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Topics

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Topics
There are over 200 class practicals and class demonstrations on this site. Each one can help to develop students' skills and knowledge of chemistry. To help you find what you are looking for, we have grouped them into the following topiics. States of matter [2] The activities in this topic provide opportunities to link experimental evidence and simple particle theory to help explain the properties of solids, liquids and gases, changes of state, gas pressure, and diffusion.

Bonding, structure, properties [3] This topic includes activities which focus on how structure and bonding affect the properties and uses of materials such as polymers, fibres, ceramics, composites, glasses, metals, alloys and salts. Activities with dyes, detergents, water and hydrogels explore the effects of intermolecular forces.

Mixtures and separation [4] The activities in this topic cover the differences between compounds and mixtures, and techniques for separating mixtures and purifying substances. They include investigations into solubility, and precipitation reactions to form insoluble salts. More advanced activities deal with the solubility of solutes in aqueous and non-aqueous solvents, saturated

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solutions, solubility curves and sparingly soluble salts (Ksp). Analysis [5] The activities in this topic cover methods for qualitative and quantitative analysis. Activities include, for example, colorimetric analyses, titrations, chromatography, and calorimetry as well as a variety of observation exercises. Elements, the periodic table [6] The activities in this topic can be used to illustrate the trends in the properties of the elements and their compounds. They include activities which explore the physical and chemical properties of elements and compounds and provide examples of chemical change which can be explained by the rearrangement of atoms. Acids and bases [7] Activities in this topic include the use of indicators to classify solutions as acidic, neutral or alkaline, neutralisation reactions, and the preparation of soluble and insoluble salts. More advanced activities explore strong and weak acidbase behaviour, pH, indicator chemistry and buffer solutions. Redox and electrochemistry [8] The activities in this topic illustrate the reactivity series of metals, and oxidation and reduction processes such as corrosion and the extraction of metals. They also illustrate the many different applications of electricity in chemistry and include examples of electrolysis to extract and purify substances as well as experiments involving fuel cells, for example. Energy and entropy [9]

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The activities in this topic include experiments focusing on energy changes in chemical reactions. They illustrate, for example, what makes a useful fuel and how to measure the energy given out by different fuels. Exothermic and endothermic processes feature including combustion reactions, neutralisation reactions and solution formation. Other activities also focus on a consideration of entropy changes. Kinetics and equilibrium [10] The activities in this topic provide a range of opportunities to measure the rate of chemical reactions and to investigate the factors affecting rate. The topic includes activities which can be used to demonstrate reversible reactions and reactions involving dynamic equilibria. There are activities relating to equilibria in solution, gaseous equilibria, acid-base equilibria and redox equilibria. Chemical quantities [11] The activities in this topic can be used to consolidate knowledge and understanding of chemical formulae and balanced equations, and how these can be used to calculate how much product can be obtained in a reaction. More advanced activities provide opportunities to apply the concept of the mole. Empirical and molecular formulae, reacting masses, percentage yield, volumes of gases and titration calculations are all covered. Organic chemistry [12] The activities in this topic illustrate how useful chemicals can be obtained from crude oil and the properties and uses of hydrocarbons. Polymers are explored through polymerisation reactions and investigations into polymer properties, such as making slime and investigating hydrogels. More advanced activities include the synthesis and testing of the characteristic properties of a wide range

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of aliphatic and aromatic substances, alcohols, halogenoalkanes, organic acids and esters. The techniques covered include: reflux, distillation, vacuum filtration, purification and determination of yield and purity. Biochemistry [13] The activities in this topic can be used to investigate the chemicals and chemistry involved in food, food production and cooking. They include analysis techniques such as chromatography, testing for starch, and the importance of microbes in food production and food spoiling. More advanced activities cover topics such as enzyme reactions, food chemistry and metabolism, photosynthesis, and amino acids and proteins. The Earth and atmosphere [14] The practical activities in this section focus on the chemistry associated with the environment, including the rock cycle, gases in the Earths atmosphere, and the chemicals dissolved in water. The rock cycle reactions include crystallisation and chemical weathering. The section on water includes analysis techniques, for example in water treatment. Experiments covering pollution are also included.

Chemistry applications [15] The practical activities in this topic focus on applications (e.g. synthesis and analysis) of chemistry in industrial contexts.

Enhancement [16] The class practicals and teacher demonstrations in this section are perfect for chemistry clubs or to demonstrate spectacular effects.

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Source URL: http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-chemistry/topics Links: [1] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-chemistry [2] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/../../states-matter [3] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/../../bonding-structure-properties [4] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/../../mixtures-and-separation [5] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/../../analysis [6] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/../../elements-periodic-table [7] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/../../acids-and-bases [8] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/../../redox-and-electrochemistry [9] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/../../energy-and-entropy [10] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/../../kinetics-and-equilibrium [11] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/../../chemical-quantities [12] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/../../organic-chemistry [13] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/../../biochemistry [14] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/../../earth-and-atmosphere [15] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/../../chemistry-applications [16] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/../../enhancement

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>S tates of matter

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> States of matter


The activities in this topic provide opportunities to link experimental evidence and simple particle theory to help explain the properties of solids, liquids and gases, changes of state, gas pressure, and diffusion.
Experiment collections

Solids, liquids and gases


[2]

Particles in motion [4]

Changing state [3]

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>S tates of matter

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Source URL: http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-chemistry/states-matter Links: [1] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-chemistry [2] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/node/2811 [3] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/node/2812 [4] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/node/2813

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Solids, liquids and gases


Experiments
The density of carbon dioxide [2] The density of carbon dioxide relative to air is illustrated by pouring carbon dioxide gas from a flask over a burning candle, which is promptly extinguished...

Source URL: http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-chemistry/solids-liquids-and-gases Links: [1] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-chemistry [2] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/node/2893

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The density of carbon dioxide


Demonstration

This experiment prov ides a clear demonstration of the higher density of carbon dioxide relativ to air. flask is filled with carbon dioxide from a cylinder or generator. e A The gas is then poured ov a lighted candle, extinguishing the flame. er Lesson organisation

This is a quick, simple, teacher demonstration taking about 2 minutes.Although this could be done as a class experiment, it is probably not worth the extra time that it would take.Howev pupil assistance with the demonstration could enhance the er, impact.
Chemicals

Candles ( short 1- cm pieces) 2 ( 2 , Note 1) Carbon dioxide cylinder with regulator ( Note 2) or Solid carbon dioxide ( ice) a few small pieces ( dry , Note 3) Refer to Health & Safety and Technical notes section below for additional information.
Apparatus

Eye protection: safety spectacles, or goggles if handling dry ice Thermal protection glov and handling tongs ( using dry ice) es if Beakers ( 100 cm3) 2 ,

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Conical flask ( 250 cm3) with cork or bung to fit , W ooden splints Health & Safety and Technical notes

Read our standard health & safety guidance [1] W ear eye protection and thermal ( insulated)glov es. 1 Nightlights or tealights may be used in place of short pieces of candle. 2 Carbon dioxide cylinder -see CLEAPSS Haz card and also Laboratory Handbook Section 9. about the safe storage and use of gas cylinders. 9 3 I using solid carbon dioxide ( ice) this should be obtained within 24 hours of the f dry , demonstration in substantially larger quantity than required for the experiment, and stored in a v ented insulated container until required.All handling must be done using thermal protection glov and handling tongs -see CLEAPSS Haz es card. I neither a carbon dioxide cylinder nor a supply of dry ice is av f ailable, carbon dioxide gas may be generated chemically see Standard Techniques: Generating collecting and testing gases [2].Replace the thistle funnel with a tap funnel or unstoppered separating funnel.Add the hydrochloric acid ( 100 cm3, 2 M I TANT)a few cm3 at RRI a time to the marble chips ( g)to generate a steady stream of carbon dioxide, and 10 allow the heav gas to displace the air from the collection flask.This can be checked ier by sampling the gas emerging from the neck of the flask using a dropping pipette to suck up a sample of gas, then bubbling it through fresh limewater in a testtube. I mmediate and dense milkiness of the lime water should indicate the flask is full of carbon dioxide, which may then be securely corked until required for the demonstration. The 250 cm3 conical flask may be filled prior to the lesson, either with gas from the cylinder or by adding a few lumps of dry ice, and allowing these to ev aporate in the flask.The flask should be lightly corked and clearly labelled so the class can read the label, but the teacher may prefer to prepare the flask when required during the lesson. Procedure

a Place the two beakers side by side on the bench and put a short length of candle in each. b Light the candles with a splint.They will continue to burn. c Pour carbon dioxide from the flask into one of the beakers and the candle will go out while the candle in the other beaker continues to burn. d Attempt to relight the first candle with a splint.This will fail and the splint will go out.

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e Now pour the carbon dioxide out of the beaker, and try again to relight the candle. This should now succeed. Teaching notes

Point out the use of carbon dioxide in some types of fire extinguisher and the reasons for its use. Carbon dioxide ( relativ molecular mass 44)is about one and a half times denser than e air ( erage relativ molecular mass about 29) and mixing of gases of differing av e , densities by diffusion can be a slow process unless the mixture is deliberately stirred. Hence gases can be effectiv poured from one v ely essel to another, and also of course be collected in a flask or gas j by displacement of air. ar As an additional demonstration the presence of a layer of dense gas in the beaker containing carbon dioxide can be shown by blowing a small soap bubble ( using a commercial bubble mixture)and catching in the beaker ( larger beaker will make it a this easier!.W ith luck the bubble will descend into the beaker without bursting and ) then proceed to float the carbon dioxide layer. on Carbon dioxide can also be poured into a testtube containing a little limewater.On shaking the limewater will turn milky. Health & Safetycheck March 2009 ed W eblinks

A homely v ariant on this experiment can be found at Reeko' Mad Scientist Lab [3] s An informativ demonstration of the reason why carbon dioxide is not suitable for e extinguishing fires inv ing burning metals such as magnesium is described at The olv General Chemistry Demo Lab [4] This site includes an impressiv v e ideo clip of magnesium turnings burning inside a large block of dry ice! carbon dioxide density gas Key stage 3 ( 14 years) Key stage 4 ( 16 years) 1114Key stage 5 ( 19 years) States of matter 16Source URL: http:/www. / nuffieldfoundation. practicalorg/ chemistry/ densitycarbondioxide Links: [1] http:/www. / nuffieldfoundation. node/ org/ 1634/ [2] http:/www. / nuffieldfoundation. node/ org/ 3139 [3] http:/www. / reekoscience. com/ [4] http:/www. com/ / ilpi. genchem/ demo/ co2mg/ index. html

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Changing state

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Changing state
Experiments
Chocolate and Egg [2] By comparing the effects of heat on chocolate and on egg white, students are introduced to the difference between physical change and chemical change... Liquefying chlorine gas [3] This experiment shows how easy it is to liquefy chlorine gas by cooling alone. Melting and freezing stearic acid [4] I this class practical solid stearic acid (a constituent of wax) can be heated until n it melts and allowed to cool again until it freezes. Money to burn [5] A striking demonstration that different fuels have different ignition temperatures. Rate of evaporation [6] I this experiment a drop of propanone is placed on a microscope slide under n different conditions and the time taken for it to evaporate is measured. Recovering pure water from a solution using a water condenser [7] Copper sulfate solution is boiled and the water vapour produced is cooled and condensed to a liquid. Supercooling - the energetics of freezing [8] This experiment demonstrates the phenomenon of supercooling and illustrates the various associated energy changes which occur. The density of ice [9] The unusual density of ice compared to liquid water is brought out vividly in this quick and simple demonstration. The sublimation of air-freshener [10] The sublimation of air freshener can be observed by heating it in a water bath and cooling the resulting vapour. A fume cupboard is required for this. The thermal properties of water [11] A paper cup containing water will not burn and a balloon containing water will not pop when heated. W ater expands when it freezes [12] This demonstration shows that water expands when it freezes. I is useful for t explaining how rocks can be broken up when they absorb water

Source URL: http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-chemistry/changing-state

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Links: [1] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-chemistry [2] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/node/2894 [3] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/node/2895 [4] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/node/2896 [5] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/content/money-burn [6] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/node/2897 [7] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/node/2898 [8] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/node/2899 [9] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/node/2900 [10] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/node/2901 [11] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/node/2902 [12] http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/node/2903

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Chocolate and Egg


Class practical

The different effect of heat on chocolate and egg white prov ides a clear introduction to physical and chemical changes.This experiment could also be used to introduce students to the safe use of Bunsen burners.

Lesson organisation

A straightforward, if somewhat messy, class experiment in which students heat the two materials alongside each other in a water bath until the changes hav taken place, e followed by cooling.This should take no more than 30 minutes.
Chemicals

Chocolate, a few grams Egg albumen ( egg white) about 4 cm3 , Refer to Health & Safety and Technical notes section below for addtional information.
Apparatus

Eye protection Each work group will require: ing Testtubes, 2 ( Note 1) Beaker ( 250 cm3)

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Bunsen burner Heat resistant mat Tripod Gauz e Testtube rack Testtube holder Health & Safety and Technical notes

Read our standard health & safety guidance [1] W ear eye protection.Do not taste foods in a laboratory.The food or the apparatus may be contaminated. not sit down while heating the beaker or handling the hot testDo tubes. The tasting no rule should be strictly enforced. Chocolate -cooking chocolate is the best type of chocolate for this experiment other types melt too slowly. The chocolate should be grated and preloaded into a testtube for each working group, sufficient to giv about a 2 cm depth of molten chocolate when e heated this may require trials to establish the correct amount of grated chocolate. Egg albumen -use eggs with the ' brand' lion stamp' these should be salmonella as free. The egg white needs to be separated from the yolks of sufficient eggs to prov ide 3 enough for about 4 cm of egg white for each working group.The egg white should then be preloaded into a testtube for each working group. 1 At the end of the lesson, the students can be asked to hand back their testtubes with the contents still inside, as recov and cleaning may cause less mess than leav it ery ing to the students!The chocolate is best remov by reed melting and pouring out of the tubes. Procedure

1 Add cold water to the beaker until it is about onethird full, and place it on the tripod and gauz e. 2 Place a testtube with egg white and a testtube with chocolate in the beaker. 3 Heat the beaker of water with the testtubes carefully until the water in the beaker boils.Allow the water to boil gently for about 5 minutes.

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4 W atch what happens to the egg white and the chocolate in the tubes while they are being heated. 5 Turn off the Bunsen burner and use the testtube holder to transfer the tubes to the rack to cool. 6 W atch what happens to the egg white and the chocolate in the tubes as they cool.

Teaching notes

This experiment is appropriate for classes at an early stage in their science education, so students are likely to be fairly inexperienced in the safe and skillful use of the Bunsen burner.This is therefore a good opportunity to dev elop their ability to use the Bunsen burner and emphasis safety points, such as standing up when doing experiments that inv e heating. olv The main purpose of the experiment is of course to introduce physical and chemical change, and the associated ideas of rev ersible and non- ersible changes.The rev chemical change in the egg white should take no more than 5 minutes once the water is boiling, and grated cooking chocolate should melt in about the same time.Many children will hav met this in primary school. e On cooling, the chocolate will of course solidify to a solid mass, and students may be distracted by the change of form from the grated material at the start.I so, the f technician could be asked to premelt the chocolate in the tubes and allow it to solidify again before the lesson, but note that it will then take longer for the chocolate to melt in the experiment. Health & Safetycheck May2008 ed

W eblinks

There are many websites, especially from North America, that prov a v ide ariety of approaches to teaching physical and chemical changes, but mainly for students older than those for whom this experiment is designed.These two examples seem to match a similar stage of student learning;the first includes a useful demonstration that could be used to reinforce the class experiment: Saskatchewan schools [2] Teachers' domain [3] A discussion of the nature of the chemical changes inv ed in cooking eggs, suitable olv for teacher background information, can be found at:

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Science of Cooking: The accidental scientist [4] chemical change food Key stage 3 ( 14 years) Key stage 4 ( 16 years) Key 1114stage 5 ( 19 years) physical change States of matter 16Source URL: http:/www. / nuffieldfoundation. practicalorg/ chemistry/ chocolateandegg Links: [1] http:/www. / nuffieldfoundation. node/ org/ 1634/ [2] http:/www. / saskschools. curr_content/ ca/ science9/ chemistry/ lesson8. html [3] http:/www. / teachersdomain. resource/ org/ phy03. phys. sci. descwrld. lp_chemical/ [4] http:/www. / exploratorium. cooking/ edu/ eggs/ eggscience. html

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Liq uefy chlorine gas ing

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Liquefying chlorine gas


Demonstration

I this demonstration the gaseous halogen, chlorine, is liquefied by passing it ov a n er cold finger condenser cooled using a dry ice/ ethanol mixture.Yellow drops of liquid chlorine are collected for comparison with other Group 7 elements bromine and iodine.The demonstration can be extended to include changes of state for bromine and iodine.

Lesson organisation

This is a class demonstration used to show that chlorine gas is relativ easily ely liquefied ( boiling point - 35 C)by cooling alone.I must be done in a fume cupboard. t The yellow liquid formed can be compared with the other halogens bromine and iodine in the condensed state as part of a study of the trends in the physical properties of the halogens. The demonstration can be done in 5 mins once the chlorine generator is set up and connected to the cold finger f the freez of bromine and the melting and .I ing v aporisation of iodine are included allow 15 mins in total.
Chemicals

Sodium chlorate()solution, 14% ( v ailable chlorine ( I w/ )av CORROSI VE)about 100 cm3 Hydrochloric acid, 5M ( CORROSI VE)about 50 cm3 Ethanol ( GHLY FLAMMABLE)or industrial denatured alcohol (DA)( GHLY HI I HI 3 FLAMMABLE, HARMFUL)about 20 cm

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A few small pellets of dry ice ( solid carbon dioxide)( Can cause serious frostbite if handled without tongs or suitable glov es) Opt nal i : o Crushed ice -about 100 cm3 Sodium chloride crushed rocksalt will do, about 100 g . Bromine liquid ( VERY TOXI CORROSI DANGEROUS FOR THE C, VE, ENVI RONMENT) use a sealed ampoule , I odine ( HARMFUL, DANGEROUS FOR THE ENVI RONMENT) a few crystals , Refer to Health & Safety and Technical notes section below for additional information.
Apparatus

Eye protection Access to a fume cupboard Protectiv glov -for handling pellets of dry ice (78 oC) e es .Tongs or insulating ( not rubber)glov should be used es Chlorine generator ( Note 1) Cold finger' condenser ( Note 2) Bosses, clamps and stands Opt nal i : o Boiling tube with cotton wool plug Testtube holder Beaker ( 100 cm3) Bunsen burner Health & Safety and Technical notes

Read our standard health & safety guidance [1] W ear appropriate eye protection and glov es. Sodium chlorate()solution, NaClO( , ( I aq) CORROSI at this concentration)-see VE CLEAPSS Ha c z ard. Hydrochloric acid, HCl( , ( aq) CORROSI at this concentration)-see VE CLEAPSS Ha c and CLEAPSS RecpeBook z ard i .

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Liq uefy chlorine gas ing

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Chlorine, Cl2( g)and ( , ( l) TOXI DANGEROUS FOR THE ENVI C, RONMENT)-see CLEAPSS Ha c and CLEAPSS RecpeBook z ard i . Ethanol, C2H5OH( , ( GHLY FLAMMABLE)or industrial denatured alcohol (DA) l) HI I ( GHLY FLAMMABLE, HARMFUL)-see CLEAPSS Haz ard. HI c Solid carbon dioxide -see CLEAPSS Haz ard. c Dry ice ( solid carbon dioxide)can often be obtained from a local univ ersity, hospital or industry.Larger chunks can be broken up by enclosing them in a cloth, such as a tea towel, and hitting them with a mallet. The fragments can be stored for sev eral hours in a box made of expanded polystyrene, or in a v acuum flask.A more powdery form of dry ice can be made using carbon dioxide from a cylinder and a suitable dry ice making attachment.Tongs or insulating ( rubber)glov should be used for handling dry ice. not es Opt nalt ms i o i e Bromine, Br2( , ( l) VERY TOXI CORROSI DANGEROUS FOR THE C, VE, ENVI RONMENT)-see CLEAPSS Haz ard. c I odine, I( , ( RONMENT)-see 2 s) HARMFUL, DANGEROUS FOR THE ENVI CLEAPSS Ha c z ard. 1 Chlorine generation: see Generation, collecting and testing gases [2] ( chlorine for scroll to bottom of page) . 2 The cold finger condenser apparatus should consist of a 1 dm3 Buchner flask fitted with a twoholed rubber bung. One hole in the bung should be big enough to take a testtube and the other hole fitted with a short length of glass deliv tubing see ery diagram.

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Procedure

a Set up the chlorine generator in a fume cupboard.Make sure it is securely clamped. b Connect the cold finger apparatus to the generator, using a short length of rubber tubing, and clamp it securely. c Fill the cold finger testtube about twothirds full of dry ice chips and slowly add a little ethanol. The mixture will bubble v igorously at first as the solid carbon dioxide sublimes. hen the bubbling has settled down, add more ethanol until the testW tube is almost full.(n CLEAPSS instructions for making freez mixtures, the dry ice is added I ing to the solv with the quantities inv ed here it is unlikely to matter which way ent olv round you add them. ) d Generate a gentle stream of chlorine by dripping the hydrochloric acid slowly on to the sodium chlorate() I.The greenishyellow gas will gradually fill both flasks. e After about a minute, yellow drops of liquid chlorine begin to condense on the cold finger and drop onto the bottom of the flask.At first these drops will v aporise but after a few minutes they will begin to collect as the base of the flask cools down.Continue passing chlorine gas through the apparatus until sufficient liquid chlorine has collected for the class to see.I is helpful to pret cool the base of the flask with some dry ice or ice/ mixture.After stopping the flow of chlorine gas, the flask containing the liquid salt chlorine can be disconnected from the gas generator but should not be brought out of the fume cupboard.

Teaching notes

Liquid chlorine is transported around the country in bulk in rail or road tankers.Here liquid chlorine can be compared with bromine and iodine as part of a study of the trends in physical properties of the halogens. This demonstration can be extended to include the freez of liquid bromine ( ing freez ing point - 7 C)and the melting and v aporisation of iodine. Bromine in a sealed ampoule can be solidified by cooling it in a mixture of equal masses of crushed ice and salt ( sodium chloride) . A few crystals of iodine gently heated in a boiling tube ( containing a cotton wool plug at the mouth of the tube to prev the escape of iodine v ent apour)will melt ( melting point 114 C)and then form a deep purple v apour.On cooling, iodine crystals form on the walls of the tube. He t d Saf t h k Ocobe 2007 al han e yc ec ed t r change of state chlorine gas Group 7 Key stage 4 ( 16 years) Key stage 5 ( 141619 years) States of matter

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Source URL: http:/www. / nuffieldfoundation. practicalorg/ chemistry/ liquefyingchlorinegas Links: [1] http:/www. / nuffieldfoundation. node/ org/ 1634/ [2] http:/www. / nuffieldfoundation. ./ org/.3139

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Melting and freezing stearic acid


Class practical

I this class practical students take the temperature of stearic acid at regular interv n als as they heat and cool it. They can observ the melting and freezing points of the e acid and can plot a graph.This experiment could also be done using datalogging equipment.

Lesson organisation

This practical takes quite a long time to carry out.Students can begin by simply recording their data but, once they get the hang of what they are doing, most should be able to plot the graph at the same time as taking readings.I dataf loggers are being used then students will need another activ to be doing alongside the experiment. ity
Chemicals

Stearic acid ( octadecanoic acid) Refer to Health & Safety and Technical notes section below for additional information.
Apparatus

Eye protection Per pair or group of students: Beaker ( 250 cm3) Boiling tube ( Note 1)

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Thermometer ( 100 0C) Stop clock Clamp, stand and boss Bunsen burner Tripod Gauz e Heat resistant mat Health & Safety and Technical notes

Read our standard health & safety guidance [1] W ear eye protection. Stearic acid ( octadecanoic acid) CH3( 2) COOH( , CH 16 s)-see CLEAPSS Haz card.The stearic acid in this practical can be used again and again. 1 I after the practical, the boiling tubes are left containing both the stearic acid and the f, thermometer, immerse all the boiling tubes in hot water to remov the thermometers. e The stearic acid can then be stored in the boiling tubes and recycled sev eral times. Procedure

a Put about 150 cm3 water into the beaker. b Heat it on a tripod and gauz until the water j e ust starts to boil. c Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram and start the timer.Keep the water boiling, but not boiling v igorously. d Using a suitable results table, record the temperature of the stearic acid ev minute until ery it reaches about 70 C.Note on your results table the point at which you see the solid start to melt. e Use the clamp stand to lift the tube from the hot water.Record the temperature ev minute as ery the stearic acid cools down until it reaches about 50 C.Note on your results table the temperature at which you see the stearic acid begin to solidify.

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Teaching notes

Remind students not to attempt to mov the thermometer in the solid stearic acid, as it e will break. Energy must be supplied to melt a solid;this same energy is released when the liquid resolidifies. This presents a good opportunity to demonstrate how to maintain a steady temperature using a Bunsen burner.This can be achiev by sliding the Bunsen burner aside as ed the boiling becomes too v igorous; slide it back as the water stops boiling.I is not t essential that the water bath is boiling.Students could be prov ided with another thermometer, and asked to maintain a lower temperature, say 80 C. A temperature sensor attached to a computer can be used in place of a thermometer.I t can plot the temperature change on a graph and show this as it occurs.A slight modification of the experiment can yield an intriguing result: W hen the testtube is 3 cooling place it in an insulated cup containing a few cm of water.Use a second temperature sensor to monitor the temperature of the water. The water temperature should rise as the stearic acid cools and it should continue to rise ev as it changes en state. A slight alternativ to this experiment is to plot only the cooling curv e e.Place all the boiling tubes with stearic acid into a large beaker.Place some hot water in the beaker and continue to heat with a Bunsen burner.Remov from the heat when all the stearic e acid has melted. Students can place a thermometer into the stearic acid and place the boiling tube into a test tube rack or beaker.They take the temperature ev 30 ery seconds or ev minute and plot a graph.Many students will anticipate that the stearic ery acid will continue to cool to z it is useful to discuss why the stearic acid stops ero cooling when it reaches room temperature. I either v n ersion of the experiment it is good practice for students to draw a graph of their results.There should be a clear horiz ontal line in the graph which corresponds to the change of state, howev many school samples of stearic acid are not v pure er ery and hence the line is often not perfetcly horiz ontal.The exact melting and freez ing points of the stearic acid may not be exactly the same and will depend on the purity of the product and where it was purchased from, but are usually around 55- 70 C. Health & Safetycheck April 2008 ed changes of state Key stage 3 ( 14 years) Key stage 4 ( 16 years) Key stage 5 1114( 19 years) solids States of matter 16Source URL: http:/www. / nuffieldfoundation. practicalorg/ chemistry/ meltingandfreez stearicingacid Links: [1] http:/www. / nuffieldfoundation. node/ org/ 1634/

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Money to burn
Demonstration

A piece of paper ( a 5 or 10 note)soaked in a mixture of ethanol and water is or ignited.The ethanol burns but the paper does not. Click to v iew a [1]v ideo [1]clip of this demonstration experiment. [1] Lesson organisation

This is a demonstration experiment which can either be used for fun as part of a public ev or in a class to stimulate discussion of the conditions required for combustion. ent
Chemicals

Ethanol ( GHLY FLAMMABLE)or HI I ndustrial Denatured Alcohol (DA)( GHLY FLAMMABLE, HARMFUL) 75 cm3 I HI , Sodium chloride ( common salt) about 1 g , Refer to Health & Safety and Technical notes section below for additional information.
Apparatus

The quantities giv are for one demonstration. en The teacher req uires: Eye protection

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Bunsen burner Pair of tongs Heatresistant mats, 2 Beakers ( 250 cm3) 3 , Paper, e. filter paper ( g. Note 1) Health & Safety and Technical notes

Read our standard health & safety guidance [2] W ear eye protection. Ethanol, C2H5OH( HI l)( GHLY FLAMMABLE)-see CLEAPSS Haz card. I ndustrial Denatured Alcohol (DA)( I HARMFUL, HI GHLY FLAMMABLE)-see CLEAPSS Haz card. Sodium chloride, NaCl( s)-see CLEAPSS Haz card. 1 Prepare some pieces of absorbent paper, e. g.filter paper, about the siz of a 5 e note. 2 Place about 50 cm3 of water in one beaker, a similar v olume of ethanol in a second 3 3 beaker, and a mixture of 25 cm water and 25 cm ethanol in the third beaker.Add a little ( about 1 g)of sodium chloride to the third beaker and stir until it has all dissolv ed. Label the beakers. Procedure

a Label the beakers. b Place the Bunsen burner on the heatresistant mat and adj it to giv a yellow ust e flame.Ensure that the beakers of ethanol, water, and the ethanolwater mixture are a safe distance ( m)away from the Bunsen burner. 2 c Using the tongs, soak one piece of paper in the water in the first beaker.Allow the paper to drain.Try to ignite it by holding it in the Bunsen flame for a few seconds.I t does not ignite. d Soak a second piece of paper in ethanol and use the tongs to hold it in the Bunsen flame j long enough for it to ignite.Take care to drip as little alcohol as possible on ust the bench between the beaker and the Bunsen burner.The alcohol on the paper ignites easily and sets fire to the paper, which burns away. (f the alcohol in the beaker does ignite by accident during the demonstration, it can be I easily and safely extinguished by cov ering the beaker with a heatresistant mat. )

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e Soak the third piece of paper in the alcoholwater mixture and use the tongs to hold it in the Bunsen flame j long enough for it to ignite.Swiftly remov the paper from the ust e Bunsen flame and observ as the alcohol burns with a yellow flame, but the paper e does not burn. The paper will still be wet with water after the alcohol has burnt away. Teaching notes

A wealthy and/ confident demonstrator can start this experiment with a 5, or ev or en higher v alue, note and the alcoholwater mixture!More amusement can be added if a member of the audience with money to burn can be persuaded to part with the money. t is important to use a yellow Bunsen flame, and to only hold the paper in the I flame long enough for it to ignite, to prev the note from burning.The demonstrations ent with ordinary paper and the other liquids could then follow to prov an explanation. ide The water in the alcoholwater mixture ev aporates as the alcohol burns, keeping the temperature of the paper below its ignition temperature ( approximately 230 . C) Conv erting this temperature to the Fahrenheit scale might remind some science fiction fans in the audience of the film Fahrenheit 451 .See Fahrenheit 451 [3]. The flame from the paper soaked in alcohol alone should be v isible but the flame from a burning alcoholwater mixture is often difficult to see.This is why the sodium chloride is added, to giv an orangee yellow colour to the flame. The demonstration looks ev en more impressiv in subdued lighting. e The experiment could be extended to include different alcoholwater mixtures and other alcohols, such as methanol. Health and Safetycheck Nov ed ember 2006 Key stage 3 ( 14 years) Key stage 4 ( 16 years) Key stage 5 ( 19 years) 111416Chemistry
Source URL: http:/www. / nuffieldfoundation. practicalorg/ chemistry/ moneyburn Links: [1] http:/media. org/ ideoclips/ / rsc. v demos/ nonburningnote. mpg [2] http:/www. / nuffieldfoundation. node/ org/ 1634/ [3] http:/en. / wikipedia. wiki/ org/ Fahrenheit_451

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