The part of speech (or word class) that is used to name or identify a person, place, thing, quality, or action.

Adjective: nominal. Most nouns have both a singular and plural form, can be preceded by an article and/or one or more adjectives, and can serve as the head of a noun phrase.

CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS

Abstract Noun

Concrete Noun

Collective Noun

Common Noun

Proper Noun

Count Noun

Mass Noun

ABSTRACT NOUN A noun (such as courage or freedom) that names an idea, event, quality, or concept. Contrast with concrete noun.

EXAMPLES: 1. "Creativity requires the courage to let go of certainties." 2. "When love is gone, there's always justice. And when justice is gone, there's always force. And when force is gone, there's always Mom. Hi, Mom!"

CONCRETE NOUN These are nouns such as desk, water, Kevin, and cotton. These nouns can all be touched, smelt, tasted or seen. In order to be a concrete noun, it must be perceived by using one of the five senses.

EXAMPLES: 1. "With your sheets like metal and your belt like lace, And your deck of cards missing the jack and the ace, And your basement clothes and your hollow face, Who among them can think he could outguess you?"

y COMMON NOUNS Common Proper nouns indicate Nouns ordinary things of no Agapito Flores particular emphasis.. Manila t able box boy tree Harry Potter March

Common Nouns inventor city book month

AS A COLLECTIVE NOUN A noun (such as team, committee, or family) that refers to a group of individuals. These nouns, as their title implies, refer to a group. Collective nouns often reference a specific group. Take for example a "brigade of firemen" or a "grove of trees." Collective Nouns colony flock family audience club group troop class collection crowd jury

PROPER NOUNS Proper nouns name a specific person, group, event, thing or place. These are nouns that refer to very specific people, places or things. y a band The Clash The Royal Guard a person Mrs. Robinson Bangkok a group a place

swarm orchestra platoon bunch

y COUNT (COUNTABLE) NOUNS Count nouns refer to things that we can count. car book dish orange

Common nouns may be countable.

committee

A countable noun always takes either the indefinite (a, an) or definite (the) article when it is singular. When plural, it takes the definite article if it refers to a definite, specific group and no article if it is used in a general sense. The guests at your party yesterday made a lot of noise. (specific sense, use definite article) Guests are welcome here anytime. (general sense, use no article) y NON-COUNT (UNCOUNTABLE OR MASS) NOUNS

There are a dozen flowers in the vase. He ate an apple for a snack. Collective nouns may be countable, depending on the context. She attended three classes today. London is home to several orchestras. Some proper nouns are countable. There are many Greeks living in New York. The Vanderbilts would throw lavish parties at their Newport summer mansion.

Non-count nouns refer to things that we cannot count. These nouns cannot be counted they are often referred to as mass nouns. grass sugar money news

Abstract nouns are uncountable. 1. The price of freedom is constant vigilance. 2. Her writing shows maturity and intelligence. Usually non-count nouns take only the singular form; however, sometimes they may be pluralized when used in a countable sense. The difference between the uncountable and countable meanings of nouns that are used in either sense can be seen in the following. Non-count Sense: Art is often called an imitation of life. Countable Sense: I read a book about the folk arts of Sweden. Non-count Sense: He likes to eat pizza. Countable Sense: How many pizzas should we order? Sugar has become more expensive recently. (General sense) Please pass me the sugar. (Specific sense)

Non-count Sense: Religion has been a powerful force in history. Countable Sense: Many religions are practiced in the United States. Non-count Sense: She has beautiful skin. Countable Sense: The hull of a kayak is made of animal skins. Non-count Sense: Dr. Moulton is an expert in ancient Greek sculpture. Countable Sense: We have several Greek sculptures in our home. Non-count Sense: We use only recycled paper in our office. Countable Sense: Where are those important papers? Non-count nouns never take the indefinite article (a or an), but they sometimes take the definite article the if the non-count noun is used in the specific sense.(in the same way the is used with plural countable nouns, that is, when referring to a specific object, group, or idea.

GENDER OF NOUN
MASCULINE GENDER: A noun is said to be in the Masculine gender if it refers to a male character or member of a species. Man, lion, hero, boy, king, horse and actor are nouns of masculine gender. Example: The next in the Noun-Gender is common gender. A boy is playing in the play-ground. Hero of the movie is not a native of this country. In these sentences the words boy and hero are masculine-gender nouns. FEMININE GENDER: A noun is said to be in the feminine gender if it refers to a female member of a species. Woman, lioness, heroine, girl, mare, niece, empress, cow and actress are few of the feminine-gender nouns that we use. Example: COMMON GENDER: A noun is said to be in Common gender if it refers to a member of species which can be a male or a female. Child, student, friend, applicant, candidate, servant, member, parliamentarian and leader are few of the common-gender nouns. A girl is playing in the play-ground. Heroine of the movie is not a native of this country. In these sentences the words girl and heroine are feminine-gender nouns.

Example: A child is playing in the play-ground. A Parliamentarian should have command over his language. In these sentences the words, child and parliamentarian are nouns of common gender.

NEUTER GENDER: A noun is said to be in the neuter gender if it refers to a member of a species which is neither a male nor a female. Normally nouns referring to lifeless objects are in neuter nouns. Chair, table, tree, star, mountain, street, book, car, school, paper, pencil and computer are few of the neuter nouns which we use regularly.

Example: Computer has brought about drastic changes in our lives. Tree is cleansing the air. Stars are not visible in the day-time. Books are our best friends. In these sentences the words, computer, tree, stars and books are the neuter-gender nouns.

FUNCTIONS:
SUBJECT DIRECT OBJECT INDIRECT OBJECT

COMPLEMENT APPOSITIVE OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION. In addition, nouns sometimes modify other nouns to form compound nouns.

AS THE SUBJECT The part of a sentence or clause that commonly indicates (a) what it is about, or (b) who or what performs the action (that is, the agent).

EXAMPLES: 1. "My master made me this collar. He is a good and smart master, and he made me this collar so thatI may speak." 2. "Baseball is dull only to dull minds." AS A DIRECT OBJECT A noun or pronoun in a sentence that receives the action of a transitive verb.

EXAMPLES: 1. "Dinsdale, he was a nice boy. He nailed my headto a coffee table." 2. "Nobody expects the Spanish Inquisition!"

AS AN INDIRECT OBJECT A noun or pronoun that indicates to whom or for whom the action of a verb in a sentence is performed.

EXAMPLES: AS AN APPOSITIVE A noun, noun phrase, or series of nouns used to identify or rename another noun, noun phrase, or pronoun.

1. "Give me my robe, put on my crown; I have Immortal longings in me." 2. "A friend is someone who can sing you the song of your heart when you've forgotten it. AS A COMPLEMENT A word or word group that completes the predicate in a sentence.

The two kinds of complements are subject complements (which follow the verb be and other linking verbs) and object complements (which follow a direct object). If it identifies the subject, the complement is a noun or pronoun; if it describes the subject, the complement is an adjective. Complements are required to complete the verb, in contrast to modifiers, which are optional.

EXAMPLES: 1. "I have had the great honor to have played with these great veteran ballplayers on my left--Murderers Row, our championship team of 1927. I have had the further honor of living with and playing with these men on my right-the Bronx Bombers, the Yankees of today." 2. "The Spectator. Champagne for the brain."

AS AN OBJECT OF THE PREPOSITION A noun or a pronoun that follows a preposition and completes its meaning.

EXAMPLES: 1. "Imagination is the one weapon in the war against reality." 2. "Love is an exploding cigar we willingly smoke."

EXAMPLES: 1. "One morning I shot an elephant in my pajamas. How he got in my pajamas, I don't know." 2. "Louis, I think this is the beginning of a beautiful friendship."

PRONOUNS
Generally (but not always) pronouns stand for (pro + noun) or refer to a noun, an individual or individuals or thing or things (the pronoun's antecedent) whose identity is made clear earlier in the text. For instance, we are bewildered by writers who claim something like
y

They say that eating beef is bad for you.

KINDS OF PRONOUNS:

Personal |

| Demonstrative |

Indefinite |

| Relative ||

Reflexive |

| Intensive |

| Interrogative | | Reciprocal

PERSONAL PRONOUNS
Unlike English nouns, which usually do not change form except for the addition of an -s ending to create the plural or the apostrophe + s to create the possessive, personal pronouns (which stand for persons or things) change form according to their various uses within a sentence. Thus I is used as the subject of a sentence (I am happy.), me is used as an object in various ways (He hit me. He gave me a book. Do this for me.), and my is used as the possessive form (That's my car.) The same is true of the other personal pronouns: the singular you and he/she/it and the plural we, you, and they. These forms are called cases. An easily printable chart is available that shows the various Cases of the Personal Pronouns. Personal pronouns can also be characterized or distinguished by person. First person refers to the speaker(s) or writer(s) ("I" for singular, "we" for plural). Second person refers to the person or people being spoken or written to ("you" for both singular and plural). Third person refers to the person or people being spoken or written about ("he," "she," and "it" for singular, "they" for plural).. As you will see there, each person can change form, reflecting its use within a sentence. Thus, "I" becomes "me" when used as an

object ("She left me") and "my" when used in its possessive role (That's my car"); "they" becomes "them" When a pronoun and a noun are combined (which will happen with the plural first- and second-person pronouns), choose the case of the pronoun that would be appropriate if the noun were not there.
y

in object form ("I like them") and "their" in possessive ("That's just their way").
y y

I will never forget this. (referring to a recent experience) Such is my belief. (referring to an explanation just made)

We students are demanding that the administration give us two hours for lunch.

As determiners, the demonstratives adjectivally modify a noun that follows. A sense of relative distance (in time and space) can be conveyed through the choice of these pronouns/determiners:
y y

With the second person, we don't really have a problem because the subject form is the same as the object form, "you": y

"You students are demanding too much."

y y

Among the possessive pronoun forms, there is also what is called the nominative possessive: mine, yours, ours, theirs.
y y

These [pancakes sitting here now on my plate] are delicious. Those [pancakes that I had yesterday morning] were even better. This [book in my hand] is well written; That [book that I'm pointing to, over there, on the table] is trash.

Look at those cars. Theirs is really ugly; ours is beautiful. This new car is mine.

A sense of emotional distance or even disdain can be conveyed with the demonstrative pronouns:
y y

You're going to wear these? This is the best you can do?

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
The family of demonstratives (this/that/these/those/such) can behave either as pronouns or as determiners. As pronouns, they identify or point to nouns.
y

Pronouns used in this way would receive special stress in a spoken sentence. When used as subjects, the demonstratives, in either singular or plural form, can be used to refer to objects as well as persons.
y y

That is incredible! (referring to something you just saw)

This is my father. That is my book.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS
The relative pronouns (who/whoever/which/that) relate groups of words to nouns or other pronouns (The student who studies hardest usually does the best.). The word who connects or relates the subject, student, to the verb within the dependent clause (studies). Choosing correctly between which and that and between who and whom leads to what are probably the most. The pronoun which refers to things; who (and its forms) refers to people; that usually refers to things, but

it can also refer to people in a general kind of way. For help with who/whom refer to the section on Consistency. We also recommend that you take the quizzes on the use of who and whom at the end of that section. The expanded form of the relative pronouns whoever, whomever, whatever are known as indefinite relative pronouns. A couple of sample sentences should suffice to demonstrate why they are called "indefinite":

y y y

The coach will select whomever he pleases. He seemed to say whatever came to mind. Whoever crosses this line first will win the race.

INTENSIVE PRONOUNS
The intensive pronouns (such as myself, yourself, herself, ourselves, themselves) consist of a personal pronoun plus self or selves and emphasize a noun. (I myself don't know the answer.) It is possible (but rather unusual) for an intensive pronoun to precede the noun it refers to. (Myself, I don't believe a word he says.)

What is often an indefinite relative pronoun:

y

She will tell you what you need to know.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

The indefinite pronouns (everybody/anybody/somebody/all/each/every/some/non e/one) do not substitute for specific nouns but function themselves as nouns (Everyone is wondering if anyis left.) There are other indefinite pronouns, words that double as Determiners: enough, few, fewer, less, little, many, much, several, more, most, all, both, every, each, any, either, neither, none, some
y y

Few will be chosen; fewer will finish. Little is expected.

The reflexive pronouns (which have the same forms as the intensive pronouns) indicate that the sentence subject also receives the action of the verb. (Students who cheat on this quiz are only hurting themselves. You paid yourself a million dollars? She encouraged herself to do well.) What this means is that whenever there is a reflexive pronoun in a sentence there must be a person to whom that pronoun can "reflect." In other words, the sentence "Please hand that book to myself" would be incorrect because there is no "I" in that sentence for the "myself" to reflect to (and we would use "me" instead of "myself"). A sentence such as "I gave that book to myself for Christmas" might be silly, but it would be correct.

Be alert to a tendency to use reflexive pronoun forms (ending in -self) where they are neither appropriate nor necessary. The inappropriate reflexive form has a wonderful name: the untriggered reflexive. "Myself" tends to sound weightier, more formal, than little ol' me or I, so it has a way of sneaking into sentences where it doesn't belong.
y y y

Bob and myself I are responsible for this decision. These decisions will be made by myself me. .

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
The interrogative pronouns (who/which/what) introduce questions. (What is that? Who will help me? Which do you prefer?) Which is generally used with more specific reference than what. If we're taking a quiz and I ask "Which questions give you the most trouble?", I am referring to specific questions on that quiz. If I ask "What questions give you most trouble"? I could be asking what kind of questions on that quiz (or what kind of question, generically, in general) gives you trouble.

The interrogative pronouns also act as Determiners: It doesn't matter which beer you buy. He doesn't know whose car he hit. In this determiner role, they are sometimes called interrogative adjectives. Like the relative pronouns, the interrogative pronouns introduce noun clauses, and like the relative pronouns, the interrogative pronouns play a subject role in the clauses they introduce:
y

We know who is guilty of this crime.

I already told the detective what I know about it.

RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS
The reciprocal pronouns are each other and one another. They are convenient forms for combining ideas. If Bob gave Alicia a book for Christmas and Alicia gave Bob a book for Christmas, we can say that they gave each other books (or that they gave books to each other).
y

singular : masculi ne

3rd person singular she : feminin e

her

her

hers

herself

My mother and I give each other hard time.

3rd person it singular : neuter

it

its

its

itself

Independ Subject Object Possess ent Reflexi ive ive ive Possessiv ve e

1st person we plural

us

our

ours

ourselv es

1st person I singular

me

my

mine

myself

2nd person you plural

you

your

yours

yoursel ves

2nd person you singular

you

your

yours

yourself

(In older ye English)

(In older thou English)

thee

thy

thine

thyself

3rd person they plural

them

their

theirs

themsel ves

3rd he person

him

his

his

himself

imperso one nal

one

ones

--

oneself

PRONOUN CASE
Pronouns (and nouns) in English display case" according to their function in the sentence. Their function can be:
y y

subjective (they act as the subject) objective (they act as the object)

possessive (they show possession of something else) 3r they d relative/inter rogative pronouns who them theirs

The following table shows the different forms for pronouns depending on case. posses subjectiv objective sive e case case case personal pronouns sing ular 1s I t 2 n d you me mine

whom

whose

whoever

whomeve r which/th at/what everyb ody's

you

yours

which/th at/what indefinite pronouns

3r he d she it plur al 1s we t 2 n d you

him her it us

his hers its ours

everybod everybod y y

you

yours

Parts of Speech Chapter 3 - Verbs A verb is often defined as a word which shows action or state of being. The verb is the heart of a sentence every sentence must have a verb. Recognizing the verb is often the most important step in understanding the meaning of a sentence. In the sentence The dog bit the man, bit is the verb and the word which shows the action of the sentence. In the sentence The man is sitting on a chair, even though the action doesn't show much activity, sitting is the verb of the sentence. In the sentence She is a smart girl, there is no action but a state of being expressed by the verb is. The word be is different from other verbs in many ways but can still be thought of as a verb.

Unlike most of the other parts of speech, verbs change their form. Sometimes endings are added (learn learned) and sometimes the word itself becomes different (teach-taught). The different forms of verbs show different meanings related to such things as tense (past, present, future), person (first person, second person, third person), number (singular, plural) and voice(active, passive). Verbs are also often accompanied by verblike words called modals (may, could, should, etc.) and auxiliaries (do, have, will, etc.) to give them different meanings. One of the most important things about verbs is their relationship to time. Verbs tell if something has already happened, if it will happen later, or if it is happening now. For things happening now, we use the present tense of a verb; for something that has already happened, we use the past tense; and for something that will happen later, we use the future

tense. Some examples of verbs in each tense are in the chart below:

Present look move talk

Past looked moved talked

Future will look will move will talk

forms: 1st person or the self (I, we) 2nd person or the person spoken to (you) 3rd person or a person not present (he, she, it, they) The third person singular forms are represented by the pronouns he, she, it. The chart below shows how the third person singular verb form changes:

Singular

Plural see hear 1st Person (we) come see hear come

Verbs like those in the chart above that form the past tense by adding -d or -ed are called regular verbs. Some of the most common verbs are not regular and the different forms of the verb must be learned. Some examples of such irregular verbs are in the chart below:

1st Person (I)

2nd Person (you)

see see hear 2nd Person (you) hear come come

Present see hear speak

Past saw heard spoke

Future will see will hear will speak

sees see 3rd Person (he, she, it) hears 3rd Person (they) hear comes come

The charts above show the simple tenses of the verbs. There are also progressive or continuous forms which show that the action takes place over a period of time, and perfect forms which show completion of the action. These forms will be discussed more in other lessons, but a few examples are given in the chart below:

A verb must "agree" with its subject. Subject-verb agreement generally means that the third person singular verb form must be used with a third person subject in the simple present tense. The word be - the most irregular and also most common verb in English - has different forms for each person and even for the simple past tense. The forms of the word be are given in the chart below:

Number

Person 1st (I)

Present Past Future am are is are are are was will be

Present Continuous is looking is speaking is talking

Present Perfect has looked has spoken has talked

Singular 2nd (you) 3rd (he, she, it) 1st (we) Plural 2nd (you) 3rd (they)

were will be was will be

were will be were will be were will be

Simple present tense verbs have a special form for the third person singular. Singular means "one" and plural means "m ore than one." Person is used here to show who or what does the action and can have the following

Usually a subject comes before a verb and an object may come after it. The subject is what does the action of the verb and the object is what receives

the action. In the sentence Bob ate a hamburger, Bob is the subject or the one who did the eating and the hamburger is the object or what got eaten. A verb which has an object is called a transitive verb and some examples are throw, buy, hit, love. A verb which has no object is called an intransitive verb and some examples are go, come, walk, listen. As you can see in the charts above, verbs are often made up of more than one word. The future forms, for example, use the word will and the perfect forms use the word have. These words are called helping or auxiliary verbs. The word be can serve as an auxiliary and will and shall are also auxiliary forms. The chart below shows two other verbs which can also be used as auxiliaries: Plural

3rd (he, she, it)

has does have do have do have do

had did had did had did had did

1st (we)

2nd (you)

3rd (they)

Number 1st (I) Singular

Person

Present have do have do

Past had did had did

There is a type of auxiliary verb called a modal which changes the meaning of a verb in different ways. Words like can, should, would, may, might, and must are modals and are covered in other lessons. There are other lessons that cover the use of verbs. This lesson presents some of the important features of verbs and also shows some common forms. Review this lesson as many times as you want, and when you are ready, take the pop quiz on this chapter.

2nd (you) ACTIVE VOICE, PASSIVE VOICE

There are two special forms for verbs called voice: 1. Active voice 2. Passive voice The active voice is the "normal" voice. This is the voice that we use most of the time. You are probably already familiar with the active voice. In the active voice, the object receives the action of the verb: active subject verb object > Cats eat fish.

The passive voice is less usual. In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb: passive subject < verb object

Fish

are eaten

by cats.

The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb: subject active passive Everybody Water verb drinks is drunk object water. by everybody.

Active Voice: the subject of the sentence performs the action: His son catches fly balls. Creative children often dream in class. Note: Verbs in the active voice may be either transitive or intransitive. Passive Voice: the subject receives the action: The ball was caught by the first baseman. The duty is performed by the new recruits. The dough was beaten by the mixer. The mailman was bitten by the dog. Only transitive verbs can be used in the passive voice. What would be the direct object of the verb in the active voice becomes the subject of the verb in the passive voice: Active voice: The dog bit the mailman. bit is a transitive verb. The receiver/direct object is mailman. Passive voice: The mailman was bitten by the dog. bit is now in the passive voice. The receiver has become the subject of the verb.

Examples and Observations:

y

The painting was sold to someone who later donated it to the college. "Fiction was invented the day Jonas arrived home and told his wife that he was three days late because he had been swallowed by a whale." (Gabriel Garcia Marquez)

IN DEFENSE OF THE PASSIVE VOICE "The proportion of passive verbs varies with the type of prose: scientific prose, for instance, may show far more passives than narrative prose. But to point this out is not to denigrate scientific writing. The difference merely reflects the different natures of content, purpose, and audience. . . . "Not only is the passive voice a significantly frequent option in modern prose, but it is also often the clearest and briefest way to convey information. . .

y y

"The strength of a man's virtue should not be measured by his special exertions but by his habitual acts." "In general, the passive voice should be avoided unless there is good reason to use it, for example, in this sentence, which focuses on 'the passive voice.'"

ACTIVE VOICE
Definition: In traditional grammar, the verb form (or voice) in which the subject of the sentence performs or causes the action expressed by the verb. Contrast with passive voice. Examples and Observations:
y

Use the Active Voice . . . Most of the Time "When a verb is in the active voice, the subject of the sentence is also the doer of the action.

"Skiing combines outdoor fun with knocking down trees with your face."

"Here, then, are your tools of thumb:

"The sentence 'John picked up the bag' is in the active voice because the subject, John, is also the thing or person doing the action of 'picking up.'

y y y

Active verbs move the action and reveal the actors. Passive verbs emphasize the receiver, the victim. The verb to be links words and ideas.

TENSES OF VERBS
Examples and Observations:
y

"The general knowledge of time on the islanddepends, curiously enough, on the direction of the wind." "Hermits have no peer pressure. "The present tense designates action occurring at the time of speaking or writing: Shelives in Toronto. It is used to indicate habitual actions: I exercise every morning. It is also used to express general truths (Time flies) and scientific knowledge (Light travelsfaster than sound). . . . "Present tense also has some special uses: to indicate future time when used with time expressions: We travel to Italy next week. Michael returns in the morning.

An aspect of the verb expressing an action that began in the past and which has recently been completed or continues into the present. The present perfect is formed by combining has or have with a past participle (usually a verb ending in -d, -ed, or -n).

y y

Examples and Observations:

y

"History has remembered the kings and warriors, because they destroyed; art has remembered the people, because they created." (William Morris) "He was a Frenchman, a melancholy-looking man. He had the appearance of one who has searched for the leak in life's gas-pipe with a lighted candle." (P.G. Wodehouse, "The Man Who Disliked Cats")

PRESENT PERFECT

y PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
A verb construction (made up of a present form of the verb "to be" plus a present participle) that conveys a sense of ongoing action at the present time. Examples and Observations: "The present progressive tense is especially difficult for those whose native language does not use this tense. . . . y "I hope that while so many people are out I am searching for an error in the document. smelling the flowers, someone is taking the time to [The search is occurring now and may continue.] plant some." (Herbert Rapport) USES OF THE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE:

y PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

y y y

y y

to refer to events that are in progress at the time of speaking or writing to refer to things that are taking place or that are true around the moment of speaking or writing to describe actions that are repeated or regular but are either temporary or may be judged to be temporary to describe regular actions in relation to a particular time or a specified event, especially when those events interrupt something already in progress to refer to gradual processes of change with adverbs of indefinite frequency (such as always, constantly, continually, forever) to describe events that are regular but unplanned and often undesired

A verb construction (made up of has/have + been + a present participle) that emphasizes the ongoing nature of an action that began in the past and continues in the present. Examples and Observations:
y

"Try to understand how hard he has been trying to make everything better for his family." (Lorraine Hansberry, A Raisin in the Sun, 1959) "I have been waiting. I have been searching. I am a man under the moon, walking the streets of earth until dawn. There's got to be someone for me." (Henry Rollins, Solipsist, 1998)

y PAST TENSE
Definition: A verb tense (the second principal part of a verb) indicating an action that occurred in the past and which does not extend into the present. The simple past tense (also known as the past simple) of regular verbs is marked by the ending -d, -ed, or -t. Irregular verbs have a variety of endings. The simple past is not accompanied by helping verbs. Examples and Observations: split second before the present." (Michael Strumpf and Auriel Douglas, The Grammar Bible. Owl Books, 2004) y "The four travelers passed a sleepless night, each thinking of the gift Oz had promised to bestow on him." y "I told the doctor I broke my leg in two places. (L. Frank Baum, The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, 1900) He told me to quit going to those places." (Henny Youngman)
y

"The past tense includes any action or state of being that we could find between the dawn of time and a

USE OF SIMPLE PAST TO DESCRIBE HABITUAL ACTIVITIES "The past simple can also be used with a habitual sense, to refer to a series of past events that occurred on a regular basis. Often, when used in this way, the verb is accompanied by an adverbial that underscores the regularity of the situation described:

examples in (47) can be rephrased using this pattern without change of meaning:

a. Every morning, I used to walk to the office, no matter the weather. b. My mother always used to go to the fish market on Mondays. c. Whenever I used to play football I would injure myself.

a. Every morning, I walked to the office, no matter the weather. c. Whenever I played football I would injure myself. The habitual meaning expressed here by means of the past simple can also be expressed with an alternative grammatical pattern. This involves a special habitual form,used to, plus an infinitive verb. Each of the Examples and Observations:
y

y PAST PERFECT
An aspect of the verb that designates an action which has been completed before another past action. Formed with the auxiliary had and the past participle of a verb, the past perfect indicates a time further back in the past than the present perfect or the simple past tense. especially if one had no choice."

"At fifteen life had taught me undeniably that surrender, in its place, was as honorable as resistance, y "My wife was delighted with the home I had given her amid the prairies of the far west."

y PAST PROGRESSIVE
A verb construction (made up of a past form of the verb "to be"--"was" or "were"--plus a present participle) that conveys a sense of ongoing action in the past. Also known as past continuous. The simple past tense (for example, worked) is used to describe an action that has been completed. The past progressive (was or were working) is used to describe an action that was in progress at some point in the past.

A verb construction (made up of had been + a present participle) that points to an activity or situation that was ongoing in the past. Also known as past perfect continuous.

Examples and Observations:

y

"He knew that she had been dreaming that night and he knew what her dreams were about." "For an hour the old man had been seeing black spots before his eyes and the sweat salted his eyes and salted the cut over his eye and on his forehead."
y

Examples and Observations:

y

FUTURE TENSE

"I was working on the proof of one of my poems all the morning, and took out a comma. In the afternoon I put it back again." "I was reading the dictionary. I thought it was a poem about everything."

y PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

A verb tense (or form--see Rissanen's note below) indicating action that has not yet begun. There is no separate inflection (or ending) for the future in English. The simple future is usually expressed by placing the auxiliary will or shall in front of the base form of a verb ("I will leave tonight"). Other ways to express the future include (but are not limited to) the use of: 1. a present form of be plus going to: "We are going to leave." 2. the present progressive: "They are leaving tomorrow."

3. the simple present: "The children leave on Wednesday."

FUTURE PERFECT

A verb form that expresses action completed by a specified time in the future. The future perfect is formed by combining will have or shall have with a past participle. Examples and Observations:
y

"Everyone there will give big cheer! Everyone there will have moved here!" "We use the future perfect tense when we want to emphasize the 'no-later-than' time of the completion of a future action. Compare the meaning of the following sentences, the first in the future tense, the second in the future perfect tense:

y y

Future: We will break for lunch around 12:30. Future perfect: We will have broken for lunch by 12:30.

ADJECTIVES
Definition Adjectives are words that describe or modify another person or thing in the sentence. The Articles a, an, and the are adjectives.
y y y y y y

the tall professor the lugubrious lieutenant a solid commitment a month's pay a six-year-old child the unhappiest, richest man

Adjectives can express degrees of modification:

If a group of words containing a subject and verb acts as an adjective, it is called an Adjective Clause. My sister, who is much older than I am, is an engineer. If an adjective clause is stripped of its subject and verb, the resulting modifier becomes an Adjective Phrase: He is the man who is keeping my family in the poorhouse.

DEGREES OF ADJECTIVES

The degrees of comparison are known as the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. (Actually, only the comparative and superlative show degrees.) We use the comparative for comparing two things and the superlative for comparing three or more things. Notice that the word than frequently accompanies the comparative and the word the precedes the superlative. The inflected suffixes -er and est suffice to form most comparatives and superlatives, although we need ier and -iest when a two-syllable adjective ends in y (happier and happiest); otherwise we use more and most when an

adjective has more than one syllable. Positive rich Comparative richer Superlative richest

lovely beautiful

lovelier more beautiful

loveliest most beautiful

Certain adjectives have irregular forms in the comparative and superlative degrees: Irregular Comparative and Superlative Forms good bad little much many some far better worse less best worst least

woman cannot be more pregnant than another have never been nine-months pregnant with twins. Grammar's Response Other adjectives that Garner would include in this list are as follows: absolute adequate chief impossible inevitable irrevocable main manifest minor paramount perpetual preferable principal stationary sufficient unanimous unavoidable unbroken unique universal whole

more

most complete

further

furthest

devoid entire

Be careful not to form comparatives or superlatives of adjectives which already express an extreme of comparison unique, for instance although it probably is possible to form comparative forms of most adjectives: something can be more perfect, and someone can have a fuller figure. People who argue that one

fatal final ideal

Be careful, also, not to use more along with a comparative adjective formed with -er nor to use most along with a superlative adjective formed with -est (e.g., do not write that something is more heavier or most heaviest). The as as construction is used to create a comparison expressing equality:
y y

He is as foolish as he is large. She is as bright as her mother.

PREMODIFIERS WITH DEGREES OF ADJECTIVES

Both adverbs and adjectives in their comparative and superlative forms can be accompanied by pre-modifiers, single words and phrases that intensify the degree.
y y y y

We were a lot more careful this time. He works a lot less carefully than the other jeweler in town. We like his work so much better. You'll get your watch back all the faster.

The same process can be used to downplay the degree:

y y

y y

The weather this week has been somewhat better. He approaches his schoolwork a little less industriously than his brother does.

She is wearing her very finest outfit for the interview. They're doing the very best they can.

Occasionally, the comparative or superlative form appears with a determiner and the thing being modified is understood:
y y y

And sometimes a set phrase, usually an informal noun phrase, is used for this purpose:
y y

He arrived a whole lot sooner than we expected. That's a heck of a lot better.

Of all the wines produced in Connecticut, I like this one the most. The quicker you finish this project, the better. Of the two brothers, he is by far the faster.

If the intensifier very accompanies the superlative, a determiner is also required:

THE ORDER OF ADJECTIVES IN A SERIES

The categories in the following table can be described as follows: I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. Determiners articles and other limiters. See Determiners Observation post-determiners and limiter adjectives (e.g., a real hero, a perfect idiot) and adjectives subject to subjective measure (e.g., beautiful, interesting) Size and Shape adjectives subject to objective measure (e.g., wealthy, large, round) Age adjectives denoting age (e.g., young, old, new, ancient) Color adjectives denoting color (e.g., red, black, pale) Origin denominal adjectives denoting source of noun (e.g., French, American, Canadian) Material denominal adjectives denoting what something is made of (e.g., woolen, metallic, wooden) Qualifier final limiter, often regarded as part of the noun (e.g., rocking chair, hunting cabin, passenger car, book cover)

THE ROYAL ORDER OF ADJECTIVES Determiner Observation Size Physical Description Shape Age Color Origin Material Qualifier Noun

a an

beautiful expensive longstemmed short big square dilapidated little enormous delicious

old antique

Italian silver

touring

car mirror

four

gorgeous

red

silk

roses

her our those that several some

black old English wooden hat hunting young American Thai

hair sheepdog boxes cabin

basketball players food

COLLECTIVE ADJECTIVES
When the definite article, the, is combined with an adjective describing a class or group of people, the resulting phrase can act as a noun: the poor, the rich, the oppressed, the homeless, the lonely, the unlettered, the unwashed, the gathered, the dear departed. The difference between a Collective Noun (which is usually regarded as singular but which can be plural in certain contexts) and a collective adjective is that the latter is always plural and requires a plural verb:
y y y y

The rural poor have been ignored by the media. The rich of Connecticut are responsible. The elderly are beginning to demand their rights. The young at heart are always a joy to be around.

OTHER ADJECTIVAL CONSIDERATIONS

The -ed ending modifiers are often accompanied by prepositions (these are not the only choices):
y y y y y y

We were amazed at all the circus animals. We were amused by the clowns. We were annoyed by the elephants. We were bored by the ringmaster. We were confused by the noise. We were disappointed by the motorcycle daredevils.

y y y y

We were disappointed in their performance. We were embarrassed by my brother. We were exhausted from all the excitement. We were excited by the lion-tamer.

y y y y y y y

We were excited about the high-wire act, too. We were frightened by the lions. We were introduced to the ringmaster. We were interested in the tent. We were irritated by the heat. We were opposed to leaving early. We were satisfied with the circus.

y y y y y

We were shocked at the level of noise under the big tent. We were surprised by the fans' response. We were surprised at their indifference. We were tired of all the lights after a while. We were worried about the traffic leaving the parking lot.

ADVERBS
Adverbs are words that modify
y y y

And Infinitive phrases can act as adverbs (usually telling why):

y y

a verb (He drove slowly. How did he drive?) an adjective (He drove a very fast car. How fast was his car?) another adverb (She moved quite slowly down the aisle. How slowly did she move?)

She hurried to the mainland to see her brother. The senator ran to catch the bus.

But there are other kinds of adverbial phrases:

y

As we will see, adverbs often tell when, where, why, or under what conditions something happens or happened. Adverbs frequently end in -ly; however, many words and phrases not ending in -ly serve an adverbial function and an -ly ending is not a guarantee that a word is an adverb. The words lovely, lonely, motherly, friendly, neighborly, for instance, are adjectives:
y

He calls his mother as often as possible.

That lovely woman lives in a friendly neighborhood.

If a group of words containing a subject and verb acts as an adverb (modifying the verb of a sentence), it is called an Adverb Clause:
y

Adverbs can modify adjectives, but an adjective cannot modify an adverb. Thus we would say that "the students showed a really wonderful attitude" and that "the students showed a wonderfully casual attitude" and that "my professor is really tall, but not "He ran real fast." Like adjectives, adverbs can have comparative and superlative forms to show degree.
y y

When this class is over, we're going to the movies.

When a group of words not containing a subject and verb acts as an adverb, it is called an adverbial phrase. Prepositional phrases frequently have adverbial functions (telling place and time, modifying the verb):
y y y

Walk faster if you want to keep up with me. The student who reads fastest will finish first.

He went to the movies. She works on holidays. They lived in Canada during the war.

We often use more and most, less and least to show degree with adverbs:

y y

y y

With sneakers on, she could move more quickly among the patients. The flowers were the most beautifully arranged creations I've ever seen. She worked less confidently after her accident. That was the least skillfully done performance I've seen in years.

o o o o y

I really don't believe him. He literally wrecked his mother's car. She simply ignored me. They're going to be late, for sure. The teacher completely rejected her proposal. I absolutely refuse to attend any more faculty meetings. They heartily endorsed the new restaurant. I so wanted to go with them. We know this city well. I kind of like this college. Joe sort of felt betrayed by his sister. His mother mildly disapproved his actions. We can improve on this to some extent. The boss almost quit after that. The school was all but ruined by the storm.

Amplifiers:
o

The as as construction can be used to create adverbs that express sameness or equality: "He can't run as fast as his sister." A handful of adverbs have two forms, one that ends in -ly and one that doesn't. In certain cases, the two forms have different meanings:
y y

o o o o y

Downtoners:
o o o

He arrived late. Lately, he couldn't seem to be on time for anything.

In most cases, however, the form without the -ly ending should be reserved for casual situations:
y y y

o o

She certainly drives slow in that old Buick of hers. He did wrong by her. He spoke sharp, quick, and to the point.

Adverbs often function as intensifiers, conveying a greater or lesser emphasis to something. Intensifiers are said to have three different functions: they can emphasize, amplify, or downtone. Here are some examples:
y

Adverbs (as well as adjectives) in their various degrees can be accompanied by pre-modifiers:
y y

She runs very fast. We're going to run out of material all the faster

Emphasizers:

This issue is addressed in the section on degrees in adjectives

KINDS OF ADVERBS
Adverbs of Manner She moved slowly and spoke quietly. Adverbs of Place She has lived on the island all her life. She still lives there now. Adverbs of Frequency She takes the boat to the mainland every day. She often goes by herself. Adverbs of Time She tries to get back before dark. It's starting to get dark now. She finished her tea first. She left early. Adverbs of Purpose

She drives her boat slowly to avoid hitting the rocks. buys. Positions of Adverbs

She shops in several stores to get the best

One of the hallmarks of adverbs is their ability to move around in a sentence. Adverbs of manner are particularly flexible in this regard.
y y y

Solemnly the minister addressed her congregation. The minister solemnly addressed her congregation. The minister addressed her congregation solemnly.

The following adverbs of frequency appear in various points in these sentences:

y y

THE ROYAL ORDER OF ADVERBS Plac Frequen Purpos Time e cy e in befor to keep every the e in morning pool dawn shape. befor to get a e newspa suppe per. r

Before the main verb: I never get up before nine o'clock. Between the auxiliary verb and the main verb: I have rarely written to my brother without a good reason. Before the verb used to: I always used to see him at his summer home.

Verb

Manner

Beth swims

enthusiastic ally

Indefinite adverbs of time can appear either before the verb or between the auxiliary and the main verb:
y y

He finally showed up for batting practice. She has recently retired.

Dad walks

impatiently

into every tow afternoo n n

Tashon da naps

in her roo m

befor every e morning lunch .

Order of Adverbs There is a basic order in which adverbs will appear when there is more than one. It is similar to The Royal Order of Adjectives, but it is even more flexible.

In actual practice, of course, it would be highly unusual to have a string of adverbial modifiers beyond two or three (at the most). Because the placement of adverbs is so flexible, one or two of the modifiers would probably move to the beginning of the sentence: "Every afternoon before supper, Dad impatiently walks into town to get a newspaper." When that happens, the introductory adverbial modifiers are usually set off with a comma.

Relative Adverbs

Adjectival clauses are sometimes introduced by what are called the relative adverbs: where, when, and why. Although the entire clause is adjectival and will modify a noun, the relative word itself fulfills an adverbial function (modifying a verb within its own clause). The relative adverb where will begin a clause that modifies a noun of place: My entire family now worships in the church where my great grandfather used to be minister. The relative pronoun "where" modifies the verb "used to be" (which makes it adverbial), but the entire clause ("where my great grandfather used to be minister") modifies the word "church."

CONJUNCTIONS
Definition Some words are satisfied spending an evening at home, alone, eating ice-cream right out of the box, watching Seinfeld re-runs on TV, or reading a good book. Others aren't happy unless they're out on the town, mixing it up with other words; they're joiners and they just can't help themselves. A conjunction is a joiner, a word that connects (conjoins) parts of a sentence.

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
The simple, little conjunctions are called coordinating conjunctions (you can click on the words to see specific descriptions of each one): Coordinating Conjunctions and but or yet for nor When the two independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction are nicely balanced or brief, many writers will omit the comma:
y

Ulysses has a great jump shot but he isn't quick on his feet.

so The comma is always correct when used to separate two independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction. See Punctuation Between Two Independent Clauses for further help. A comma is also correct when and is used to attach the last item of a serial list, although many writers (especially in newspapers) will omit that final comma:
y

When a coordinating conjunction connects two independent clauses, it is often (but not always) accompanied by a comma:
y

Ulysses spent his summer studying basic math, writing, and reading comprehension.

Ulysses wants to play for UConn, but he has had trouble meeting the academic requirements.

When a coordinating conjunction is used to connect all the elements in a series, a comma is not used:

Presbyterians and Methodists and Baptists are the prevalent Protestant congregations in Oklahoma.

This is a useful rule, but difficult to remember.

A comma is also used with but when expressing a contrast:

AND a. To suggest that one idea is chronologically sequential to another: "Tashonda sent in her applications and waited by the phone for a response." BUT a. To suggest a contrast that is unexpected in light of the first clause: "Joey lost a fortune in the stock market, but he still seems able to live quite comfortably."

"but." The word yet seems to carry an element of distinctiveness that but can seldom register.
y y

John plays basketball well, yet his favorite sport is badminton. The visitors complained loudly about the heat, yet they continued to play golf every day.

OR a. To suggest that only one possibility can be realized, excluding one or the other: "You can study hard for this exam or you can fail." The Others . . .

The word FOR is most often used as a preposition, of course, but it does serve, on rare occasions, as a coordinating conjunction. Some people regard the conjunction for as rather highfalutin and literary, and it does tend to add a bit of weightiness to the text. Beginning a sentence with the conjunction "for" is probably not a good idea, except when you're singing "For he's a jolly good fellow. "For" has serious sequential implications and in its use the order of thoughts is more important than it is, say, with because or since. Its function is to introduce the reason for the preceding clause:
y

The conjunction NOR is not extinct, but it is not used nearly as often as the other conjunctions, so it might feel a bit odd when nor does come up in conversation or writing. Its most common use is as the little brother in the correlative pair, neither-nor (see below):
y

John thought he had a good chance to get the job, for his father was on the company's board of trustees.

Be careful of the conjunction SO. Sometimes it can connect two independent clauses along with a comma, but sometimes it can't. For instance, in this sentence,
y

He is neither sane nor brilliant.

Soto is not the only Olympic athlete in his family, so are his brother, sister, and his Uncle Chet.

The word YET functions sometimes as an adverb and has several meanings: in addition ("yet another cause of trouble" or "a simple yet noble woman"), even ("yet more expensive"), still ("he is yet a novice"), eventually ("they may yet win"), and so soon as now ("he's not here yet"). It also functions as a coordinating conjunction meaning something like "nevertheless" or

where the word so means "as well" or "in addition," most careful writers would use a semicolon between the two independent clauses. In the following sentence, where so is acting like a minor-league "therefore," the conjunction and the comma are adequate to the task.

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
A Subordinating Conjunction (sometimes called a dependent word or subordinator) comes at the beginning of a Subordinate (or Dependent) Clause and establishes the relationship between the dependent clause and the rest of the sentence. It also turns the clause into something that depends on the rest of the sentence for its meaning.
y y y

He took to the stage as though he had been preparing for this moment all his life. Because he loved acting, he refused to give up his dream of being in the movies. Unless we act now, all is lost.

Common Subordinating Conjunctions after although as as if as long as as though because before even if even though if if only in order that now that once rather than since so that than that though till unless until when whenever where whereas wherever while

Correlative Conjunctions Some conjunctions combine with other words to form what are called correlative conjunctions. They always travel in pairs, joining various sentence elements that should be treated as grammatically equal.
y y y

not . . . but either . . . or

as . . . as

Conjunctive Adverbs The conjunctive adverbs such as however, moreover, nevertheless, consequently, as a result are used to create complex relationships between ideas. Refer to the section on Coherence: Transitions Between Ideas for an extensive list of conjunctive adverbs categorized according to their various uses and for some advice on their application within sentences (including punctuation issues).

She led the team not only in statistics but also by virtue of her enthusiasm. Polonius said, "Neither a borrower nor a lender be." Whether you win this race or lose it doesn't matter as long as you do your best.

both . . . and not only . . . but also

neither . . . nor whether . . . or

PREPOSITION
is a grammatically distinct class of words whose most central members characteristically express spatial relations (such as English in, under, toward) or serve to mark various syntactic functions and semantic roles (such as English of, for). In that the primary function is relational, a preposition typically combines with another constituent (called its complement) to form a prepositional phrase, relating the complement to the context in which the phrase occurs.


as a modifier to a verb
 

sleep throughout the winter danced atop the tables for hours

as a modifier to a noun
 

the weather in May cheese from France with live bacteria

as a modifier of an adjective
 

happy for them sick until recently

as the complement of a verb

 

insist on staying home dispose of unwanted items

as the complement of a noun

 

a thirst for revenge an amendment to the constitution

as the complement of an adjective or adverb

 

attentive to their needs separately from its neighbors

as the complement of another preposition

 

until after supper from beneath the bed

Ad-positions perform many of the same functions as case markings, but ad-positions are syntactic elements, while case markings are morphological elements.

INTERJECTIONS
Without further ado, here is the list of interjections: A: aha, ahem, ahh, ahoy, alas, arg, aw B: bam, bingo, blah, boo, bravo, brrr C: cheers, congratulations D: dang, drat, darn, duh E: eek, eh, encore, eureka F: fiddlesticks G: gadzooks, gee, gee whiz, golly, goodbye, goodness, good grief, gosh H: ha-ha, hallelujah, hello, hey, hmm, holy buckets, holy cow, holy smokes, hot dog, huh?, humph, hurray O: oh, oh dear, oh my, oh well, ooops, ouch, ow P: phew, phooey, pooh, pow R: rats S: shh, shoo T: thanks, there, tut-tut U: uh-huh, uh-oh, ugh W: wahoo, well, whoa, whoops, wow Y: yeah, yes, yikes, yippee, yo, yuck