Solar System

Dr.Suryadi Siregar DEA Prodi Astronomi FMIPA-ITB

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Approximate Typical Conditions in Galaxy

Region of Interstellar Space Within our Galaxy

Number Density, Atoms / cm3

Temperature,* Kelvins

Inside our Heliosphere, in the Vicinity of Earth Local Cloud Surrounding our Heliosphere Nearby Void (Local Bubble) Typical Star-Forming Cloud Best Laboratory Vacuum Classroom Atmosphere

5 0.3 < 0.001 >1,000 1000 2.7 X 1019

10,000 7,000 1,000,000 100 288

Evolution of Solar System

Theory of Nebular Contraction

Pioneers: Rene de Cartes(1644), Pierre Simon de Laplace(1796), Immanuel Kant.. Start with a sphere of gas that is rotating and contracting, that has radius of 104Ro, a mean density of 10-12o contract and rotate until it collapse into a disk. Central part became the Sun. Others to be planets Early stages (above). Late stages (below)

Theory of Close Encounters(The tidal Theories)

Pioneers: Georges Louis de Buffon, Chamberlain . Summary: Closest encounter of the stars attracts the matter of each stars. Formation of the planets by the condensation of material lost from each star. The planet revolve the stars

Theory of Nebular Cluster

The nebula contracts under the influence of gravitation, rotational velocity increases until it collapse into a disk Most massive nebula concentrate in the center. Mass density increase, temperature augmented Sun was born ! Less massive matter ejected to edge. Forming the planets and small bodies in solar system
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The Solar System Disc Clearance

After the formation of the Sun. The residue of matter continue to rotate, contract and revolve around the Sun In early stage the distribution of matter in the solar system relatively homogen Step by step the interplanetary-matter agglomerates to form the planets/ protoplanets
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Mass Distribution Within the Solar System

99.85% Sun 0.135% Planets 0.015% Comets Kuiper belt objects Satellites of the planets Minor Planets (Asteroids) Meteoroids Interplanetary Medium

Residual of primitive cloud

Pluto Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune

Criteria:
Inferior Planets (r< 1AU): low eccentricity, high density (Mercury and Venus) Superior Planets(r>1 AU): high eccentricity, low density (Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune)

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Mercury
The small and rocky planet Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun; it speeds around the Sun in a wildly elliptical (non-circular) orbit that takes it as close as 47 million km and as far as 70 million km from the Sun. Mercury completes a trip around the Sun every 88 days, speeding through space at nearly 50 km per second, faster than any other planet. Because it is so close to the Sun, temperatures on its surface can reach 467 degrees Celsius. But because the planet has hardly any atmosphere to keep it warm, nighttime temperatures can drop to -183 degrees Celsius. Because Mercury is so close to the Sun, it is hard to see from Earth except during twilight. Until 1965, scientists thought that the same side of Mercury always faced the Sun. Then, astronomers discovered that Mercury completes three rotations for every two orbits around the Sun. The length of one Mercury day (sidereal rotation) is equal to 58.646 Earth days

Venus

At first glance, if Earth had a twin, it would be Venus. The two planets are similar in size, mass, composition, and distance from the Sun. But there the similarities end. Venus has no ocean. Venus is covered by thick, rapidly spinning clouds that trap surface heat, creating a scorched greenhouse-like world with temperatures hot enough to melt lead and pressure so intense that standing on Venus would feel like the pressure felt 900 meters deep in Earth's oceans. These clouds reflect sunlight in addition to trapping heat. Because Venus reflects so much sunlight, it is usually the brightest planet in the sky.

Earth:
Some facts are well known. For instance, Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the fifth largest in the solar system. Earth's diameter is just a few hundred kilometers larger than that of Venus. The four seasons are a result of Earth's axis of rotation being tilted more than 23 degrees. The regular daily and monthly rhythms of Earth's only natural satellite, the Moon, have guided timekeepers for thousands of years. Its influence on Earth's cycles, notably tides, has also been charted by many cultures in many ages. More than 70 spacecraft have been sent to the Moon; 12 astronauts have walked upon its surface and brought back 382 kg (842 pounds) of lunar rock and soil to Earth. How did the Moon come to be? The leading theory is that a Mars-sized body once hit Earth and the resulting debris (from both Earth and the impacting body) accumulated to form the Moon. Scientists believe that the Moon was formed approximately 4.5 billion years ago (the age of the oldest collected lunar rocks). When the Moon formed, its outer layers melted under very high temperatures, forming the lunar crust, probably from a global "magma ocean."

Earths Atmosphere
Consists of 5 layers( function of temperature gradient) Troposphere Stratosphere Mesosphere Thermosphere Exosphere Composition -N2 78.084 % -O2 20.946 % -A 0.934 % -CO2 0.035 %

ux1.eiu.edu

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Mars
Mars is a small rocky body once thought to be very Earth-like. Like the other "terrestrial" planets - Mercury, Venus, and Earth - its surface has been changed by volcanism, impacts from other bodies, movements of its crust, and atmospheric effects such as dust storms. It has polar ice caps that grow and recede with the change of seasons; areas of layered soils near the Martian poles suggest that the planet's climate has changed more than once, perhaps caused by a regular change in the planet's orbit. Martian tectonics - the formation and change of a planet's crust - differs from Earth's. Where Earth tectonics involve sliding plates that grind against each other or spread apart in the seafloors, Martian tectonics seem to be vertical, with hot lava pushing upwards through the crust to the surface. Periodically, great dust storms engulf the entire planet. The effects of these storms are dramatic, including giant dunes, wind streaks, and wind-carved features

Mars Atmosphere
Very massive approximately 100x Earths atmosphere Composition: -CO2 = 96.5% -N2 = 3.5% -SO2 =0.02% -A = 0.007% -Ne = 0.001% Sulfuric acid of cloud and haze at 30 up to 80 km

physics.uoregon.edu
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Martian soils insitu exploration

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Phobos and Deimos Asaph Hall,1877

Scenario the formation of Phobos and Deimos

Main-Belt Asteroids Sphere of gravitation influence

Sphere of gravitation influence

m R =r M
2

R=radius of sphere of influence by a planet r=heliocentric distance M=mass of the Sun, m=mass of the planet,

Table . Physical and orbital data of Phobos and Demos

No 1 2 3 4 5 6

Parameter r[km] P[day] a[km] b[km] M[1015kg] [kg/m3]

Phobos 9377 0.31891 26 18 10.8 1900

Deimos 23436 1.26244 12 10 1.8 1750

Jupiter
The most massive planet in our solar system, with four planet-sized moons and many smaller moons, Jupiter forms a kind of miniature solar system. Jupiter resembles a star in composition. In fact, if it had been about eighty times more massive, it would have become a star rather than a planet. On January 7, 1610, using his primitive telescope, astronomer Galileo Galilee saw four small 'stars' near Jupiter. He had discovered Jupiter's four largest moons, now called Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. Collectively, these four moons are known today as the Galilean satellites. Galileo would be astonished at what we have learned about Jupiter and its moons in the past 30 years. Io is the most volcanically active body in our solar system. Ganymede is the largest planetary moon and is the only moon in the solar system known to have its own magnetic field. A liquid ocean may lie beneath the frozen crust of Europa. Icy oceans may also lie deep beneath the crusts of Callisto and Ganymede. In 2003 alone, astronomers discovered 23 new moons orbiting the giant planet, giving Jupiter a total moon count of 63 - the most in the solar system. The numerous small outer moons may be asteroids captured by the giant planet's gravity

Saturn
Saturn was the most distant of the five planets known to the ancients. In 1610, Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei was the first to gaze at Saturn through a telescope. To his surprise, he saw a pair of objects on either side of the planet. He sketched them as separate spheres and wrote that Saturn appeared to be triple-bodied. Continuing his observations over the next few years, Galileo drew the lateral bodies as arms or handles attached to Saturn. In 1659, Dutch astronomer Christian Huygens, using a more powerful telescope than Galileo's, proposed that Saturn was surrounded by a thin, flat ring. In 1675, Italian-born astronomer Jean-Dominique Cassini discovered a 'division' between what are now called the A and B rings. It is now known that the gravitational influence of Saturn's moon Mimas is responsible for the Cassini Division, which is 4,800 kilometers (3,000 miles) wide. Like Jupiter, Saturn is made mostly of hydrogen and helium. Its volume is 755 times greater than that of Earth. Winds in the upper atmosphere reach 500 meters (1,600 feet) per second in the equatorial region. (In contrast, the strongest hurricane-force winds on Earth top out at about 110 meters, or 360 feet, per second.) These super-fast winds, combined with heat rising from within the planet's interior, cause the yellow and gold bands visible in the atmosphere.

How did the ring of the planet formed? Roches limit (d)
1 3 d = 2.5 R 2
R=radius of planet. 1 = density of planet 2 = density of satellite
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1.Consider an orbiting mass of fluid held together by gravity, here viewed from above the orbital plane. Far from the Roche limit the mass is practically spherical.

2. Closer to the Roche limit the body is deformed by tidal force

3.Within the Roche limit the mass's own gravity can no longer withstand the tidal forces, and the body disintegrates.

4.Particles closer to the primary move more quickly than particles farther away, as represented by the red arrows.

5.The varying orbital speed of the material eventually causes it to form a ring.

Tidal effects on Io

Table . Roches Limit for planet-satellite system

No 1 2 3 4 5 6 Body Satellite Earth-Moon Earth-Comet Sun-Earth Sun-Jupiter Sun-Moon Sun-Comet Roche Limit(rigid) [R] 1.49 2.80 0.80 1.28 0.94 1.78 Roche Limit(fluid) [R] 2.86 5.39 1.53 2.46 1.81 3.42

Table. Radius of Saturns ring (R=60332 km)

No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Name D C B Cassini Divission A F G E Radius [R] 1.235 1.525 1.949 2.025 2.267 2.324 2.748 2.983 Width [km] 8500 17500 25500 4700 14600 30-500 8000 300000 1001000 100030000 1 1017 7 108 0.1-1 0.1-1 1.1 1021 2.8 1022 5.7 1017 6.2 1021 0.1-0,3 0.4-0,6 0.2-0,4 0.4-0,6 0.6 Thick [km] Mass [kg] Albedo

Uranus
Once considered one of the blander-looking planets, Uranus has been revealed as a dynamic world with some of the brightest clouds in the outer solar system and 11 rings. The first planet found with the aid of a telescope, Uranus was discovered in 1781 by astronomer William Herschel. The seventh planet from the Sun is so distant that it takes 84 years to complete one orbit. Uranus, with no solid surface, is one of the gas giant planets (the others are Jupiter, Saturn, and Neptune). The atmosphere of Uranus is composed primarily of hydrogen and helium, with a small amount of methane and traces of water and ammonia. Uranus gets its bluegreen color from methane gas. Sunlight is reflected from Uranus' cloud tops, which lie beneath a layer of methane gas. As the reflected sunlight passes back through this layer, the methane gas absorbs the red portion of the light, allowing the blue portion to pass through, resulting in the blue-green color that we see. The planet's atmospheric details are very difficult to see in visible light. The bulk (80 per-cent or more) of the mass of Uranus is contained in an extended liquid core consisting primarily of 'icy' materials (water, methane, and ammonia), with higher-density material at depth.

Neptune
The eighth planet from the Sun, Neptune was the first planet located through mathematical predictions rather than through regular observations of the sky. (Galileo had recorded it as a fixed star during observations with his small telescope in 1612 and 1613.) When Uranus didn't travel exactly as astronomers expected it to, a French mathematician, Urbain Joseph Le Verrier, proposed the position and mass of another as yet unknown planet that could cause the observed changes to Uranus' orbit. After being ignored by French astronomers, Le Verrier sent his predictions to Johann Gottfried Galle at the Berlin Observatory, who found Neptune on his first night of searching in 1846. Seventeen days later, its largest moon, Triton, was also discovered. Nearly 4.5 billion kilometers (2.8 billion miles) from the Sun, Neptune orbits the Sun once every 165 years. It is invisible to the naked eye because of its extreme distance from Earth. Interestingly, due to Pluto's unusual elliptical orbit, Neptune is actually the farthest planet from the Sun for a 20-year period out of every 248 Earth years

Comet
Throughout history, people have been both awed and alarmed by comets, stars with "long hair" that appeared in the sky unannounced and unpredictably. We now know that comets are dirty-ice leftovers from the formation of our solar system around 4.6 billion years ago. They are among the least-changed objects in our solar system and, as such, may yield important clues about the formation of our solar system. We can predict the orbits of many of them, but not all. Around a dozen "new" comets are discovered each year. Short-period comets are more predictable because they take less than 200 years to orbit the Sun. Most come from a region of icy bodies beyond the orbit of Neptune. These icy bodies are variously called Kuiper Belt Objects, Edgeworth-Kuiper Belt Objects, or transNeptunian objects. Less predictable are long-period comets, many of which arrive from a distant region called the Oort cloud about 100,000 astronomical units (that is, 100,000 times the mean distance between Earth and the Sun) from the Sun. These comets can take as long as 30 million years to complete one trip around the Sun. (It takes Earth only 1 year to orbit the Sun.) As many as a trillion comets may reside in the Oort cloud, orbiting the Sun near the edge of the Sun's gravitational influence.

Kuiper Belt Object

The Kuiper Belt is often called our Solar System's 'final frontier.' This disk-shaped region of icy debris is about 4.5 to 7.5 billion km (2.8 billion to 4.6 billion miles), 30 to 50 Astronomical Units (AU). from our Sun. Its existence confirmed only a decade ago, the Kuiper Belt and its collection of icy objects - KBOs - are an emerging area of research in planetary science. No spacecraft has ever traveled to the Kuiper Belt, but NASA's New Horizons mission, planned to arrive at Pluto in 2015, might be able to penetrate farther into the Kuiper Belt to study one of these mysterious objects.

Dwarfs Planet
What Defines a Planet? What constitutes a planet? The International Astronomical Union (IAU) developed some definitions in 2001, modified them again in 2003, and as of August 24, 2006, the IAU has come up with another definition. The IAU said in a statement that the definition for a planet is now officially known as "a celestial body that (a) is in orbit around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape and (c) has cleared the neighborhood around its orbit." A "dwarf planet" is a celestial body that (a) is in orbit around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, (c) has not cleared the neighborhood around its orbit, and (d) is not a satellite. All other objects except satellites orbiting the Sun shall be referred to collectively as "Small Solar-System Bodies". According to the IAU, more dwarf planets are expected to be announced in the coming months and years. Currently, a dozen candidate dwarf planets are listed on IAU's dwarf planet watch list, which keeps changing as new objects are found and the physics of the existing candidates becomes better-known.

Oort Cloud
The Oort Cloud is an immense spherical cloud surrounding our Solar System. Extending about 30 trillion kilometers (18 trillion miles) from the Sun, it was first proposed in 1950 by Dutch astronomer Jan Oort. The vast distance of the Oort cloud is considered to be the outer edge of the Solar System - where the Sun's orb of physical and gravitational influence ends. The Oort Cloud contains billions of icy bodies in solar orbit. Occasionally, passing stars disturb the orbit of one of these bodies, causing it to come streaking into the inner solar system as a long-period comet. These comets have very large orbits and are observed in the inner solar system only once. In contrast, short-period comets take less than 200 years to orbit the Sun and they travel along the plane in which most of the planets orbit. They come from a region beyond Neptune called the Kuiper Belt, named for astronomer Gerard Kuiper, who proposed its existence in 1951. In 1991 radio astronomers detected the first extra solar planets orbiting a dying pulsar star. Although the deadly radiation from the pulsar is not condusive to life, it was the first example of a star other than our Sun producing planets.

Pluto
Story of Pluto: On August 24, 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) formally downgraded Pluto from an official planet to a dwarf planet. According to the new rules a planet meets three criteria: it must orbit the Sun, it must be big enough for gravity to squash it into a round ball, and it must have cleared other things out of the way in its orbital neighborhood. The latter measure knocks out Pluto and 2003UB313 (Eris), which orbit among the icy wrecks of the Kuiper Belt, and Ceres, which is in the asteroid belt. (1) A "planet" is a celestial body that (a) is in orbit around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and (c) has cleared the neighborhood around its orbit. (2) A "dwarf planet" is a celestial body that (a) is in orbit around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, (c) has not cleared the neighborhood around its orbit, and (d) is not a satellite. (3) All other objects except satellites orbiting the Sun shall be referred to collectively as "Small Solar-System Bodies".

Main Belt and Trojan Asteroid

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Lagrangian Points=Equilibrium position

Formation of Asteroids 1. Forming by the rest of primordial cloud that cannot became a planet. Criteria; spherical form, low eccentricity, orbit relatively stable. Founded between Mars and Jupiter 2. Forming by collision between asteroid in main belt. Criteria; irregular form, orbit not stable, high eccentricity, crosser orbit of the planet
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Since the invention of the telescope, three more planets have been discovered in our solar system: Uranus (1781), Neptune (1846), and Pluto (1930). [Now Pluto's status as a "dwarf planet".] In addition, there are thousands of small bodies such as asteroids and comets. Most of the asteroids orbit in a region between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, while the home of comets lies far beyond the orbit of Pluto, in the Oort Cloud. The four planets closest to the Sun - Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars - are called the terrestrial planets because they have solid rocky surfaces. The four large planets beyond the orbit of Mars - Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune - are called gas giants. Tiny, distant, Pluto has a solid but icier surface than the terrestrial planets.
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Revolution and Rotation of the Earth

Global Warming

Milankovitch Cycle
Milankovitch cycles are the collective effect of changes in the Earth's movements upon its climate, named after Serbian civil engineer and mathematician Milutin Milankovi. The eccentricity, axial tilt, and precession of the Earth's orbit vary in several patterns, resulting in 100,000-year ice age cycles of the Quaternary glaciation over the last few million years. The Earth's axis completes one full cycle of precession approximately every 26,000 years. At the same time, the elliptical orbit rotates, more slowly, leading to a 21,000-year cycle between the seasons and the orbit. In addition, the angle between Earth's rotational axis and the normal to the plane of its orbit moves from 22.1 degrees to 24.5 degrees and back again on a 41,000-year cycle. Currently, this angle is 23.44 degrees and is decreasing. The Milankovitch theory of climate change is not perfectly worked out; in particular, the largest observed response is at the 100,000-year timescale, but the forcing is apparently small at this scale, in regard to the ice ages. Various feedbacks (from carbon dioxide, or from ice sheet dynamics) are invoked to explain this discrepancy. Milankovitch-like theories were advanced by Joseph Adhemar, James Croll and others, but verification was difficult due to the absence of reliably dated evidence and doubts as to exactly which periods were important.

Oort cloud, Kohoutek orbit ,Gaspra asteroid and Neat comet

Short-period comets: P< 200 yrs. Elliptical orbit Long-period comets: P>200 yrs. Orbit: elliptical,parabolic or hyperbolic
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Second Moon
Category Near-Earth asteroid, Venus-crosser asteroid, Mars-crosser asteroid Epoch May 14, 2008 Aphelion=1.51AU.Perihelion=0.484 AU.Semi-major axis=0.998 AU.Eccentricity=0.515.Orbital period=363.99 d Average orbital speed=27.73 km/s Mean anomaly=134.76. Inclination=19.81.Longitude of ascending node= 126.28Argument of perihelion= 43.74 Diameter~5 km. Mass=1.31014 kg. Mean density= 2 ? g/cm. Equatorial surface gravity = 0.0014 m/s . Escape velocity= 0.0026 km/s. Rotation period= 27.44 h Albedo= 0.15 ?. Temperature~275 K. Spectral type?. Absolute magnitude (H)= 15.1

Orbital

Physical

Near Earth Objects (NEOs)

1898 -> First Amor 1976 -> First Aten Near Earth Asteroids (NEAs): Amors, Apollos, and Atens Source: Main belt and Mars-crossers

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Near-Earth Objects (NEOs)

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Terminology
1-Opposition 7 5 8 6 2-Quadrature Western 3-Quadrature Eastern 4-Superior Conjunction 4 5-Superior Conjunction 6-Maximum Elongation (Western) 7-Maximum Elongation (Eastern) 2 Earths Orbit 8-Inferior Conjunction Inferior Planet Superior Planet

Earth 1

In the Universe of Kepler & Newton

Planets move on ellipses around Sun

space is flat: Gravity is interaction between masses

Orbital plane-Ecliptic plane

Orbital plane i

Sun

Planet(r,)

Ecliptic plane
North

The Orbit-1

1 1 V = 2GM ( ) r 2a
2

h = 2 x area/unit time = Keplers constant

a(1 e 2 ) r= 1 + eCos( )
2 Eh 2 e = 1+ 2 m2

= GM
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The Orbit-2 a(1 e 2 ) r= 1 + eCos( )

h = r v = rvSin( ) = rv

Kepler-1 Kepler-2

In Solar System = - = 1800 r = a(1-e) minimum distance, perihelion

r = a(1+e) maximum distance, aphelion

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The Orbit-3
m2 m2

m1
(a)

m1

Eccentricity

m2 m1
(b)

1+

2 Eh 2 m2
2

= 0

(c)

m2

m1
(d)

2 Eh 2 e = 1+ 2 m2
E=Kinetic Energy+Potential Energy E = 0 , then e = 1 trajectory is parabolic E < 0 , then e < 1 trajectory is ellips E > 0 , then e > 1 trajectory is hiperbolic

E=
E= E= +

m2 2r

Circle orbit Elliptic Orbit Hyperbolic Orbit

m2 2a m2 2a

= G (m1 + m2 )

1 1 V 2 = 2G (m1 + m2 ) r 2a

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Orbital characteristics of the planets

No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Planet Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus a[AU] 0.387 0.723 1.000 1.524 5.203 9.539 19.19 P[y] 0.241 0.615 1.000 1.881 11.86 29.46 84.07 164.82 e[.] 0.206 0.007 0.017 0.093 0.048 0.056 0.046 0.010 P2/a3 1.002 1.001 1.000 1.000 0.999 1.000 1.000 1.000 Psin [d] 115.9 583.95 780.012 393.85 373.05 369.65 367.45

Neptune 30.06

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Instability of Mercurys perihelion

In the Universe of Einstein

Matter determines how space curves. Curved space determines how matter moves. Space & time cannot be separated: space-time Gravity is interaction between space-time and mass.

How to test Einstein?

Einsteins theory of gravity is called General relativity Gravity is weak! Compare to electrical force: Proton

Electron

Felc = 1039 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 = Fgrav

Need massive bodies! Try astronomical bodies like planets & Sun!

The first test: The precession of Mercurys orbit 0.012 deg/century

How to test Einstein?

General relativity theory can correctly predict precession rate!

One full rotation takes 3 million years!

Precession and Nutation: due to the gravitational attractions of Sun and Moon on the rotating,non-spherical Earth

Sidereal Priode and Synodic Priode

Sidereal Priode : Time interval between successive similar configurations of the object, the Earth and the Star Synodic Priode : Time interval between successive similar configurations of the object, the Sun and the Earth. Example: opposition to opposition, new moon to new moon

Inferior Planet;

1 1 1 = Psin Psi d P 1 1 1 = Psin P Psi d 1 1 1 = Psin Psi d P

Superior Planet

Moon

Earths Psid = 365,25 days. Venus Psid= 224,7 days Mars Psid =687 days. Moons Psid = 27,32 days Venus Psin = 583,93 days Moon Psin =29,53 days Mars Psin=779,88 days= 780 days

Earths Psid = 365,25 days Moons Psid = 27,32 days

1 1 1 = Psin Psi d P
Moons Psin =29,53 days Moons phase

1 q = (1 + Cos ) 2
= phase angle = 180 q =0 new Moon = 0 q = 1 Full Moon = 90 q=0,5 Quarter moon

Sun

Moons Phase

=0o Full Moon q=1

E D C A O B

Earth
q = Ratio of brightness surface BCDE:BCDEA=AC':AB

=180o New Moon , q=0

Moon

1 q = (1 + Cos ) 2

Zodiac

Constellations for Southern Hemisphere

Summer

Winter

Night and day

Cost0 =Tg Tg
t0 half arc of day -Suns declination -observers latitude Cases;
Observer at equator =00 t0= 900 arc of day = 1800=12 jam Sun at equator =00 t0= 900 arc of day = 1800=12 jam Observer at pole =900 and 00 t0 undefinition, arc day so no Sunrise/Sunset

Planet and Satellite

Planet Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Total Moons Named by the IAU 0 0 1 2 38 35 27 9 112 Provisionally Named 0 0 0 0 25 21 0 4 50 Total Moons 0 0 1 2 63 56 27 13 162

Body Type Known Dwarf Planets Dwarf Planet Watch List Grand Total

Named by the IAU 2 6 120

Provisionally Named 1 6 57

Total objects 3 12 177

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Data r[au] Po[d] Pr[d] V R M ATM

Mercury Venus 0,387 0,29 59 1,61 <28 0,035 0,055 ? 0,723 0,61 243 1,17 3 0,949 0,815 C02

Earth 1 1 1 1 23,45 1 1 N2O3,O2

Mars 1,524 1,88 1,03 0,81 23,98 0,532 0,108 C02, Ar

Jupiter 5,203 11,86 0,41 0,44 3,08 11,195 317,9 He, H2O

Saturn 9,539 29,46 0,44 0,32 26,73 9,407 95,2 He, H2O

Uranus 19,18 84,01 0,68 0,23 82,08 4,061 14,6 H2O He,NH3 ,CH4

Neptune 30,06 164,8 0,83 0,18 28,8 3,88 17,2 H2O He,NH3, CH4
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Earths magnetic field

mscf.nasa.gov

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Greenhouse Effect in Venus

physics.uoregon.edu
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From Meteoroid To Meteorite

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Story of Meteorite

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Meteoroids
Scientists estimate that 1,000 tons to more than 10,000 tons of meteoritic material falls on the Earth each day. However, most of this material is very tiny - in the form of micrometeoroids or dust-like grains a few micrometers in size. (These particles are so tiny that the air resistance is enough to slow them sufficiently that they do not burn up, but rather fall gently to Earth.) Where do they come from? They probably come from within our own solar system, rather than interstellar space. Their composition provides clues to their origins. They may share a common origin with the asteroids. Some meteoritic material is similar to the Earth and Moon and some is quite different. Some evidence indicates an origin from comets.

Solar Wind Flows out from the corona Continuously, in all directions Impacts Earths magnetic field

Earths

magnetosphere

Image credit: K. Endo, Nikkei Science Inc.

SEAMEO CENTRE FOR QITEP IN SCIENCE

The Heliosphere

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In 1991, the nine worlds of our own solar system were the only known planets. Astronomers did not believe that our Sun's environment was the only planet producer in the universe. But they had no evidence of planets outside our solar system. How quickly things change. In 1991 radio astronomers detected the first extra solar planets orbiting a dying pulsar star. Although the deadly radiation from the pulsar is not condusive to life, it was the first example of a star other than our Sun producing planets. Since then more than 100 planets have been found orbiting other stars. Some of them are orbiting extremely close to their parent star like the 51 Pegasi planetary system, while others are found to be at distances comparable to where Mars and Jupiter orbit in our solar system. Since then more than 100 planets have been found orbiting other stars. Some of them are orbiting extremely close to their parent star like the 51 Pegasi planetary system, while others are found to be at distances comparable to where Mars and Jupiter orbit in our solar system.

Beyond Our Solar System

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