innovations in relation to materials recycling or
in the event of higher pollutant loading
! Stipulation of limit values for PCBs and total halogen and the methods of
their determination in used oils, i.e. for substances which make reprocessing
more difficult, which can accumulate in re-refined oils or which result in other
impacts on the environment, for example relating to the law on ambient air
protection
! Introduction of a labelling and take-back obligation in the distribution of oil for
internal combustion engines and gear oils, according to the polluter-pays principle
! Priority given to materials recycling over disposal
! Obligation to set up used oil collection stations in the vicinity of sales outlets
and places of use
! Prohibition of the admixture of foreign substances (e.g. oils containing PCBs,
other hazardous wastes, solvents etc.)
! Establishment of facilities for carrying out oil changes at used oil collection
stations
! Dovetailing of provisions pertaining to waste law and the law on ambient air
protection by the authorisation of heat-recovery incineration of used oils, for
example in high-temperature incineration plants such as cement works, blast
furnaces or melting chamber furnaces, and of materials recycling in refining or
hydrogenation plants
The law on waste should ensure that
! recovery,
! collection and
! transportation to recycling or reprocessing plants
is carried out under supervision (with full documentation) and in particular that there is
no mixing of used oils with hazardous substances, which can be a considerable
burden on the environment whether the oils are recycled or are used to generate
energy.

2.3.2 Collection methods in industrialised countries

Collecting receptacles:
The following collecting receptacles are available on the European market for motor
vehicle repair shops and filling stations for wastes that require particular monitoring:
! Receptacles for engine oil, gear oil and other used oils
! Receptacles for contaminated fuels (e.g. from tanks filled incorrectly)
! Receptacles for materials and equipment contaminated with grease and oil. The
receptacles are not intended for the collection of oil filters, but among other things
for cans, tubes, cartridges etc. with greasy or oily adhesions. Separate
receptacles for containers with oily impurities are not necessary.
! Receptacles for coolants
 Page 9

! Receptacles for brake fluids

! Receptacles for starter batteries (lead-acid batteries)
! Receptacles for metal containers with harmful impurities (e.g. brake fluid,
cleansing agents)
! Receptacles for plastic containers with harmful impurities (e.g. battery acid, paint
residues)
! Receptacles for spray cans without the "Green Dot" environmental labelling mark
All receptacles and collection systems are generally licensed under traffic law, which
for example allows the transport of wastes that require particular monitoring to
recycling, reprocessing or incineration plants.
Sites for collecting receptacles
The collecting receptacles should be situated as close as possible to the place of
work, the place where the waste is generated or the sales outlet. Short distances
guarantee better sorting. Particular requirements apply to the sites for collecting
receptacles. In order to prevent pollutants from being washed out when substances
that are harmful to water or combustible substances are stored in the receptacles,
and therefore from entering the sewer system or the soil, they are fitted with roofs
and, depending on the type of waste, with catch pans.

2.3.3 General conditions in developing countries

In most developing countries, used oil is classified as hazardous waste and must be
disposed of accordingly. In the Philippines, for example, the reprocessing and
recycling of used oil began as long ago as the Seventies, after the oil crisis.
Companies collecting and recycling used oil operate in many developing countries;
not all of these, though, operate to capacity and some have to import used oil for
processing. In most cases, however, full data on the quantity and type of used oils
arising or on their sources is just as unlikely to be available as a formal collection and
reprocessing system. For used oil from motor vehicles, at least, complete data should
be available.
In many developing countries there are no regulated and monitored collection
systems. If at all, used oil tends to be collected on a random basis and put to various
uses, for example as two-stroke oil, as fuel, or for subsidiary lubrication purposes, etc.
Otherwise excess used oil is disposed of in an uncontrolled manner (tipping).
The sphere of hazardous waste is nowadays subject to statutory regulation in most
developing countries. Although the types of hazardous waste are frequently defined
and measures for handling and disposal are described, in most cases these are not
specific enough to provide a useable basis to allow meaningful implementation. The
legislation is therefore not always complete or problem-oriented, nor is it easy to
enforce in practice.
A significant shortcoming in many developing countries is the absence of collection
systems and the lack of adequate treatment plants and disposal sites for hazardous
wastes, in particular for wastes in liquid form. Another negative factor in many places
is the lack of sophisticated analysis and measuring equipment for the trace
constituents.
The dissemination of information and the raising of awareness of the subject of used
oil in industry (especially in small industries and microindustries) and as part of
vocational training are indispensable prerequisites for future improvements.
 Page 10

2.4 Transport of used oils

2.4.1 The Federal Republic of Germany as an example of handling

in industrialised countries
Full documentation in the form of a declaration of collection, disposal and recycling or
reprocessing is governed by statutory regulation. Transport (collection) is carried out
exclusively by approved and, usually, certificated specialist companies. These
companies must:
! Examine the quality of the used oils provided
! Take reference samples in order to preserve evidence
! In some cases pump out the oil with vacuum tankers
! Perform the declaration analyses
! Fill in the waste consignment documents
! Subsequently forward the oils for appropriate disposal or recycling/reprocessing

2.4.2 Developing countries

In developing countries there are regulations on the transport of dangerous goods
and hazardous wastes in many places, but control and implementation tends to be
deficient and used oil is rarely specified separately, with the effect that there are no
manageable foundations in place.
The shortcomings in the transport of used oil are the same as for the transport of
other dangerous goods by road, rail or water: leakages occur, oil is lost during the
filling or emptying of tanks or transfer from one to another, the vehicles and tanks are
not safe enough, there is no labelling obligation and there is no documentation
system (obligation to provide accompanying documents).
In the event of accidents with oil (during transport, or when relatively large quantities
escape from stores or from road tankers or tanker ships), extensive and speedy
safety measures are necessary which are directed at protecting water resources and
wells, as well as the soil and other biological media. It is also necessary to use oil-
binding agents.

2.5 Reuse of used oils

2.5.1 The situation in industrialised countries

It is not possible to reuse used oil without it first undergoing pretreatment or
reprocessing.
The reprocessing of used oils is only performed in large plants known as re-refineries,
which recover materials from used oil. Re-refineries produce high-quality re-refined
oils, which are used as engine oils, gear oils, hydraulic oils, gas oils and flux oils (for
the bitumen industry). The introduction of quality management systems and the
performance of regular environmental and certification audits in these plants ensures
that the quality of the re-refined oils is constant and competitive.
The technical steps involved in the reprocessing and disposal of used oil are listed in
Appendix 3.
 Page 11

2.5.2 Possibilities in developing countries

In addition to the technical aspects mentioned above, two other substantive
considerations are also important, namely the location at which the used oil is
reprocessed in developing countries, and the purpose to which it is put.
In principle the following applies:
! The shorter the time the used oils are stored, the simpler the reprocessing will be
and the better the re-refined products.
In the simplest case, oils can be fine-filtered directly at their place of use, and
returned to the system. This also applies to petrol engines. A bypass filter system of
this type removes solid particles, which results in an improvement in lubricating
efficiency and reduces emulsification and oxidation, because these are catalysed by
metal particles.
However, filtration is not enough to be considered a complete recycling technology,
because traces of water accumulate and bacterial degradation takes effect, especially
during the intermediate storage of used oil. Mobile facilities for recycling used oil,
equipped with a heat source, vacuum generator and a pressure filtration component
are in operation in the USA. These facilities enable water and impurities to be
removed from existing recirculation plants or from collected used oil and the
lubricating oils to be reprocessed to a high level of quality.
Better results are achieved in central plants with filtration and distillation stages and
with chemical treatment. This, though, presupposes that there is a collection system,
intermediate storage and transport. As already described above, larger plants allow
the production of re-refined oils, the quality of which approaches that of fresh oil.
Experience shows that the quality that consumers demand of re-refined used oil rises
when the used oil is processed in full-scale re-refineries (off-site). If reprocessing is
carried out in the company’s own plant (on-site), losses in quality tend more to be
accepted.
The processing of oil-water mixtures and emulsions follows the principle of the
decentralised on-site facilities. The techniques for filtration and subsequent breaking
of the emulsions must be adapted to the respective types of oil in each case, with
centrifuges also being used. The isolated aqueous phase then has to be treated as
wastewater.
Reprocessing technologies are also available for used oils that become highly
contaminated when used for their intended purpose, and even for those that are
contaminated in other ways: there is then the possibility that these re-refined products
can be used for lesser purposes than those of the original products. The classical
case is crankcase lubricating oils, which are reprocessed as engine lubricating oil.
These types of oils are exposed to the effects of flames and heat in internal
combustion engines and to the influences of fuels and breakdown products as well as
air pollutants that enter via the carburettor.
Other types of oil such as hydraulic oil and turbine oil are subjected to far less stress,
which is why they can be reprocessed at considerably lower cost. The precondition
for this, however, is that the different types of oil from the various applications must
be collected and kept strictly separately.
The complications of separate collection and separate processing together with the
complex reprocessing technology itself make it more difficult to use reprocessing in
developing countries, and in addition to the frequent shortcomings in enforcement of
the law these are the reason why used oil is more often incinerated there or simply
used in two-stroke engines rather than being re-refined or processed in some other
way, which would be technically more demanding.
 Page 12

Regardless of the purpose for which used oil is reused, it replaces an equivalent
amount of crude oil. There is no doubt that this assumption that a litre of used oil is
equivalent to a litre of crude oil needs to be closely examined in each individual case,
but as a rough guide it can be assumed that the cost of re-refining used oil is
approximately the same as that of refining crude oil to lubricating oil or heating oil. If it
is taken into consideration that during the re-refining of used oil up to a third of the
quantity is lost due to process-related causes and that the expenditure of energy is
higher than when used oil is pretreated for thermal treatment, in other words
incineration, it is necessary to assess carefully which types of used oil are to be
selected for reprocessing and which for energy recovery through incineration. It is
essential therefore to perform economic analyses and ecological materials balances
in each individual case.

2.6 Disposal of used oils

2.6.1 Routes to sustainable used oil management in developing

countries
In many developing countries it is necessary to work out systems to ensure the
rational and environmentally friendly reprocessing and disposal of used oil, and the
prerequisites for establishing such systems, or in places where a start has been made
in this direction to examine what has been done so far and if necessary improve and
optimise the systems. The following principles are indispensable in achieving this:
! Only used oils from internal combustion engines should be considered for
reprocessing (re-refining, recycling).
! The recovery of energy from used oil (incineration) may only be performed in
suitable, licensed facilities.
! Contaminated, mixed used oil and used oil of unknown origin may only be
disposed of in hazardous waste treatment plants.
The approach to be taken is as follows:
! Identify and estimate the sources, types and quantities of used oil arising
! Analyse and assess existing practices for the disposal and further use of used
oil
! Identify collection and reprocessing companies for used oil
! Introduce improvements on the basis of the principles listed above: collection
and transport system, reprocessing, thermal exploitation and hazardous waste
treatment
As much as possible of the volume of used oil originating solely from motor vehicle
engines must be collected and kept separately from other used oils. The costs
covering this work of collection and intermediate storage, including the costs of the
actual technical reprocessing itself, must be sufficiently low that it is worth reselling
the re-refined products, in other words at a lower price than fresh oil.
In the Federal Republic of Germany, for example, according to estimates by the
mineral oil industry the amount of used oil from do-it-yourself oil changing but with an
unknown final destination was put at roughly 10,000 t per annum before the Used Oil
Ordinance (AltölV) came into force in 1986. The reason for this was not only a lack of
environmental awareness but also an ignorance of the requirements and possibilities
of proper disposal among consumers and in the trade. Another factor was that some
of the distributors, in particular hypermarkets and self-service outlets, did not take
back used oils after use. Furthermore, used oils were often disposed of illegally,
 Page 13

because people avoided travelling relatively long distances to collection points to

save inconveniencing themselves.
The same findings are also significant factors in developing countries, and the
consequences derived from these should be used as the basis for proposed
solutions, for example in accordance with the following criteria:
! Objective – exploitation of the original properties of the oil: materials
recycling, re-refining to produce high-quality base oils.
! Objective – exploitation of the energy content of used oils for power
generation: heat-recovery incineration. A broad range of possibilities are
available. Various criteria can be used to distinguish between usage, for example
between the use of pretreated used oils as a fuel on their own and their use as an
admixture with specified fuels such as coke, oil or gas or other substances such as
domestic-type refuse, hazardous wastes or sewage sludge. Further differentiation
can be made according to the field of application for the used oil as a fuel, for
example for electricity generation or heat generation in industrial processes such
as the production of pig iron, asphalt, bricks or cement and the waste incineration
or waste disposal procedures mentioned above.
! Objective – removal/disposal of used oils: this is generally carried out if used
oils have become unusable as a consequence of contamination and/or
admixtures, such that they cannot be put to any technical or economic use in any
of the three above-named ways and therefore they have to be disposed of as
waste. The possibilities range from controlled disposal in hazardous waste
disposal plants to controlled dumping in a pure or chemically bonded form, in each
case either on its own or as an admixture.
The decision as to the way in which used oils are to be treated is determined by a
large number of technological, economic and legal factors, which are all interrelated.
A key role in determining the method for treating used oils is played by the matter of
collection, which is generally to be considered as the crucial function within a used
oil system, upon which all of the subsequent possibilities are dependent. The
collected quantities determine the downstream technology for the used oil treatment
methods: some technologies are not technically feasible unless certain minimum
throughput volumes are reached, while others are only economic from certain
volumes upwards.
The interplay between technological, economic and legal criteria in the decision to
choose a particular treatment option often does not allow a clear-cut choice to be
made according to microeconomic considerations. For example, in particular the
question of whether to re-refine or incinerate used oils must be discussed carefully
between the authorities and the various groups and institutions involved in or
interested in the matter before a decision is taken. In this connection it is worth noting
that in countries with a relatively well-defined legal system relating to used oil – the
Used Oil Ordinance in the Federal Republic of Germany is considered trend-setting in
this respect – there is no clear position on this question.
A range of macroeconomic and business management details are necessary for the
decision-making process. Having as much reliable data as possible about the sectors
in which fresh oil is consumed and used oil is generated is essential.
 Page 14

3 NOTES ON THE ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION OF ENVIRON-

MENTAL IMPACTS
In addition to a range of ecotoxicological effects, even low concentrations of oil have
a detrimental effect on the taste of drinking water, making it unpalatable. Purification
is only possible at great expense.
In this connection, in order to carry out a qualitative assessment of environmental
damage and risks arising from seepage as a result of improper storage and disposal
it is necessary to take account of a number of factors:
! Geological and hydrogeological site characteristics
! Sites and site conditions with regard to the recovery and treatment of drinking
water, wastewater collection and wastewater treatment plants
! Drinking water protection measures (water protection zones, observance of limit
values and other standards) and framework conditions relating to environment law
! Estimation of the potential hazards to groundwater and other risks
As well as the analytical identification of environmental impacts, it is also important to
perform analytical tests on the used oil itself. Crucial aspects include taking
representative samples that are appropriate to the task in hand and examining
samples in a test laboratory that has suitable equipment and staff. The following
parameters should be analysed in order to determine the quality of the collected used
oil:
! Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
! Total halogen
! Sulphur
! Water content
! Net calorific value
! Flash point
! Heavy metals, especially lead
! Phenols
In addition to these parameters, tests are normally also performed on a random
sample basis with the aid of GC-MS screenings3 to determine whether there is any
content of middle distillates (light distillate oil and diesel), carburettor fuels or
lubricating oils, or contamination by PAH4-containing tar oils and other organic
additives or pollutants (such as cold cleaners, particularly in bilge oils).
After appropriate preparation (extraction), environmental samples (soil, groundwater,
surface water and drinking water) are investigated for their content of mineral oil
hydrocarbons using a variety of methods: spectroscopy (UV/Vis, IR), chromatography
and gravimetry. The atmosphere is an additional route of exposure in the emission of
oil fumes. Air samples are only analysed for oil content in exceptional cases.
In industrialised countries the maximum permissible concentrations of mineral oil
hydrocarbons are of the following orders of magnitude:
! 10 micrograms per litre of drinking water
! 100 micrograms per litre of groundwater
! 100 or 1000 milligrams per kilogram of air-dry soil

3
Gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry to provide an overview analysis
4
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
 Page 15

The higher figure for soil indicates that remediation of the soil is necessary if it is
exceeded. The remediation measures that come into consideration for contaminated
soils are soil exchange or clean-up procedures. If the lower figure for soil is
exceeded, more extensive investigations are required.
The risks to the environment and health resulting from the storage, collection and
transport of used oil are high, because of the potential for spills, leaks and accidents
and other forms of contamination. Likewise there is a high risk associated with final
storage in landfill sites or with processing (recycling or incineration). These negative
consequences of protective measures make it essential that the control and
regulatory mechanisms described above should be in place, enshrined in law.
On the one hand used oil is a secondary resource which it is worth reprocessing,
but at the same time it is also an environmentally hazardous substance, especially
when it is not handled properly and is disposed of as waste. A preventive effect is
therefore achieved through activities and programmes which are aimed at
minimisation of use and improvement in handling, and which make it possible to
arrange for safe disposal. Both of these lead to an improvement in conditions at the
workplace in relation to the management of oil and used oil, provide greater health
protection and relieve the burden on the environment.
 Page 16

4 INTERACTION WITH OTHER SECTORS

Environmentally damaging oil losses occur as a result of incorrect handling (spillage),
or because of leaks, accidents, collisions and improper disposal. In the case of
shipping and off-shore extraction it is seawaters that are affected, and in the case of
the petrochemical industry and quite substantially in the motor vehicle and machine
sector in addition to the protected resources of soil and groundwater it is in particular
inland seas and oceans that are affected.
! Metalworking industry
! Petrochemical industry
! Power stations with fuel-powered generators, transforming stations
! Paint shops
! Scrap yards
The most important sector is the transport sector, in which the following are affected:
! Filling stations
! Motor vehicle repair shops
! Port operations
! Bus and taxi stations
! Airports
In developing countries, motor vehicle repair shops, filling stations, transport
companies and bus and coach businesses, industrial plants and power stations along
with small diesel-powered power plants are the most important sources where used
oil arises. Widely dispersed sources of used oil are often found in countries where oil
changes are carried out privately on vehicles by the owners themselves.
Examples of used oil arising in developing countries include:
! Lubricating oil from internal combustion engines (petrol engines, diesel
engines and filters from those engines)
! Other lubricating oils from gearboxes, turbines or similar machinery without
incineration processes
! Hydraulic oil
! Metalworking oils, oil-water mixtures, emulsions
! Cooling oils
! Transformer oil
! Oily wastewater
! Oily sludges
In addition, residues from the petrochemical industry from the production of petrol and
chemical products in oil refineries are also important because they are burned as
bunker C fuel on merchant ships, in some cases mixed with used oils. The highly
contaminated oil sludge remaining on the ships as a result of using this fuel is often
disposed of illegally on the high seas, resulting in long-term pollution of the oceans.
 Page 17

5 SUMMARY ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL RELEVANCE

In most developing countries the situation relating to the disposal of used oil is
unsatisfactory. If oil is dumped on the ground after use, as is often the case, seepage
occurs, after which layers of the soil and above all groundwater resources and
drinking water wells may be contaminated. Because of the possible content of
extremely toxic halogen compounds, this practice is hazardous to health.
Small proportions of the used oil or in some cases also the entire arisings (depending
on how the law is enforced or the economic situation) are collected and transported to
resource recoverers, who mostly use it as a fuel without pretreatment or resell it.
Positive approaches include heat-recovery incineration in cement works and lime
kilns, where it is used as an additive to heating oil.
A system of complete collection, broken down according to types of oil, together with
a reduction of the quantities of oil used in all fields of application to a minimum
reduces the risks to as great an extent as possible.
Used oil from petrol engines can be reprocessed – although this is relatively complex
technically – to produce high-quality lubricating oil or oil of lesser quality than the
original products. It can be treated by thermal means, in other words incinerated, in
that way exploiting its energy content, or it can be dealt with solely by disposal, in
other words by safe final disposal. The possibilities of dealing with used oil should be
examined in this order. Disposal is only to be considered if the two first-named
options are not possible, or if the used oil is too highly contaminated with foreign
substances (“adulterated”). Whichever of the three stated alternatives is chosen, used
oil must be pretreated in a certain way and with different degrees of effort and
expense.
Roughly half of the fresh oil that is used is lost as a result of lubrication, oxidation
processes and unavoidable leakages. The rest arises again as used oil. Since the
enactment of the Used Oil Ordinance (Altölverordnung), in the Federal Republic of
Germany two thirds of used oil is reprocessed (recycled) by re-refining and one third
is used for energy generation. Through the recovery of oil filters from petrol engines,
re-refinable used oil and steel scrap can be returned to the economic cycle.
Good management of oil and used oil reduces environmental and health risks to a
large extent and makes the greatest possible use of the energy content of the natural
resource that is crude oil. Good management is taken to mean dealing with it
responsibly and in an environmentally acceptable way. This includes:
! Storage, transport, use, treatment, handling and disposal
! Minimising consumption
Used oil should never by disposed of simply by dumping: any contact with soil and
water must be avoided whatever the circumstances. Disposal on waste landfill sites
or in sewers and sewage treatment works is unacceptable. If no other disposal option
is available, if need be it should be stored safely in the medium term. Safely means in
closed, leak-proof receptacles and among other things protected against
unauthorised access, roofed and provided with catch pans. In the medium term
means for as long as necessary until one of the environmentally acceptable means of
disposal described above can be made possible.
The incineration of used oil must only be carried out in plants that are expressly
suitable or approved for that purpose. The addition of used oil to liquid fuels in high-
temperature furnaces is considered environmentally friendly. This includes the kilns
used for cement manufacture, for example.
These principles should be observed in all development projects in which used oil is
generated. If for no other reason than the oil changes on vehicles with internal
 Page 18

combustion engines, this amounts to a large number of projects. At the same time,
the range of quantities and qualities of used oil generated in connection with
development projects is very large.
Consideration should be given to the management and treatment of used oil at an
early stage, during the planning phase of development projects. Recommendations or
regulations must be included in the project documentation. Staff who will be dealing
with used oil should be given appropriate instructions or training and upgrading, and
clear areas of responsibility should be established.
The management of oil and used oil can easily be standardised by drawing up short
Standard Operating Procedures and Work Instructions.
 Page 19

6 REFERENCES

Arner, Robert, "Safe recycling of used oils", BioCycle, 36:36-37, September 1995.
Barry, Carol F., "New rules for used oil: a compliance guide for used oil handlers,
"Environment Report-BNA 25(41):2015-2021, February 17, 1995.
Basel Convention (1994): “Framework Document on the Preparation of Technical Guidelines
for the Environmentally Sound Management of Wastes Subject to the Basel Convention”.
Document no. 94/005. Secretariat of the Basel Convention, Geneva.
Batstone, R et al (ed) (1989): “The Safe Disposal of Hazardous Wastes - The Special Needs
and Problems of Developing Countries”. World Bank Technical Paper Number 93 (3 Vols.)
Washington DC.
Beiring, Elizabeth A., "Used oil in the United States: Environmental impact, regulation, and
management" Buffalo Law Review 41(1):157-205, Winter 1993.
Bruening, John C., "Filters seek recycling niche," Recycling Today, 33(4):28-30, April 1995.
CODE OF PRACTICE FOR USED OIL MANAGEMENT IN CANADA / Canadian Council of
Ministers of the Environment, Ottawa, August 1989. Report TS/WM-TRE006E. 61 p.
Harrison, Charles, "The engineering aspects of a used oil recycling project," Waste
Management 14(3-4):231-235, 1994.
Finnish International Development Agency (FINNIDA) (1994): “Guidelines for the
Management of Oil Wastes”
IMO (1995): “Global Waste Survey - Final Report. DRAFT” International Maritime
Organisation, London.
Khawaja, Manzoor A. and Mohmoud M. Aban, "Characteristics of used lubricating oils, their
environmental impact and survey of disposal methods," Environmental Management and
Health, 7(1):23-32, 1996.
Kim, Myung-Soo, Jong-Sic Hwang and Hyung-Rak Kim, "Re-refining of waste lube oils by
vacuum distillation with petroleum atmospheric residuum," Journal of Environmental Science
& Health, Part A: Environmental Science & Engineering, A32(4): 1013-1024, 1997.
Land, Walter R., "Used oil management," presented at the 1980 NPRA Annual Meeting,
March 23-25, 1980, New Orleans. National Petroleum Refiners Association, Washington,
D.C., 1980. 19 p. AM-80-23.
Peaslee, Kent D. and Darrell E. Roberts, II, "Characterization of used automotive oil filters for
recycling," Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 19(2):81-91, 1997.
Porst J: Waste Oil Recycling, in: GATE (No.3) 1990, p 27
Porst J: "Waste-Oil Management in Developing Countries", in: F. Arendt, M. Hinsenveld and
W.J. van den Brink (eds.), Contaminated Soil '90, p 145-146, Dordrecht, Boston, London
1990
Shipley, Charles W. and Boyd Jamie Taylor, "Waste oil disposal problems," Pipeline & Gas
Journal 9(9):31-34, January 1991.
Siegel, Richard and Chester Skidd, "Case studies utilizing mobile on-site recycling of
industrial oils for immediate reapplication," Journal of the Society of Tribologists & Lubrication
Engineers, 51(9):767-770, September 1995.
Troch, Filip, "Recycling of waste brake fluids," Industry and Environment 17(2):32-35, April-
June 1994.
UNEP (1992): “Hazardous Waste Policies and Strategies - A Training Manual” UNEP
Industry and Environment Programme, Technical Report No.10. UNEP/IE, Paris. (Also in
French and Spanish.)
 Page 20

Umweltbundesamt (publisher): Ermittlung von Altölvermeidungspotentialen, UBA-TEXTE Nr.

16/97
Warren, Timothy J. and Scott Cohoon, "Changing our disposal habits: recycling used oil
filters," Resource Recycling, 14(2):44,46-48,50,52,53, February 1995.
WHO (1983): “Management of Hazardous Waste - Policy Guidelines and Code of Practice”.
Regional Publications, European Series No.14. Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen.
Wolfe, Paris R., "Economics of used oil recycling: still slippery," Resource Recycling
11(9):28,30,32-33,35-38,40, September 1992.
 Appendix 1, Page 1

APPENDIX 1

According to § 42 of the Closed Substance Cycle and Waste Management Act (KrW-
/AbfG), used oil is waste that requires special supervision. The management of used
oil is regulated by the Used Oil Ordinance (AltölV)5.
The wide-ranging term “used oil” fundamentally includes all liquid and semiliquid
substances produced from mineral oil and originating from applications such as
lubrication, driving, cooling, insulation or metalworking (drilling, cutting, grinding,
drawing, loosening or greasing).
In addition it also includes other oleaginous substances and synthetic hydrocarbons,
for example on the basis of PCBs and halogen-containing substitute products, such
as may be contained in transformers, capacitors and hydraulic equipment (§ 4 AltölV).
The term used oil also covers a range of solvents, in particular white spirit, petroleum
naphtha, cold cleaner and solvent mixtures. The term used oil as in § 5a Waste
Avoidance and Waste Management Act (AbfG) encompasses – subject to further
specification in accordance with the waste compendium (Appendix 2) – the following
three categories, which are defined according to the way in which they can be used:
(1) Used oils which are considered for reprocessing, depending on the starting
product and place of generation. According to § 2 Clause 1 AltölV, these are used
oils from internal combustion engines and gearboxes, and mineral machine oils,
gear oils and hydraulic oils in which the limit values for PCBs and total halogen (§
3 AltölV) are not exceeded. Other used oils may be reprocessed in individual
cases if the pollutants contained in them are rendered harmless in the procedure
used by means of conversion or separation (§ 2 Clause 2 AltölV). Whether
reprocessing is permissible is dependent solely on the permit for operation of the
plant concerned according to the law on ambient air protection.
(2) Used oils which are supplied for energy generation in plants specially approved
for that purpose within the meaning of § 4 of the Federal Pollution Control Act
(BImSchG). Whether used oils can be exploited in this form is dependent solely
on the permit according to the law on ambient air protection. The limit values
specified in § 3 AltölV do not apply in this case.
(3) Used oils which must be treated in hazardous waste disposal plants on account
of their pollutant content (in particular PCBs and total halogen content) and which
are not covered by (1) and (2). This also applies to used oils whose origin cannot
be specified with certainty (admixture of foreign substances or suspicion thereof).
In the Federal Republic of Germany the problem of environmental endangerment as
a result of contamination in soil and groundwater has been regulated by the Federal
Soil Protection Act (Bundesbodenschutzgesetz - BbodSchG) and the associated
ordinances implemented at the national and Land level, specifically consolidated in
the Federal Soil Protection Ordinance (Bundesbodenschutzverordnung – see
Appendix 2) with specific test values for mineral oil hydrocarbons and PCBs.
In connection with the clean-up of contaminated sites, in the Federal Republic of
Germany the assessment of hazards in relation to the soil-groundwater pollutant path
for the mineral oil hydrocarbon parameter is particularly important. The contamination
of soil substance with mineral oil hydrocarbons is one of the most common causes of
a high potential for environmental hazards affecting protected groundwater resources.

5
UB-Media Fachdatenbank 11/1999 Abfallrecht und Entsorgungspraxis [Law on Waste and Disposal Practice];
publ.: Prof. Dr. Peter M. Kunz
 Appendix 1, Page 2

In addition, the health and industrial safety legislation aspects of dealing with used
oils are regulated and defined in the 4th Implementing Ordinance of the Federal
Pollution Control Act (4th. BImSchV) and in the general statutory regulations of the
employers’ liability insurance associations (ZH1/708 skin protection in the broader
sense). In this case used oils are classified in the group of skin-irritating working
substances because of their skin-adherent properties. A variety of regulations on
handling and safety have resulted from this6. For technological, ecological and also
economic reasons the need is growing in the Federal Republic of Germany to carry
out separate collection of used oils of various qualities and compositions, both for
incineration and for re-refining.

6
A. Meyer-Falke, G. Leßwing, publ: Sicherheit und Gesundheit im Betrieb [Safety and Health at Work]; UB-Media
Fachdatenbank 11/1999 Arbeitsschutz [Industrial Safety]
 Appendix 2, Page 1

APPENDIX 2

Table 1: Number of registered motor vehicles according to type and region

Private Government Diplomatic Rented Non- All types
services vehicles taxpayers
Philippines in total 2,030,705 51,160 3,070 493,103 3,316 2,581,354
Metro Manila 909,411 12,873 2,904 127,311 3,193 1,055,692
Cordillera Auton. Region 20,764 1,273 0 8,856 0 30,893
Ilocos 80,195 2,072 6 37,015 64 119,352
Cagayan Valley 40,290 2,817 0 29,944 0 73,051
Central Luzon 208,095 3,216 144 66,766 8 278,229
Southern Tagalog 223,378 3,111 0 70,023 0 296,512
Bicol 38,678 2,093 6 19,791 0 60,568

Source: Land Transportation Office, Manila, 1998

Table 2: Number of registered motor vehicles according to region and annual trend
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995
National Capital Region 684,778 721,776 799,754 901,312 973,550 1,055,692
TOTAL 1,620,242 1,715,366 1,879,563 2,125,115 2,341,469 2,581,354

Source: LTO Annual Statistical Reports, Manila, 1996

In order to estimate the quantities of used oil originating from the important
sector of motor traffic on the basis of (by way of example) the motor vehicles
registered in the conurbation of Manila – according to

Table 2 roughly 1 million – it is assumed, for instance, that the oil in these
vehicles is changed on average every 20,000 kilometres. Given an average
annual mileage of 10,000 km and a quantity of 2.5 litres of oil, this results in a
volume of 5 million litres or approximately 4,000 tonnes per year, from this
sector alone. If roughly 50% of this is collected, some 2,000 tonnes per year
needs to be reprocessed. This is of an order of magnitude in which the
operation of an entire re-refining plant dedicated to this type of used oil begins
to be worthwhile.
Further information is required in order to establish the basis for economically
sensible and ecologically effective used oil management in a developing
country.
 Appendix 3, Page 1

APPENDIX 3

Technical recycling:
The individual processing steps in the large-scale reprocessing of used oils:
! Examination of the quality of the delivered batches, in particular for contamination
with pollutants
! Presorting and qualitative separation in the receiving tank store
! Water separation by gravity
! Chemical breaking of emulsion constituents
! Separation of the remainder of the water by centrifugation and distillation
! Thermal pretreatment (cracking of additive residues)
! Refining with sulphur (separation of tar impurities)
! Vacuum distillation for the recovery of lubricating oil fractions
! Filtration of the lubricating oils with bleaching earth
! Post-filtration of the lubricating oil and gas oil fractions in chamber filter presses
! Mixing of the mineral oil fractions for adjusting required properties such as viscosity
! Addition of additives for the production of top-specification industrial oils and engine
oils
! Waste gas purification: thermal afterburning of gaseous emissions
! Wastewater treatment: separation of the oil phase in collection systems and
secondary purification in boundary layer evaporators
Heat-recovery incineration:
Plants in which used oils are used for energy recovery require a permit before they are
built and enter operation. Heat-recovery incineration is possible in the following:
! High-temperature incineration plants such as cement works, blast furnaces or
melting chamber furnaces
! Refining plants
! Hydrogenation plants