Day 4

Turbine Controls Ltd
Combined Cycle Training Course

1st November 1996

file:-NOTE.DOC
The contents of this document are the property of Turbine Controls ltd.
It should not be copied in part or completely without the permission of Turbine Controls Ltd.
1
1. DAY 4 THE STEAM CYCLE. 2
1.1. The basic cycle 2
1.1.1. Cycle efficiency 3
1.1.2. Increasing cycle efficiency 4
1.2. Steam Generator. 9
1.2.1. Pulverised fuel boilers. 10
1.2.2. Fluidised bed combustors 10
1.2.3. The heat recovery steam generator 10
1.3. Turbine Generator 11
1.3.1. Turbine auxiliary systems 11
1.4. Other plant in the steam cycle 17
1.4.1. Boiler Feed Pump 17
1.4.2. Deaerator. 18
1.4.3. Condenser. 22
1.4.4. Vacuum extraction system 23
1.5. The Steam Drum 23
1.5.1. Instrumentation 24
1.5.2. Protection 26
1.5.3. Turbine Bypass Valves 26
1.6. Boiler Control methods. 27
1.6.1. Boiler following turbine. 27
1.6.2. Turbine following boiler. 29
1.6.3. Sliding pressure. 30
1.6.4. Modified sliding pressure. 31
1.7. Steam Turbine control methods 32
1.7.1. Turbine run-up 32
1.7.2. Turbine on-load control 32

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1. Day 4 The Steam cycle.

1.1. The basic cycle

The most common fluid used in the power generation process is steam. Since it is
derived from water it is a cheap and plentiful resource, it can be distributed and
regulated and has good thermodynamic properties. However steam is a complex fluid.

When cold water is heated, its temperature initially increases in a way that can
detected by human senses (this heat is known as the sensible heat). At a certain
temperature the water boils, and from this point adding more heat does not increase
the temperature. The heat added during this process is used to convert the water to
steam. Because heat added after the boiling point has been reached causes no
change in temperature of the water, it is called the latent heat.

The temperature at which water boils is called the saturation temperature, and its
value depends on the pressure. The higher the pressure the higher the saturation
temperature. As the water boils steam is produced at the surface and this is said to be
saturated, and it has the same temperature as the water it was produced from. It may
contain water droplets (in which case it is wet saturated) or it may not (in which case it
is dry saturated). Once all the water has been converted to steam the addition of
further heat to the steam increases its temperature above the saturation temperature
and the steam is said to be superheated.

The basic principle of the use of steam in power generation is to add energy to water
to produce steam and expand the steam in turbine to produce rotational energy. In the
course of expanding the steam energy is lost and the boiling process is reversed. As
will be indicated later the reversal process can only continue to a certain point in the
steam turbine i.e. the steam can not entirely change to water. It follows that the more
energy the steam has before the expansion process starts the more energy can be
extracted and turned into electrical energy.

The basic cycle is known as the Rankine cycle and is shown in figure ? This is a plot of
temperature against entropy for the cycle.

The processes occurring on this T-S diagram are as follows:-

1-2 Increasing the pressure of the water from the steam turbine exhaust pressure to
the cycle pressure at constant entropy.

2-3 increasing the temperature of the water to the saturation temperature at the cycle
pressure.

3-4 Adding heat to the water at constant pressure and temperature to convert the
water to steam.

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4-5 Heat is added to increase the temperature of the steam so that it is superheated.
During this stage the pressure is approximately constant although there is a small drop

5-6 Expansion of the steam at constant entropy to create mechanical power.

6-Condensing of the steam to water.

s
T
2'
2
1
1'
3
3'
4' 4
A B C
Figure ?.? Basic Rankine Cycle

1.1.1. Cycle efficiency

The ideal cycle

With reference to the T-S diag for the ideal cycle, without superheat. If changes in
kinetic energy are neglected, heat transfer and work may be represented by various
areas on the T-s diagram. The heat transferred to the working fluid is represented by
area a-2-2-3-b-a (from the boiler) and the heat transferred from the working fluid (to
the condenser) is area a-1-4-b-a. The difference between these areas is the cycle
work output which is area 1-2-2-3-4-1. The thermal efficiency is then the work output
divided by the heat input, or:-

qth
net
in
W
q
area
area a b a
= =

( ' )
( ' )
1 2 2 3 4 1
2 2 3

The efficiency of the Rankine cycle depends upon the average temperature at which
heat is supplied and the average temperature at which heat is supplied. Any changes
which increase the average temperature at which heat is supplied (which increases
area a-2-2-3-b-a) or decrease the temperature at which heat is rejected (decreases
area a-1-4-b-a) will increase the cycle efficiency.

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Considering the basic cycle described above:-

With a control surface around the feed pump:-

W
p
= h
2
- h
1

also:- s
2
= s
1

Considering a control surface around the boiler:-

q
h
= h
3
- h
2

Considering a control surface around the turbine:-

w
t
= h
3
- h
4

also:- also:- s
3
= s
4

To determine the steam quality at the turbine exit:-

s
3
= s
4
= s
4
(saturated vapour) - (1-x
4
).s
4
(evaporation).

from x
4
calculate above the enthalpy at the turbine outlet can be calculated.

h
4
= h
4
(saturated vapour) - (1-x
4
).h
4
(evaporation)

Finally consider a control surface around the condenser.

q
l
= h
4
- h
1

n
th
= w
net
/ q
h
= (q
h
- q
l
)/q
h
= (w
t
- w
p
)/q
h

from this we can write an expression for the cycle efficiency in terms of properties at
various points in the cycle.

n
th
= ((h
3
- h
2
) - (h
4
- h
1
))/(h
3
- h
2
) = ((h
3
- h
4
) - (h
2
- h
1
))/(h
3
- h
2
)

1.1.2. Increasing cycle efficiency

There are various ways of increasing the cycle efficiency of the basic Rankine cycle
which are illustrated and described below.

Decreasing the turbine exhaust pressure. (condenser pressure)

The effect of exhaust pressure and temperature can be illustrated by figure ?.? below:-

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s
T
2'
2
1
1'
3
3'
4'
4
A B
Figure ?.? Effect of exhaust pressure on Rankine Cycle
A'
P
4
P'
4

If the exhaust pressure drops from P
4
to P
4
with a corresponding decrease in the
temperature at which heat is rejected. The net work is increased by area 1-4-4-1-2-2-
1, shown by the crosshatching. The heat transferred to the water/steam is increased
by area a-2-2-a-a. Since these areas are approximately equal the result is an
increase in cycle efficiency. This is also confirmed by the fact that the average
temperature at which heat is rejected is decreased (condenser pressure and
temperature have decreased). However by lowering the turbine back pressure the
moisture content of the steam leaving the turbine has increased. This has practical
consequences since if the moisture in the low-pressure stages of the turbine exceed
approximately 10%, not only is there a decrease in turbine efficiency, but also there
may be a problem with erosion of the turbine blades.

Cycle ef f iciency against condenser pressure
60 bar 500 deg C single press.
0.35
0.37
0.39
0.41
0.43
0.45
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
Condenser pressure (bara)
C
y
c
l
e

e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Cycle ef f icieny

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Superheating the steam

The effect of superheating the steam in the boiler can clearly be illustrated in figure ?.?
below:-

s
T
2
1
3
3'
4' 4
A B
Figure ?.? Effect of superheating on Rankine Cycle
B'

The work is increased by area 3-3-4-4-3 and the heat transferred in the boiler is
increased by area 3-3-b-b-3. If the ratio of these two areas is considered in isolation
i.e. the efficiency of the superheating it can be seen that this addition is more efficient
than the rest of the cycle. Therefore when added together the efficiency of the overall
cycle will increase. Again the average temperature at which heat is transferred to the
working fluid is increased by the addition of superheat. Also from the T-s diagram it
can be seen that the quality of the steam leaving the turbine has increased i.e. the
moisture content has decreased.

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Rankine cycle eff. against superheat temperature.
0.05 bara condenser press. 60 bar boiler press.
0.35
0.37
0.39
0.41
0.43
0.45
200 300 400 500 600
Superheat temp. degC
C
y
c
l
e

e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Cycle ef f icieny

Increasing the final steam pressure.

An increase in the final steam pressure is shown in figure ?.? In this diagram the final
steam temperature and the exhaust pressure are held constant. The heat rejected
decreases by area b-4-4-b-b. The net work increases by the amount of the single
crosshatching and decreases by the amount of the double crosshatching. Therefore
the net work remains the same, but the heat rejected decreases, therefore the cycle
efficiency increases with an increase in maximum pressure. The average temperature
at which heat is supplied also increases since the saturation temperature increases.
However the quality of the steam leaving the steam turbine decreases as the steam
pressure increases.

s
T
2'
2
1
3
3'
4' 4
A B
Figure ?.? Effect of boiler pressure on Rankine Cycle
B'

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Rankine cycle efficiency against boiler pressure
400 deg C superheat, 0.05 bara condenser press.
0.35
0.37
0.39
0.41
0.43
0.45
20 40 60 80
Boiler pressure bara
C
y
c
l
e

e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
Cycle ef f icieny

To summarise the above, an increase in Rankine cycle efficiency results from:-
- Lowering the exhaust pressure.
- Increasing the pressure during heat addition.
- Superheating the steam.

The Re-heat Cycle.

Previously it was determined that the efficiency of the Rankine cycle could be
increased by increasing the pressure during the addition of heat. However this also
increases the moisture content of the steam leaving the turbine.

s
T
2
1
3
3'
6'
4
A B
Figure ?.? Re-Heat Cycle
B'
5
6

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HP LP LP
BOILER
HP SUPER HEATER
EVAPORATOR
ECONOMISER
RE-HEATER
DEAERATOR
HP FEED PUMPS
CONDENSATE
EXTRACT PUMPS
CONDENSER
FIG ?.? RE-HEAT CYCLE

The re-heat cycle has been developed to take advantage of the increased efficiencies
at higher boiler pressures, and still avoid excessive moisture in the low pressure
stages of the steam turbine. The cycle is shown schematically and in the T-s diagram
above. The unique feature of this cycle is that the steam is expanded to some
intermediate pressure in the turbine, and then is re-heated in the boiler, after which it
expands in the remaining section of the turbine to the exhaust pressure.

The advantage to the efficiency of the cycle is realised because a higher pressure
cycle can be utilised without the disadvantages associated with excess moisture in the
turbine exhaust section. If the temperature of the superheated steam could be
increased to 3 the simple Rankine cycle would be more efficient than the re-heat
cycle, however the cost of materials to withstand this temperature might make the
plant capitol cost too high. The operating requirements of the plant would also be more
extreme due to the larger temperature differences seen during start-up and shutdown.

Super-critical.

1.2. Steam Generator.

The steam generator or boiler adds heat to the working fluid, water, to change its
state to steam. The method of producing the heat may vary e.g. by burning
pulverised coal fuel, but the way of heating the working fluid is always similar. If
supercritical conditions are ignored the boiler will have three sets of heat exchangers
namely:-
- Economiser, where the incoming water is heated to saturation temperature.
- Evaporator, where the latent heat of evaporation is added and the working fluid is
converted from a saturated liquid to a saturated vapour
- Superheater where additional heat is added.

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There are a number of different types of boilers in use for power generation and
these include the following:-

1.2.1. Pulverised fuel boilers.

In this type of boiler coal is crushed to a fine size so that it behaves like a fluid it is
then fed to burners in the boiler walls where it is mixed with the correct quantity of air
and burnt the furnace. The heat is extracted from the resulting flue gas by the heat
exchangers. The flow of air through the boiler is controlled by large fans, forced
draught , FD which blow into the boiler and induced draught, ID which suck air out of
the boiler duct work. The fuel can pulverised coal, heavy oils, gas or a combination
of these, although different burner types are required for each fuel. The furnace
operates at pressure slightly below atmospheric due to the control of the fans.

1.2.2. Fluidised bed combustors

This type of boiler consists of a combustor and a flue gas heat recovery unit as in the
conventional boiler. The coal fuel is crushed to a coarser size than in the pf boiler
and fed into the combustor. Air is injected at the bottom of the combustor which acts
to fluidise the coal which burns with the air. Heat is recovered to the steam cycle in
the walls of the combustor, usually the evaporative surface, and in the heat recovery
unit from the combustor flue gas.

An advantage of this type of boiler is that it can burn a wide range of fuels and typical
applications have been used for:-
Sewage pellets.
Agricultural waste such as nut shells.
Treated industrial waste.

The Fluidised bed boilers can be atmospheric or pressurised.

Normally a steam drum is used to separate the steam from the water unless the
boiler is a once through design. In this type of boiler the working fluid flows in
continuously in one direction through the various heat exchangers with no re-
circulation as there is in the evaporator connected to a steam drum.

1.2.3. The heat recovery steam generator

This is the type of boiler of primary interest to this course. It contains the same type
of heat exchangers as any other boiler however the hot gases are provided from the
exhaust of a gas turbine, and not by directly burning a fuel such as coal or oil.

Economiser

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The economiser section of the boiler adds the heat to the condensate to bring the
temperature from the boiler feed pump output to the steam drum temperature.

Evaporator

The evaporator adds the latent heat of evaporation, necessary to change the
contents of the steam drum from saturated water to saturated liquid.

Forced or natural circulation evaporators are used. Water is drawn from bottom of
the drum into the heat exchangers in the boiler and is returned back to the upper
section of the drum as steam.

Super-heater

Heats steam above saturation temperature.
Attemperation to give constant steam temperature over large load range.

1.3. Turbine Generator

In the turbine the steam produced in the boiler is allowed to expand in a series of
nozzles where it gains kinetic energy. The steam turbine blades acts in the same
way as the turbine blades in the gas turbine. The stator blades expand the steam in
diverging section blade passages, this reduces the static pressure and increases the
velocity. The rotor blades convert the velocity energy into rotational energy using
impulse or reaction blading. The impulse blade profile does not expand the gases
where as in the reaction blade profile the steam is expanded.

The turbine generator or steam turbine attempts to extract the energy of the
superheated steam and converts this into rotational energy to turn and electrical
generator. Ideally the steam turbine would extract all the energy in the steam that
was transferred from the boiler, however this would result in the exhaust of the
turbine being water which is not possible.

The turbine generator will include a number of separate cylinders which contain a set
of rotor and stator blades. Depending on the size of the unit there may be an HP, IP
and up to three LP cylinders.

1.3.1. Turbine auxiliary systems

As for the gas turbine the steam turbine includes a number of auxiliary systems that
are required to support the operation of the system.
1.3.1.1. Valve gear

The steam turbine is controlled by governor valves. There will be a number of valves
fitted at the inlet of the HP and IP cylinders and the LP if there is no IP cylinder fitted.
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The control valves are fitted in a valve chest which will typically contain one control
valve and one isolation valve.

The valves used for control are almost always hydraulically actuated with an
electrical mA signal to control the position. In modern designs the valves are
controlled with a position feedback derived from a linear variable differential
transformer (LVDT)

On load valve testing.

The steam turbine is often operated for long periods of time with the control valves
fully open and not modulating. The emergency stop valves are also by definition fully
open during these periods. Since the electrical mechanisms used to shut off the
hydraulic oil to these valves, and close them, are usually energised to trip it is
important to ensure that they will close in the case of an emergency shutdown or
even during a normal shutdown.

For this reason the valves are closed at regular intervals, in order to exercise the
closing mechanisms
.
Front pedestal hydraulic gear.
Solenoid trip.
Ramp close trip.

1.3.1.2.Turbine supervisory equipment.

The turbine supervisory equipment is fitted to give information relating to the
operating condition of the turbine stator and rotor. This information can then be
displayed in a visual form e.g. on an indicator, recorder or data logger, or it can be
used as the input to an automatic run-up system for the turbine. The correct use of
this equipment enables the machine to be run-up and loaded in the minimum time
consistent with safe operation. Optimum conditions for a given installation are
determined during the commissioning phase of the plant. Thereafter, the deviation of
any reading from the established normal range gives advanced warning of trouble so
that appropriate action can be taken to prevent serious damage to the turbine.

A number of parameters are measured:-

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Measurement Typical Range
Shaft eccentricity 0 - 0.5 mm pk to pk (0 - 20 mils)
Bearing/pedestal vibration 0 - 0.2 mm pk to pk (0 - 8 mils)
Shaft/cylinder differential expansion Up to 75 mm range ( 3 inches)
Inner/outer cylinder diff. expansion Up to 150 mm range (6 inches )
Thrust wear -0.5/+1.0 mm ( -20/+40 mils )
Overall cylinder expansion Up to 225 mm ( 9 inches )
Valve position 350
o
rotation or 225 mm ( 9 inches)
stroke
Shaft speed 0 -4000 rpm or 0 - 120 rpm as required
MW load As required
Steam and metal temperatures 0 - 600
o
C
Differential temperatures As required.

Eccentricity

The eccentricity measurement is intended to give warning of an impending bent
shaft, or other condition producing a cyclical movement of the shaft centre. Such a
measurement finds its chief application when the turbine is being run at low speeds.
At high speeds, the type of information is measured as vibration. Whereas vibration
detection is inaccurate below 1000 rpm the eccentricity detector is designed to
operate at speeds down to 20 rpm. In order to obtain a smooth d.c. output from the
unit at low frequency, a large time constant (approximately 30 secs ) is employed,
which gives the unit a slow response.

The most common method of detecting the eccentricity of the shaft is to use an eddy
current probe. This system consists of a probe an extension cable and a driver. The
driver produces an AC signal of approximately 5 Khz that is used to excite the probe.

Bearing/pedestal vibration

Shaft/cylinder differential expansion

The differential expansion is the relative thermal expansion between points on the
rotor and the cylinder. During the run-up period some parts of the turbine heat up
more rapidly (and therefore expand more rapidly) than others. For example the
turbine rotor will generally heat up more quickly than the cylinder, being of a smaller
mass and directly exposed to the steam.

If the differential expansion exceeds pre-determined limits, contact between rotating
and stationary parts may occur. leading to extensive damage.
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There are variable types of probe used for this measurement, however they almost
always employ some form of electromagnetic device in which the magnetic circuit
inductance changes with the air gap between the to moving parts.

Inner/outer cylinder diff. expansion

This measurement is similar to the shaft/cylinder differential expansion above,
however the probe calculates the differential expansion between the inner and outer
cylinders.

Thrust wear

This measurement is included to monitor the state of the thrust bearing that prevents
the rotor moving. A probe is fitted on the stator facing the thrust collar on the rotor
shaft.

Overall cylinder expansion

This measurement monitors the total expansion of the turbine from its point of
anchorage, usually at the barring gear pedestal. Because of the relatively large
distances involved a linear potentiometer, or LVDT, is used for this purpose.

Valve position

This monitors the position of the turbine governor and stop valves. Again a linear
potentiometer or LVDT is used.

Shaft speed

Shaft speed is measured by some type of electromagnetic pick-up facing a geared
wheel fitted to the turbine shaft. This will produce an A/C signal with a frequency
proportional to the speed of the turbine shaft.

MW load

The turbine electrical load is measured using current and voltage transformers.

Steam and metal temperatures

Measured by suitably place thermocouples.

Differential temperatures

As above.
1.3.1.3. Barring gear.

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The barring gear is used to turn the steam turbine shaft when the unit is shutdown.
The turbine rotor is a relatively long shaft or series of shafts supported at both ends.
If the rotor is stationary when the turbine is shutdown one of two things can occur. If
the turbine is cold the shaft may sag or drop in the middle. Alternatively if the
turbine is hot because of the tendency of heat to rise the top of the shaft will expand
more than the bottom and the shaft may bow upwards in the middle or hog. If the
turbine is subsequently started severe vibration will result and possibly mechanical
damage from contact between stationary and rotating parts. The shaft may
subsequently straighten following a period of operation or in more serious cases a
complete replacement rotor is required.

To avoid the two problems described above when the turbine is shutdown the rotor is
turned using barring gear. The most common system employed is to use an electric
motor geared down to turn the rotor at a much slower speed typically 30 -50 rpm
although some turbines use up to 200 rpm. The gearbox of the motor will Be
connected to the rotor via a clutch which will engage when the rotor speed is less
than the gearbox speed.

1.3.1.4. Gland steam system

The seals that prevent the leakage of steam from the turbine or air into the turbine (
when the turbine is under vacuum) are called glands. These are normally labyrinth
type seals consisting of a number of ridges in the rotor interlocking with similar rings
on the stator. Any flow through the gland then has to go through a convoluted path
through the seal. To provide an effective seal theses glands are supplied with steam
to provide a seal.

There is normally more than one source that of steam for use by the gland steam
sealing system.

During start-up before there is any steam production an auxiliary boiler is often fitted
to provide the steam supply. The steam production from the boiler cannot commence
until the bypass system is in operation, which means dumping steam to the
condenser. The condenser cannot accept steam until a vacuum has been generated
and to do this requires the turbine to be sealed and hence the gland steam system to
be in operation. Therefore an alternative supply of steam is required.

Once the main steam system is at an acceptable pressure the supply can be
switched to this source and the auxiliary boiler can be shutdown.

When the HP cylinder pressure reaches a certain level the flow through the HP
cylinder glands reverses and steam for the other cylinder glands are supplied from
steam from the HP cylinder.

Some form of temperature control will be required to ensure the steam temperature
matches the temperature of the steam turbine shaft. This may mean increasing the
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temperature if steam is supplied from an auxiliary boiler to a hot turbine, or cooling if
steam is available from the main steam system to a cold turbine.

The exhaust of the glands is fed to a gland steam condenser, which condenses the
steam and it is returned to the condensate system. The gland steam condenser is
often cooled by the flow of water through the main condensate system, and so the
condensate extract pumps must be running before the gland steam system can be
put into service.

The control of the supply of steam is essentially pressure control and only a small
pressure of less than 0.1 barg is required to provide a seal between the part of the
LP turbine under vacuum and the surrounding atmosphere.

Pressure control can be achieved using a split range control function such that as
the controller output increases the HP steam valve is opened initially, if there is no
HP supply available the controller output continues to increase and opens the
auxiliary supply valve.

In addition a dump valve may be provided to dump excess steam when the reverse
flow of steam from the HP cylinder glands becomes too large and causes the
pressure to rise above the setpoint.
1.3.1.5. Flange warming system

Due to the larger mass of metal in the cylinder horizontal flanges than the cylinder
barrel, the admission of HP steam to the HP cylinder tends to heat up the barrel
faster than the flanges.

It is common practice to provide a steam supply directly to the cylinder flanges which
heats up this region at a similar rate to the main cylinder barrel. This system is
usually used during cold and warm starting and will considerably reduce the
temperature difference between the cylinder barrel and the flanges and the securing
bolts, thereby preventing excessive thermal stresses and cylinder distortion.

The steam supply for the flange warming system can be taken from downstream of
the HP governor valves and will be controlled to achieve the correct flow of steam to
the HP cylinder flanges. The flow will be split to both sides of the cylinder and flow
through specially designed drillings through the flanges, which will provide uniform
heating.

During a hot start the steam supply may not be required and the system will be
isolated.

The steam leaving the flanges will be fed to a flash vessel where it will condense to
water and be returned to the condensate system.
1.3.1.6. LP spray water system

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During low load operation of the steam turbine, the steam flow volume through the
last row of LP turbine blades reduces to such an extent that the aerodynamic flow of
steam throughout these blades is lost. In this instance a recirculation flow of exhaust
steam takes place and energy is transferred from the blades to the steam, which
results in a rise in the temperature of the re-circulating steam. Continued re-
circulation of the heated steam would rapidly cause the steam temperature to build
up to an unacceptable level, resulting in damage to the last row of blades.

The situation is aggravated when the condenser pressure is high as this results in
higher exhaust steam enthalpies and even smaller steam volume flow rates.

A system to overcome this problem can be installed which is known as the LP spray
water system. This system sprays cooler water into the exhaust space immediately
downstream of the exhaust guide vanes. The heated exhaust steam will thus be
cooled and this cooler steam will re-circulate to the last stage of the LP turbine at the
inner or root end of the blade. Some form of temperature detection will be mounted
in the path of the steam re-circulation upstream of the spray nozzles to provide a
signal for automatic initiation of the spraywater system.

The system will consist of a duty A/C pump together with a D/C pump for use when
the normal A/C supply is lost. This will take water from condensate extract pump
discharge and this is filtered before passing through the pump which increases the
pressure to the desired level. The pump output is supplied to a ring of spray nozzles
mounted in the steam turbine exhaust, designed to give a fine spray of steam in the
form of a hollow cone, which cools the turbine exhaust spray.

A temperature control valve will control the rate of flow of water to regulate the
temperature of the exhaust steam.

1.4. Other plant in the steam cycle

1.4.1. Boiler Feed Pump

Purpose:-

To increase the condensate pressure from that in the D/A to that in the steam drum.
Input:- outlet of D/A, 1-2 bara.
Output:- feedwater regulating valve, 70-150 bara.

Types of pump:-
Multi-stage centrifugal.
Positive displacement.
Types of drive:-
Electric motor. fixed speed.
variable speed.
Steam driven.

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Duty/standby:- 2 x 100%. 1 duty at full load.
3 x 50%. 2 duty at full load
Protection:-
Low D/A level, level switches or transmitter. Use transmitter for indication and
switches for tripping feed pump. 2 out of two.
Low output pressure, start standby pump. Indicates flow to high and pump will
trip on motor overload.

Pump can only be started with output valve closed or another pump running.

1.4.2. Deaerator.

The main purpose of the Deaerator in the condensate system, as the name
suggests, is to remove dissolved non-condensable gases from the water. In
particular this includes oxygen which, as will be shown in later sections, is a major
cause of corrosion in the system.

The operation of the D/A is based upon Henrys law and the gas law.

Dissolved gas in equilibrium with a vapour obeys the formula:-

x = p/H

Where x = the concentration of gas in solution.
p = the partial pressure of the vapour.
H = the Henrys law constant, which is fixed for a given temperature of
the vapour

The gases are removed from solution by bringing the water into contact with a
vapour in which the partial pressure of the gas to be removed is lower than the
partial pressure, PP, of the gas in the water solution.

The design of deaerator described below uses steam, with a very low partial
pressure of O
2
which in countercurrent direction to the feedwater. The steam
provides is a scrubbing, and carrying action. By scrubbing we mean bringing a
vapour with zero or low PP of O
2
into contact with the water, with a higher PP of O
2
,
so the O
2
is transferred from the water to the steam. By carrying we mean the task of
removing this O
2
to avoid its PP building up as more and more O
2
comes out of
solution into the steam.

The D/A consists of a large storage vessel and a head vessel fitted immediately
above the vessel, see figure ?.? below. In a power plant with conventional boilers the
condensate feed to the D/A will be from the LP heaters which take heating supplies
from bled steam outlets at various positions on the Steam turbine. On Gas Turbine
combined cycle plant the feedwater heating will be carried out in a pre-heater which
will be the last heat exchanger fitted to the GT exhaust. This will utilise as much of
1st November 1996

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19
the exhaust heat as possible. The pre-heater or LP heaters will bring the
temperature of the condensate close to the saturation temperature, approximately 10
o
C below.

VENT
FEED WATER
INLET
HEATING STEAM
INLET
BALANCE PIPE
RETURN
DISCHARGE TO
STORAGE VESSEL
FIGURE ?.? SECTION THROUGH DEAERATOR HEAD

The condensate flows to a feed pipe fitted to the head vessel. Inside the vessel this
pipe is fitted with a spray head which creates a fine spray of water. The water spray
falls down onto a series of trays which overflow into the storage vessel below. Within
the head and immediately below the trays is a steam supply pipe which has a series
of holes along its length through which steam flows. This steam has the effect of
heating the water flowing down up to the saturation temperature whilst the water
spray and the trays increase the surface area exposed and the residence time of the
water in the vessel. These effects combine to maximise the amount of dissolved
gases that come out of solution. The non-condensable gases that come out of
solution are vented through the top of the head vessel.

1st November 1996

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20

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21
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1st November 1996

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22
The supply of steam to is controlled to keep the D/A pressure at a constant setpoint.
The steam is usually taken from two different sources:-
- A steam manifold or live supply during the start up phase of the plant. This is
opened as soon as the steam system is at a sufficient pressure.
- A bled steam outlet from the steam turbine once the plant is at or near full load.
This supply is activated when the steam turbine is above a certain load which
depends on the location of the steam tapping, which dictates when there will be
sufficient steam pressure available.

A steam supply is also fed to the bottom of the storage vessel and into a pipe
running along the length of the vessel. Again this pipe is drilled with a series of holes
through which the steam flows into the storage vessel. This is called the sparge pipe
and the steam supplied at this point keeps the water in the vessel at the saturation
temperature.

If two sources of steam are utilised to maintain the D/A pressure it is usual to
achieve this control using a split range controller. This is illustrated in figure ?.?
below:-

D/A pressure control diag here.

The output of the controller is split an each is re-ranged such that the live steam
valve does not open until the controller is above a set value, typically 50%. At the
same time the bled steam valve opens above 0% and is fully open when the
controller output reaches 50%. When the controller is activated there is no bled
steam available and so the D/A pressure does not increase. The controller output
rises until the live steam valve starts to open and the steam increases the D/A
pressure to the required setpoint. A non-return valve fitted in the bled steam
pipework prevents the flow of steam back to the steam turbine tapping. As the steam
turbine is loaded the pressure at the bled steam tapping increases and when this
pressure is above the D/A pressure steam will start to flow. Because of the increase
in steam flow the D/A pressure will increase and the controller output will decrease
which initially closes the live steam valve only. Eventually the live steam valve is
closed fully and the D/A pressure is controlled purely on the bled steam supply.

The pressure setpoint used in combined cycle applications will depend upon the final
gas turbine exhaust temperature which in turn depends upon the sulphur content of
the fuel used.

The only protection required for the D/A is from over pressurisation caused by
malfunction of the pressure controller. This protection is achieved by fitting a
pressure relief valve to the vessel which will open as the pressure increases above a
certain level.

1.4.3. Condenser.

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23
The purpose of the condenser is to condense the steam leaving the ST exhaust to
water so that it can be handled by the boiler feed pumps and pressurised up to the
boiler working pressure.
Operates at near vacuum so that more energy extracted by ST.
Heat lost in condenser is latent heat of evaporation from ST exhaust conditions
(typically 90% saturated steam) to condensate. In 100MW ST ??MW heat lost in
condenser.
Heat exchanger, steam on one side cooler medium on the other air or water.
Air cooled, no visible plume.
Water cooled, external water supply required. Direct cooled usually seawater. Indirect,
with make-up from external source, river water.

Protection:-
Over pressure. Transmitter 2 out of 3. Bursting discs usually fitted, circular
discs made of lead that will burst on pressures greater than 1.2 - 1.5 bara.
High water levels. Risk of turbine filling with water or ducting collapsing. Level
switches/transmitters. Hotwell levels in air cooled condenser.

1.4.4. Vacuum extraction system

Since the condenser is required to operate at a pressure of 20-100 mbara a method of
achieving this pressure is required from a shutdown condition, condenser at
atmospheric pressure, and maintaining the pressure during normal operation, given
that all condensers will leak to some degree and some of the oxygen dissolved in the
feedwater will be released in the condenser.

The most common system for vacuum extraction systems is to use some form of
electrically driven pump to bring the condenser pressure from atmospheric to the
normal operating vacuum level during start-up. Normally two pumps in a duty/standby
arrangement are used and both these would be run during start up in order to draw
vacuum rapidly. Once the required level is reached the standby pump is stopped.
Often an ejector system is used to maintain the vacuum. These use a high velocity
steam flow through a venturi tube to create a suitably low pressure. Since they require
steam for operation they can not be operated until an adequate steam pressure is
available in the boiler. At this point the electrically driven pumps can be shutdown
hence increasing the plant efficiency.

Diag here of steam ejector and water ring pumps.

The most common type of electrically driven vacuum extraction pump is the water ring
pump. This uses an conventional impeller pump but the space between the impeller
and the casing is sealed by a ring of water.

1.5. The Steam Drum

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24
The steam drum provides the interface between the water and steam in the cycle. A
steam drum is required in a sub-critical steam system but not in a super-critical one
where there is no significant density change between the steam and water phase.

The input to the steam drum is condensate from a high temperature economiser which
is typically at or near the saturation temperature for the drum pressure. The output of
the steam drum is saturated steam the heat necessary to carry out this conversion is
supplied by the evaporator. The evaporator inlet and outlet connections are made to
the steam drum.

ECONOMISER CONNECTIONS
EVAPORATOR RISERS
INTERNAL FEED PIPES
PRIMARY SCRUBBERS
SATURATED STEAM CONNECTION
SECONDARY SCRUBBERS
CYCLONES
DOWNCOMER
FOGURE ?.? SECTION THROUGH STEAM DRUM

1.5.1. Instrumentation

The level of water in the steam drum is an important parameter and hence the
measurement of this level is critical. Normally there are three transmitters fitted to the
drum to measure the level. Since the transmitters are used to control the drum level a
fault with the transmitter could cause the level controller to set an incorrect level. The
operator would not be aware of this since he would observe the level as shown by the
faulty transmitter, falsely reading the correct level. Therefore at least one transmitter
must used to generate an independent boiler shutdown signal.
1st November 1996

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25

Typically two or three transmitters are used for level control and these are differential
pressure transmitters. These are connected to the drum such that one leg sees the
pressure head of the water level and the other leg is connected to the top of the drum.
The controller would then calculate a 2 out of 3 voting or take the average of two
signals.

The processing of the signal received from a differential transmitter requires some
correction. Since the transmitter is remote from the drum the leg connected to the top
of the drum is cooled by the atmosphere and will be below the saturation temperature
of the drum pressure. This will cause steam to condense and fill up this pipework. This
means that the transmitter will read zero differential pressure when the drum is full of
water. In the calculation the density of steam cannot be ignored.

X

-

T
L
T
L
X
b
Y
a
DP
WATER
LEVEL
FIGURE ?.? STEAM DRUM LEVEL CALCULATION

Assuming density of reference leg approximates to 1.0.

dP X
TL
VsW
X TL
VsS
=
|
\
|
.
|
+

|
\
|
.
|
mmH
2
O

Where VsW = specific volume of water
VsS = specific volume of steam.

Hence:-
( ) ( ) ( )
TL
dP X x VsWxVsS XxVsW
VsS VsW
=

Deviation from nominal value:-

( ) ( ) ( )

dP X x VsWxVsS XxVsW
VsS VsW
Y
1st November 1996

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26

Approx:- VsW = (P x 0.0035) + 1.11 for P > 10 (i.e. HP drum)
VsW = (P x 0.01) + 1.0378 for P < 10 (i.e. LP drum)
VsS = 1/P x 1800 (all cases)
where P = drum pressure (bara)

The transmitter used for an independent trip signal is often a different type to those
used for level control. The most common type used is the Hydrastep. This operated
on the principle that the conductivity of water is greater than that for steam. It consists
of a series of equal-spaced electrodes fitted in a vertical level gauge as the water level
rises in the gauge the change of conductivity is detected. The level is indicated in a
number of discrete steps of approximately 2-3 inches which is adequate accuracy for
the shutdown signal. The level indication is a true one and requires no correction.

1.5.2. Protection

The steam drum is a pressure vessel and as such requires protection from over
pressurisation. This is achieved with by fitting pressure relief valves.

in order to withstand the steam pressure the steam drum wall thickness is
considerable approximately 50 mm for a 70 bar steam system. If the inner wall surface
temperature is different from the outer surface temperature large stress levels will
occur in the material. The differential temperature across the drum wall must therefore
be prevented from exceeding a certain level. The outer surface of the drum is well
insulated and a temperature change within the drum will eventually be transmitted
uniformly through the drum wall. Therefore in order to prevent excessive temperature
differentials across the drum wall the rate of change of temperature within the drum
must be limited. However since the steam is at saturation conditions, i.e. the
temperature can be directly related to temperature, and temperature measurement is
often subjected to time lags of a few seconds, the rate of change of drum pressure is
used as the limiting parameter. Typical values are a maximum of 2-3 bar/min.
1.5.3. Turbine Bypass Valves

The turbine bypass valves provide an alternative route for the steam leaving the
boiler avoiding one or more stages of the steam turbine. The inlet to the valves are
taken from the boiler output and the outlet is discharged into the condenser.

The bypass valves enable suitable steam conditions to be obtained consistent with
matching the starting requirements of the steam turbine. The steam turbine will
require different quality of steam depending upon if it is in a cold, warm or hot state
at the time of starting.

The bypass systems also allow a route for the boiler steam during a steam turbine
load rejection when the governor valves are closed rapidly. This prevents operation
of the steam drum safety valves.

1st November 1996

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27
The steam discharge from the bypass valves into the condenser requires cooling
before it can be admitted into the condenser, to prevent damage to the condenser
and to prevent a rapid loss of vacuum. For this purpose water spray valves are fitted
downstream of the bypass valves which cool the steam

The bypass valves are controlled by a pressure loop sensing the pressure in the
associated steam manifold. This setpoint can be set at low pressure during boiler
start up and ramped up at an appropriate rate until the correct steam conditions are
achieved.

The spraywater valves will be controlled on a temperature loop to ensure the
temperature of the steam entering the condenser does not exceed a certain level.
The supply of water can be taken from the condensate extract pump outlet or the
main boiler feed pump outlet.

The bypass valves will usually be tripped shut if the condenser pressure exceeds a
pre-set level or the steam temperature exceeds a certain level, indicating that the
temperature control of the spraywater valves have failed

1.6. Boiler Control methods.

1.6.1. Boiler following turbine.

This method of control operates with the steam turbine throttle valves partially closed
and the boiler control system attempts to maintain a constant pressure upstream of
these valves. A short-term increase in electrical demand is met by opening the
steam turbine throttle valves which causes the upstream pressure to drop. The
change in pressure is sensed by the boilers master pressure controller which
compares the measured value with a setpoint and the error is used to increase the
boiler firing rate.

This control method endeavours to maintain a fixed steam pressure at all times , and
changes in load demand are catered for by adjusting the turbine throttle valves first,
leaving the boiler to respond later. Consequently this type of control is called fixed
pressure, boiler-following or boiler-following turbine mode of control.

The system utilises the stored energy in the boiler, which is mainly from the water in
the steam drum, to meet increases in load demand and conversely stores energy
when a decrease in load demand is required. However only small changes in
changes in demand, for limited periods, can be accommodated in this way before the
boiler is required to respond to the new load requirements. The rate of change of
load that can be achieved is limited by the pressure drop allowable across the steam
turbine throttle valves.

1st November 1996

file:-NOTE.DOC
28
BOILER FOLLOWING TURBINE CONTROL MODE
HP LP LP
PT
BOILER FIRING RATE
FREQUENCY/POWER DEMAND

The mode of control is used when reaction to system frequency changes is required
or the ability to pick-up load rapidly. This will be the case if the turbine is connected
to a small or fragile grid system and large frequency changes are likely. Boiler
following turbine mode is not often used for combined cycle plant as the gas turbines
have the ability to pick-up load rapidly. This will be explained in more detail in the
later sections.

On a large grid system a small proportion of generators will be operated in this way
to pick-up load in the event of the loss of another unit.

The control mode provides good control of the unit, but suffers from the following
limitations:-
- The system can become unstable under certain conditions due to positive feedback
effect of the pressure and flow changes combined with the high gain of the overall
system.
- The amount of stored energy that is available for meeting changes in demand is
limited, and so performance deteriorates with increasing periods of mismatch
between electrical demand and boiler steam generation.
- The system means operating the plant at below its maximum efficiency because of
the losses associated with the throttling of the steam flow across the steam turbine
governor valves. This entails holding the steam pressure at a higher value than
necessary.

The last of these factors is of significance to all units operated in this mode, however
over a typical grid system the cumulative effect is to increase the capitol cost of plant
since a proportion of installed capacity is not being used.

1st November 1996

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29
1.6.2. Turbine following boiler.

The boiler firing is rate is set at a rate relevant to the load demand and the turbine
governor valves are controlled to maintain the boiler outlet pressure at fixed value,
see figure 3.? below.

TURBINE FOLLOWING BOILER CONTROL MODE
HP LP LP
PT
BOILER

The system is sometimes called passive since it does not respond directly to
changes in the alternator load or demands from the scheduling system. Changes
that effect the boiler heat production rate, such as changing fuel calorific value, will
affect the steam flow and hence the power generation. A unit operated in this way
will contribute to any grid system disturbances. The system can be improved by
controlling the boiler load to an operator set value, creating an active system.

This modified arrangement shown in figure 3.? below will maintain generation at the
required level within the time response of the boiler. However the response of the
boiler is relatively slow and so short term disturbances will be fed into the grid
system in the same way as the passive system. In addition, since changes in
system frequency do not affect the load setpoint, units operated in this manor cannot
be used in a network frequency support mode.

1st November 1996

file:-NOTE.DOC
30
ACTIVE TURBINE FOLLOWING BOILER CONTROL MODE
HP LP LP
PT
BOILER
BOILER FIRING RATE
FREQUENCY/POWER DEMAND

1.6.3. Sliding pressure.

Both the control modes described above suffer from the problem that the cycle
efficiency at part loads is reduced due to the pressure drop across the steam turbine
throttle valves. Because of this pressure drop the boiler feed pumps have to operate
at a higher pressure than necessary and consume more power. To overcome this,
with a basic boiler-follow mode, it is possible to set the pressure demand, not at fixed
value, but at a value determined by the electrical load. The boiler will operate at a
steam pressure that varies according to the load, and it is termed sliding pressure
or variable pressure control.

Figure 3.? below compares the steam pressures upstream and downstream of the
turbine governor valves with sliding pressure and fixed pressure control modes.

1st November 1996

file:-NOTE.DOC
31
100%
100%
Inlet to turbine throttle valve
Pressure downstream of
turbine throttle valve
Steam Flow (or load)
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
Throttled across valve
Fixed Pressure Operation

Sliding pressure control results in more efficient operation at lower loads since there
is minimum pressure drop across the turbine control valves, which are fully open.
The control valves will only be used to prevent turbine overspeed in the case of loss
of turbine electrical load. However there are other benefits associated with sliding
pressure control:-

- The unit can be loaded more quickly, since it becomes easier to ensure that boiler
and turbine metal temperature rate-of change limitations are met.
- The turbine can be started and loaded at lower temperatures and pressures.

However since the turbine throttle valves are fully open there is no stored energy
available in the boiler to meet short term changes in demand and the overall
response of the unit is restricted to the response of the boiler.

1.6.4. Modified sliding pressure.

The solution to the slow response to demand changes is indicated by the concept of
sliding pressure mode of control. Since there is a correlation between the generator
output and the turbine first stage steam pressure, the desired value for the pressure
could be derived from the pressure at the turbine HP inlet rather than from the
electrical output of the machine. This is equivalent to keeping a constant differential
pressure across the turbine throttle valves, and the boiler controls are modulated to
maintain this differential pressure constant at all loads. If this differential pressure is
at an adequate level the unit is able to respond quickly to short term load changes.

1st November 1996

file:-NOTE.DOC
32
This modified sliding pressure mode of operation is illustrated in figure 3.? below and
achieves most of the advantages of pure sliding pressure while retaining much of the
responsiveness of fixed pressure operation.

The pressure/load characteristic is flattened of at lower loads to avoid problems
which might arise from

1.7. Steam Turbine control methods

1.7.1. Turbine run-up

The turbine run-up is usually accomplished using the stop valves (intercept and
emergency stop valves IESVs) These are opened gradually opened manually or on
a closed speed loop to increase the turbine speed until the minimum governed
speed is reached at which time the governor valves start to close and take control of
the turbine.

The turbine governor valves are not normally used to complete the run-up as this
would expose the valve chest to the saturated temperature of the prevailing boiler
pressure. If the steam is throttled across the stop valves the temperature seen by the
valve chests is much lower.
1.7.2. Turbine on-load control

The control of the turbine during on-load operation will depend on the type of boiler
control mode described above.

In sliding pressure mode the turbine governor valves are simply opened fully and the
steam turbine output is dependant upon the amount of steam produced by the boiler.

If the boiler is operating in a fixed pressure mode the steam turbine load will be
controlled by the operator to the level required. As with the gas turbine the steam
turbine will be operating on a simple speed loop and the load is increased by raising
the speed reference.

Other control loops may be added to the turbine governor system such as pressure
support and vacuum support. These both act to reduce the turbine load if the
condenser pressure increases above a certain level or the boiler pressure drops
below a certain level.

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Combined Cycle Training Course

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