WEAR

ELSEVIER
Wear 103-234 t 1997) 474-488

A methodology

for the construction of the erosion-corrosion aqueous environments

M.M. Stack, N. Corlett. S. Zhou

map in

Currus~on Prolecnw Cenrre. t/MIST. P 0 Box RR.SackwlleS:recr, ManchesterM60 IQD. UK and

Abstract

For the erosmo of alloys under aqueous conditions. there have been some recent attempts to identify the transitions between the erosioncorrosion reguncs using laboratory results. Such transitions can be superimposedon an erosion-corrosion map as a function of the mam corroston and erosIon vanables. Detinmg the magnitude of the wastage rate on such maps enables the relevant processparametersinvolved In rhc damage process to be optmuzed. The obJec1 of this work was to model the erosion-corrosion behaviour of mild steel exposed to an
aqueous solution contauung alumma particles. The results were used to identify the transitions between the erosion-conorion regkmcson emsxonxormsron mechanism maps. Processcontrol maps. which show the magnitude of the wastage rate. were also constructed using such an approach. This paper describesthe basts of the mathematical models used IO construct the boundaries on the maps. The effects of particle stze. flux. and solution pH on such boundaries are demonstrated. In addition, a qualitative comparison is made between the results of the model, and a series of slurry eroston-cotrosion tests of mdd steel m aqueous media. 6 1997 Elsevier Science .%A. All rights reserved.

1. ~~uction

Slurry eros~on+xrosion

can cause significant malerials

processing industries. In such cases, the extent of wastage is dependent on a wide range of variables relatmg to properties of the impacting parttcles, the target and the aqueous corrosion environment. Because the study of erosion-corrosion of materials in aqueous slurries is relatively new, there are sttll, as yet, no clear gutdclines on process parameter optimization and materials selection. However, m many tnbological areas, such as dry erosion-oxtdation l-3). wear 41. and fretting-fatigue [ 51, matenat loss mechanism maps and so-called process control maps have been developed to aid in materials selection and process control. In particular, there has been a significant amount of work carried OUI on erosIon maps in dry environments I I-3). Important work has also been carried out on erosion and abrasion mapping of ceramic materials 61. More recent research on the erosion-oxidation map has concentrated on combmmg vanables 31 and presenttng contours of wastage on the regime type map [ 2). In aqueous eroston-corroston environments, studies have shown a basis for asstgnmg eroston<orrosion regimes analogous to that developed for dry conditions. In a study of the erosion of mild steel and stainless steel in aqueous media [ 7

wastage in many of the materials

1,

the velocity dependence for the materials varied significantly, a result which indicated the predominattce of different erosion-corrosion regimes for both materials. ISore recent work on the slurry erosion-corrosion of aluminium, for a range of passivating conditions, showed further evidence of transitions between erosion-corrosion regimes as a function of applied potential [ 81. The concept of erosion-corrosion regimes was also addressed recently in a study of the erosion oi mild steel in an aqueous slurry (alumina particles in a carbonate-bicarbonate solution) 91. A rationale for constructing the erosion-aqueous corrosion map was suggested. based on experimental results and defined ratios between the corrosion and the erosion rates, Fig. 1. This work provided the basis for generating erosion maps showing the transitionsbetween the regimes as a function of Impact velocity and applted potential. The object of this work has been to develop a methodology for constructing the erosion-corrosion map in aqueous environments, by combining the erosion models [ 10, I 1 ] in the lrterature with various corrosion models for the different corrosion regimes, active dissolution and passivation. shown in Fig. 2, for a very familiar system, mild steel in aqueous environments. Two types of map have been developed using the modelresults.anerosion~orrosionmechanismmapshowing

CW3-1&8197/5!700 G 1997 Publabedby PNSo043.164Xl96~07386-3

S A All nghlsKszrvrd

MM Smk E, al /Wear 203-204 (1997) 474-M

475

potential, E

Transpassive

Region

vtitious aqueous corrosion environments. The erosion rate is calculated from models in the literature. The corrosmn rate is assumed to be affected by erosion only in the region where film formatron. i.e. passivation. takes place. The erosioncorrosion regimes on the map are defined by the ratio of the corrosion to the erosion rate. The transition parameters for the regimes on the map, i.e. particle velocity or concentration at a given electrochemical potential or solution pH, are evaIuated below. Process control maps, showing actual levels of wastage for the erosion-corrosionparameters, -.xrc also constructed using such an approach, based on the a3sumprion of additive erosion-corrosion behaviour. 2.2. Assumptions This approach involved a number of simplistic assump tions. (i) ErosionoccursasaresultofsphencaJparticlesimpacting the metal surface at normal incidence, and the only force acting is the contact force exerted by the merml smface. (ii) The crater formed dgueto impact remains in its unrelaxed state, mid is considered to be a section of a sphere. (iii) It is assumed thst the rebound velocity is negligibly small m comparison with the incident velocity. In other words, there is no component of elasticity at any point during impact and the energy is dissipated as plastic work. (iv) Erosion is caused by the impact of solid particles only and the effect of properties of the fluid (such as shear stress) are assumed to be negligible. ( v) It is assumed that the erosion-corrosion process is additive, i.e. that only in the passive region does erosion affect corrosion (owing to removal (and subsequent reformation) of the passive film).

log i i, i, Fig 2 Polan.atwn curve for Fe tn aqueousmedia [271

the regime of degradation,

and a process control map indicating bands of wastage (ranging from low to high levels). It is shown how such maps can be potentially powerful tools

M M SructCInl /Wear 203-204 f1997J474-M

Similarly, the total rate of metal wastage due to erosion Kc can be expressed as K.=K,+AK, (5)

The tetm AK, is the synergistic effect [ 141. Recent expetimental work [91 has shown that there is no significant effect of corrosion on erosion under aqueous conditions. The-efot& it is assumed that this term is negligible and that the erosion rate does not change in the presence of corrosion, i.e. K,=K, (6)

Rg 3 Pauba~xdugam fcx lnanonofFe,o~[l3]

I vi) The tateet material is mild steel. the etodent consists of Lnina r ,&les, and the aqueous solution is water. (vii) TGc passivation pro&s on the metal is taken 10 be lnstanmneous and is due lo the formation of a film of FeQJ, Frg. 3 12,131.

In the passive region, there is a likelihood of corrosion affecting erosion because under very mild erosive conditions the passive film may provide some resistance to removal. However. at this stage it is noi possible lo predict this socalled synergistic effect, and therefore considering that the passive film is very thin (tanging from 1 to 4 nm in thickness), and the particle radius is 100 pm, it is assumed that the passive film does not affect erosion. Finally, in the passive region, the rate of metal wastagedue to corrosion processes can be expressed as the sum of the rates of film dissolution (i.e. 4,) and film tepassivation due to erosive events (i.e. AK,): K,=AK,+K,,, Since 4,. is negligibly small, (7)

2.3. Criteria defining the transition between the erosioncorrosion regimes

for

The total rate of metal wastaae under erosion-aoueous corrosion condinons can bc expressed as the sum of the rates of erosion and cotro~on (in the absence of each other), plus a Ietm wluch describes the interaction ofboth processes 141, i.e.

K,=AK,

(8)

K,=K,+K,+AK,

(1)

overall rate of metal wasrage. KG,, is the where K,. ISiirc corrosion rate in the absence of erosion. K,.,,the el .ion is rate m the absence of cottosion. AK,, IS effect of erosion the on the cortosion rate and the effect ofcortoslon on theerosion rate. Hence

_.

K,,=K,+K,+AK,+AK,

(2)

2.3.1. Determination of the regime boundaries Previous work [9] defined the regime boundaries in terms of the ratio between the corrosion rate and the erosion rate, i.e. Kc/Kc. (Under dry oxidizing conditions, transitions between erosion-oxidation regimes have been delined by the ratio of the oxide scale thickness to do diameter of the. contact zone .3 but clearly this is inapplicable to aqueous cottosion conditions where surface film formation does not occur in dissolution conditions.) It was suggested that the regimes can be classified as follows:

[ I 1,

where AK, 1s the effect of cotto~~on on erosion. and AK, is tbc effect of erosion on corrosion. Altemauvely, m the active region of metal dissolution, the t-1 rate of metal wastage due to corrosion K, can be
expressed as

etoslon dominated Kc/Kc10.1 erosion-corrosion corrosion-erosion 0.15 Kc/Kc< 1 1 <Kc/K, < 10

(9) (10) (11) (12)

K,=K,+AK,

(3)

corrosion dominated Kc/K,5 10

The term AK IS referred to as the additive effect. I.e. the I:nhancement of corrosion due Lothe action of erosion. Whilst tlus may bz q@ican~ m the passive region. where the pasGVC9:m 1sconunua0y temovedandtefotmeddunngetoslon, m the acnve regron dus ~etm IS assumed to be negligible, I.e. K,=K, (4)

These regimes ate subdivided further depending on the corrosion process taking place on the surface, Fig. 1. For active dissolution, the terms dissolution and passivation replace corrosion in the active and passive regions tespeclively. To establish the critena for the transitions between the regimes. the terms Kc for the active region and AK, for the passive region, in addition to K,.musf be determined.

M.M.Stackrt.l /WearZ03-204~1997)47&4.38

411

2.4. Determination of the erosion rate and the corrosion rate of Fe under active and passive corrosion conditions 2.4.1. Determination of the erosion rate (K, = K,,) based on models for erosion by solid particies at 90 One of the earlier models for erosion at normal impact, by Hutchings [IO]. was based on the premise that erosion at normal impact occurred by a low-cycle fatigue mechanism. Hence, an analogy was made between the number of erosive impacts and the number of cycles to failure using theCoffinManson analysis [ 151 for low-cycle fatigue. The dimensionless erosion of a metal 4 is (A~,,isr)~2aD,u~ 4= CY (13)

Hence incorporating the particle flux rate as before. the equation for K,, expressed in g cm -z s- is , (17) For the work in dtis paper, Hutchings model is used to calculate the erosion rates and a comparison is between the results from both models below. 2.4.2. Corrosion rate (K, = KJ in the active region , K,, which is expressed in g cmmZ s- can be given as

expressed as the mass of material removed per unit mass of erodent, where A$ is the plastic strain introduced per cycle, sr is the strain at which failure would be observed in a conventional strength test, a is the ratio between the volume of deformed metal and the volume of the indentation, D, IS the density of the meta! target, Y is the uniaxia! yield stress of the meta!, c is a constant, and u is the panicle velocity. For indentation by spheres, c is found to have a value of Hence, cY can be replaced by H, approximately 3 (static hardness), basedon H,=3Y [ 161. Further, it is probably justified to assume that o is equal to unity, and also for a ductile meta! deforming in shear, A up/ ?? rhasavalueofca.O.1 [IO]. Multiplying es by the particle flux rate in g s- gives an expression for K, expressed in g cm-* s- . The particle flux rate can be expressed as the product of me particle velocity and the particle concentration,

where M is the atomic mass of metal, n is the lumber of electrons, F is Faraday constant, and i, is the net anodic s c~rre.ut for Ihe dissolution of a meta! under wholly activation controlled conditions 121. Hence K,, expressed in g cm- s- is given as ,

&=2.89X

IO-%_

(19)

[IO].

cm-'

flux = IOOcu

( 14)

2.4.3. Corrosion rate (KC= AK,) in the passive region The corrosion in tire passive region is taken to be entirely due to erosive events, and AK= is assumed to be tire rate of repassivation over the crater surface formedowing toerosion. It should be noted that it is assumed here that the repassivation process is 100% efficient and mat no dissolution occurs during film formation. Tirupataiah et a!. ] 17 J developed a simple expression for the crater diameter W by equating the kinetic energy of t!te incident particle with the energy required to form a crater. Thus (20) where r is the radius of a particle. From basic geometry, and assuming dtat the crater d@ d is significantly less man t!te radius of the panicle, then W and d ate related by the simple expression &T and therefore by rearranging the last two expressions, d= 0.82rg fP The lateral area of the crater A, which will be sub!cct to repassivatmn, can be expressed as A = 2nrd (2% %I (22) (21)

where c is the particle concentration in g cm - . Therefore, rearranging Hutchings origmal equation, an equation for K,. expressed in g cm-* s- can be found, , K,=2D,cu ( 15) H, Sundararajan and Shewmon s simplified localization model I ] for erosion at normal impact, developed some years later than the above model, was based on me observation d-tat erosion at normal impact occurs by removal of an extruded localized lip of material at the edge of a crater, formed during impact. this lip is assumed to be removed once a critical strain is exceeded. There were imyMrtant advances on previous work outlined in this mode!. The dtmensionless erosion of a metal < is given by

[I

expressed as me mass of material removed per unit mass of erodent, where Dr is the particle density. C, is the specific heat of me target, r, is me melting point of the target. and H, is the static hardness of the target.

and hence the mass of FqO, that must form, *apressed in kg, IS given by M ,,,m= 2mrmr (24)

47.8

M M Stack er al / Wear 2OL2W

I/997)

J74-488

where h IS the thickness of the passive film. and D, is the density of passive film. taken to be that of FeeO,. If it is assumed that the passivation takes place according to the following reaction. (25) then the ratto between Fe and FeeO, is equal IO 0.699. Hence. the mass of Fe required to passivate per impact, expressed m grams per Impact. is AI, = 1398srr&D, K, (or AK,) in gem- s is calculated by the number N of impacts per cm s- , (26)

N~particlefluxingcm~*s~ mass of particle in g &&L!E( $rr D,) N=0.075crr

?dD,

(27)

1000

(28)

(2%

Finally gem- s-l, K.=,

an expression for KC (or AK,), can be given as

expressed

in

85.9hDguZ rq @ (39)

by multiplying

The only unknown quantity in thisequation is h. the thickness of the passive film. This will obviously vary as a function of the potential, or rather the overpotential above the passi-

M.M Stack al /Wear 203-204 (1997) 474-488 ct

419

vationpotential E,,. Although this area needs furtherattention, at this stage the thicknessof the passivefilm is assumedto increaseby 3 nm per volt of overpotential [IS]. It is further assumedthat when the passivefilm initially, and instantaneously, forms, it does so to a thicknessof 1 nm. Thus h follows the relationship h=h0+3x 10-9(E-Er,) (31)

The above expressionis valid up to pH values of about 9.5, abovewhich the reactionchanges: E,, = - 0.05 I0.059pH (33)

2.5. Determination

of the regime bomdaries

where ho= lo- m. and E,, is the passivationpotential. The passivation potential is taken to be that potential at which Fe,Os becomesthermodynamically stableand is esttmated using a simplified Pourbaix diagram for iron in water, Fig. 3 131.

Ep= 1.08 - 0.177pH expressed volts with respectto nhe. in

(32)

By combining and rearranging the above expressions for KC,KCand A KC,the regime boundariescan be determinedas a function of particle velocity or concentration,which are the erosion parameters,and the potential or pH, the corrosion parameters. The conditionsusedfor the ca!culatiotts given are in Appendix A. A flow chart of the proceduresusedto gcnerate the boundariesis outlined in Fig. 4.

APPLIED POTENTUL, V see

EROSON DOMINATED

EROSION PASSNATION

EROSION

-1

480

060

-040

020 V see
of solumn

000 PH. (a) PH5. (b) PH9

020

(b)
veloctty-appkd Rg 5 Pamcle

ASPIRED mTE~~
porenml map showngeffects

440

020

POTENTIAL, V x1

of33

-040

420

APPUED POTENTIAL, V xc

2 6

C0n.wucr10n cadge

ofprocess maps control

hrmu are used on the processcontrol maps, levels at which these

hmits are set depend on the dewed the exposure conditions. Jectlve. we

lifetime

of material under is sub addi2.3.

and therefore behaviour,

the approach by assuming insection

Rree lox.

The wastage levels are estimated,

mrdlum

and high. The wastage

eroslorworrosion

asoutlined

MM

Stack

et uf / We-w 203-204

f 1997)

J7d-W

481

10

!I,
0 (0) I 2 3 4 5 6 7 PH 8 9 IO II I2 13 14

: ;;

z 8
3 2 8 F I DISSOLUTION DOMINATED

EROSION DOMINATED

01
0 @) 7 I * 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO 11 12 13 14

PH
velocity-pH mapshowmgthe effect
of

Pm&

pamclesm (ndlus) t a) 100pm alumma (b)

500

pm

dumm

and using the above analysis for the mteracuon and corrosion in the various regimes.

Of erosion

3. Results
3.1. Erosion-corrosion mechanism maps

3. I. I. Particle velocity-applied potential maps Fig. 5(a) shows the velocrty vs. applied potential map at pH 5. At low applied potentials, corrosion did not occur because the surface was cathodically protected. At intermedlate potentials, dissolution became the predommant corrosion process. Increases in velocity shifted the wastage regime from dissolution dominated to erosion dominated At a .

nated behaviour was much lower than in the dissolution affected regime, owing :o the lower corrosion rate under passivation condiuons. Increasmg the solution pH to 9, Fig. 5(b), shifted the passivation potentiai to lower values. i.e. from -0.05 V to -0.76 V (vs. a saturated calomel electrode, SCE). Hence, the dissolution affected regions on the map decreased correspondingly. Thts showed that the pH has a very signdicant effect on the eroslon-corroslon regime m aqueous conditions. Increasing the particle radms from 100 pm to 500 km at pH 7, Fig. 6(a,b) had no effect m the dissolution affected region, but shifted the transttion velocmes to eroslon-dommated behavlour to lower values m the passive region, pasFig. 6(b) The results showed that one of the regimes, sivanon-eroston , does increased, Fig. 6(b).

PARTICLE

CONCENTRATION

g cm J

&ff f%
EROSION DISSOLUTION DlSSOLUllON EROSION DlSSOLUTlON DOMINATED

The effect of particle compositton was assessed by comparmg the map for alumma, Fig. 6(a), wtth that for quartz, Ftg 6(c). mterestmg that the particle composiuon had no effect m the acuve corrosion regton. In the passive regton, there was a very shght mcrease m the transition to erostondommated behaviour for the quartz particles, mdicatmg less eroston ~tth such parttcles. However, because, in practice alumma parucles are stgruficantly more angular than quartz and because parttcle angulanty IS not considered in the models abcve. II 1s doubtful whether the models can simulate the effect of parttcle composmon accurately. Thts is addressed m Sectton 4 below

Itwa

Fig. 7. Increasing the particle radius from 100 urn to 500 pm had no effect in the dissolution affected regions, but shifted the erosion-dominated regime to lower velocities in the passive region. 3. I .3. Particle velociry-particle concenlration maps In practical slurry eroston-corrosion systems, the parucle velocity and concentration vary together. For example, filters _ _ and T-junctions may act to reduce the particle concentrrtion and have the additional effect of reducing the particle veloctry. The particle velocity-parttcle concentration map, Ftg. S(a). shows the general shape of the map for potentials at whtch dtssolution is the only corrosion mechanism. lncreasmg the applied potential to more dissolution affected conditions, by increasing the applied potential from -0.5 V to - 0.45 V SCE. Fig. 8(b), shifts the transition boundaries to erosion-dominated behaviour to higher values of particie

3 I Z Parncle vrlucrr)-solunon pH mups Frequrn~ly. the only two vsnables which may be reahsttcaliy altered m an aqueous erorton<onoston process are the parttcle velocuy and solutton pH. shown at -0.45 V SCE m

M M Smck CI al / Wem 203-204 (1997) 474-X+

483

Rg

velocity and concentration. This is due to the enhanced dissolution resulting from the increase in applied potential. before the active-passive transition, Fig. 2. 3.2. Comparison models results predicted by the

pH 7. for the analysis of Hertz 191 and Tabor 161, shifts the boundaries to erosion-dominated behaviour to higher velocities, Fig. 10. 3.4. Process control maps 3.4. I. Particle velociry-oppliedporential maps Fig. 11 (a) shows the level of wastage as a function of particle velocity and applied potential, at pH 5. It is clear that high levels of wastage are associated with active dissolution at low velocities. and at intermediate potentials. High levels of wastage are also observed at higher velocities in tbe cathodic region and under passivation conditions. Increasing the solution pH to 7. Fig. 11 (b), shtfted the passivation potenual to tower values, from - 0.05 V to - 0.41 V SCE. thereby reducing the high levels of wastage on the map assoctated with the dissolution-dominated regtme. 3.4.2. Particle velocity-particle concentration maps At -0.7 V SCE, Fig. 12, tbe process control map shows that low wastage rates are associated wrtb low particle velocities and concentrations. As the particle concentrations Increase, the transition velocities to higher wastage rates decrease owing to the transition to erosion-dominated behavrour.

It is important to note that the erosion models outlined earlier may give very different predictions of the erosion rate. Thus has been shown to affect the location of the various regimes on such maps, and has implications for generatmg the process control maps which demonstrate levels of wastage. Fig. 9 shows the predictions at a range of velocities for both models outlined above. The model predictions differed hv IWO dPE r?f t?Xt~~i!Z% iX *C kY*Ci Wiuiiies, dl lilt? higher velocities thts difference lessened. effects on the boundaries of

4. Discussion

The eroston-cotroston mechanism maps demonstrate that the general formaf Fig. 5, is more complex than in dry environments owing to the variation in the corrosion

[l-3].

MM.

Stack c, al. / Wear 203-204

11997J 474488

EROSION Dot.uNAlED

EROSION PAsslvmoN

PAssVAllDNERDsIDN

PAsSlVATKtN

DDMfNATED

PA.WVAT,DN

-:

PUREDlSSDLT,DN

PASIVATIDN

mechanism from diisolution to passivation as a function of applied potential. In addition, an area is identified on the map, at low applii potentials, in which corrosion does not recur, where the surface is cathodically protected fromcorrosion. This is another important difference between the aqueous and dry erosion-corrosion maps. The resuhs have shown that the solution pH and applied potential, figs. 5 and 8, have significant effects on the transuion boumlaries. It is interesting that the erosion parameters such as particle size and composition have negligible effect in the drssolution affected region. This results from the independcnce of the corrosion and erosion rates of botb pammetcrs in that region. In the passive region, this is not the case, and the boundanes are affected by dre changes in these varrabies accordmgly.

The particle velocity_pH map, Fig. 7, indicates that the transition to erosion-dominated behaviour is independent of solution pH, until passivation occurs. Changing theparticle size has no effect on the transition boundaries in the dissolution affected region, for the reasons outlined above. This map is interesting in that it shows how predominant tiissolution will be for the material loss process, even at the relatively high pH value of 6. The particle velocity-concentration maps have negative gradients, Fig. 8, an observation also made for the transitions between the regimes, as functions of these parameters, indry environments. The maps show that the effects of very small changes in applied potential, from - 0.5 V to - 0.45 V SCE. can have significant effects on the transition boundaries. The orocess contml IMDSFig. 12, indicate imwrtant the effects-that variation of the prtGess parameters have-on the

M.M. ShackeraI. I Wear 203-204 (1997) 474-M

-1.0 (1)

-69

0.8

-01

4.6

.95

-6.6

03

-6.2

4.1

0.0

01

02

APPLIEDPtYCE@JI LU,~(SCE)

-10 W

49

nr

.n l

46

4s

44

-03

02

-61

on

01

02

APPLIED POTENTIAL,,V see Fig. I panicle I veIocity-appliedpocenud wauase map showtns rhe effect of shtkm pH: (a) PH 5. (b) PH 7. wastage bands. Increasing the solution pH from 5 to 7, Fig. 12, reduces the area of high wastage on the map by up to 15% through shifting the passivation potential to lower values. It should be noted tbat tbe wastage levels on tbe processcontrolmapsaresubjectivelimitsandde.pendentirely on the desired lifetime of the material for the exposure conditions. They are also very much dependent on the accuracy of the predictions of tbe corrosion and erosion models, an issue which is addressed further below. 4.2. Further development of the erosion-aqueous corrosion map There are significant advantagesof using theerosion-aqueous corrosion map. As pointed out earlier it can be used to identify the regime of degradation and therefore is a potentially valuable tool for materials selection in such environments. By combining existing erosion and corrosion models,

JR6

IO

13

16

19

22

25

28

31

34

37

40

PARTICLE CONCENTRATION %sols.by mass

Rg 12 Pzu~~le ~rloc~t~-pan~cle~oncentraclon wst~pe my show~n~lhe lliuls,l,o"s belweentkwastage kvels.at apphed an have been reported and, therefore, elastic effects cannot be tpnored, Ftg. 10 [ 16.191. When such effects are considered, the boundaries velocity-applied Fig. 10. There are differences between the erosion rates predicted by both models outhned above, Fig. 9, for erosion at normal tmpacts. particularly the erosion-corrosion at low velocittes. Whilst this paper is concerned wtth outlintng the method for the construction of map, such differences have implications for the locattons of the bottndaries on the process control maps. The differences in the predictions are due to the difference in dependence of both models on the subsuatc hardness and veloctty. (It should be noted that a later version of one of the above models to erosion-dominated potential bchaviour on the map shift to higher velocities,
potentmJ of -0.7 V

in a very narrow potential region in which the active-passive corrosion process takes place, and therefore it is considered that additive behaviour is a reasonable assumption. Another assumption in the above work is that the effect of fluid flow has no effect on the erosion rate. This is because the shear stress, due to fluid flow, is significantly less than the yield strength of mild steel (by more than one order of magnitude)

[26 1. Finally.

it has been assumed that the target material is

mild steel. The model is being modified to address the behavtour of more highly alloyed materials, such as stainlesssteels, which are widely used in such environments. Future Hark will address the issues outlined above. Attempts will also he made to combine erosion and corrosion variables in order to minimize the number of maps applicable to a particular process. In addition, the extension of the associapproach to more complex corrosion environments, a wider range of target matertats and the various patineicrs ated with the impacting particles will be addressed. An impor-

[2 I ] has not been tested yet, owing

Work

to uncertamty relattng to one of the parameters.) els against results from laboratory tests.

is

currently underway to test the predtctions of the various modIt is mteresting that changmg the erodentcomposition from

tant objective of the continuing work is to construct materials selection maps for erosion-corrosion Such work is hugely challenging in such environments. but will have important

alumina to quarts does not have a stgnificant effect on the regime boundanes in the passive region. In practice, alumina particles are more angular than quartz. However, an angularity factor IS not incorporated in the eroston models, although the effecb of parttcle attgulartty have been modelled for the eroslon maps generated at high temperatures for alloys and for eroston mapping of ceramics at room temperature

imphcations in reducing maintenance costs and in aiding in materials selection in such environments.

[ I],
5. Conclusions

[6 1. Because parttcle angulartty

may change in aqueousenvimodellmg the effects of

ronmen& depending on the history of the particle and the corrosiveness of the environment, thts parameter may present problems. One central assumption of the above work ts that the era\ton~orroston process ts purely additive t.e. only the effect . of erosIon on the corroston rate has been constdered. Thus IS not m enttre agreement wnh previous work 22-253 Howe\ er, rrient work ubmg prectsc electrochemical [ 9.24) measurements shou > that dx synergtstx effect IS only observed I. A methodology has been developed foi the construction of an erosion-corrosion slurrtes. 2. The effects of particle, target and envtronmental parameters have been shown on such maps. 3. Process control maps. showing bands of wastage, have also been constructed using such an approach. map for erosion in aqueous

M M. Stackcr al /Wear 203-204 (1997) 474-#R8

487

6. Nomenclature

References
[II G. SUndaf~~. weur, 45 ( 1991) 251-282. I21 D J Stephensonand J.R. Nicholls. Wear. I&%187 (1495) 284-290 131 M.M. Stack L. Bray.Wear. 186 (1995) 273-283. and [41 SC Llm. M.F. Ashby and J.H. Brwon. Acm. Me&z//..3 (1987) 35. 1343-1348. 151 L.Vmeent.mR.B. W;lremcnrseandTCC.L1ndley(~.),Proc.Fren1n8 Fon8uc. ESIS. London. 1994. PP. 323-338. [61 I.M. Hutchings.1 Pftys D. 25 (1992) AZIZA221. [71 F Umemura,M. Miwkura and K. Kawanmto. 1. Corros. En8.. 36 (1987) 579. [Sl Y. Lt. G T Burst&~ and I M. Hutchings. Wear. /RI-/83 1995) 9o86. 191 M M. Stack. S. Zhou and R.C. Newman. Mare,. Ser. Techno/.. I2 (3) (1996) 261-268. I IO1 I.M. Hutchmgs. Proc Sfh Inr Conf on Ernsronby Oqurd and Solid Impacr.Clvendish Lab University of Camhridpe, 1979, paper 36 t I I I G. Sunduuajzn and P Shcwmon. Wear, X4 ( 1983) 237. I21 D.M. Drax.~BE.Cm~way. J.O BocknsandR.E. Whrte(&s.), M. Modem Aspects of Elecrrochemutry. Vd. 19. Pienum. New York. Chapter 2.69 1989 [ 131 M. Pourhaix. AfIns of Efecfrochcnrrcol Equilibria 1st Aqueous Soluaons. Section2. NACE. 1974. Houston. Texas. I141 Z. Yw. P Zhcu and 1. Sht. I K.C Ludema (cd.). Proc. Confl on Weurof~arenals. ASME. New York. 1987. PP. 763-768. I51 L.F Coffin. Met. En8. Q.. (1963) 3.4, 15. I I61 D Tabor. ThesYardness ofMera/s. Clarendon. Oxford. 1951 [I71 Y Tiqafaah. B Venlrararaman G. Su-Jan. and Marcr Ser. Enn.. A124 (1992) 133. M J C&am, Corros. Ser..35 (I-4) (1993) 13-18. 191 H Hertz. &me Angew. Math.. 92 (1891) 156 1. 1201 N Corlert MM. Stack. and Wear.1preparanw (21 I I M Hufchxngs. Wear. 70 (1981) 269-281. [221 M. Ma!sumwa, Oka andM Yamawak~. Y. Proc. 7rh IRI. C& on Erawon by Lnqurd and Solid Impacr. CavendishLabcatq. Cambridge.. 1987.paper 53. I231 Y Ok% M. Masumura ai M. Yamaw&. Proc 7th fnr C& ,111 Eroswn by Squid and Solid Impucr. Cavend~shLaboratory, Cambnd8e. 1987. paper 39. 1241 M.Masumum.Y.Oka,H.HiunandY Yano.ISfJlnr.31(2~ (1991) 168-176 [ 25 1 S Zhw. M M Stack and R C Newman. Crrrrnrrrm. NACE. 19%. Vol 52.12.934-946 !26! S S~lmer-Olsen. 3rd Inr. Cmf on Mufrrphuwjb~w.The Hague. It?20 Muy 1987 (271 L L Shwlr. I L L Shrew R H Jarmzxn and G T Burste~n (eds.). Cwmrron. Vol I. Buuenvonh Hememann. Letchworih. Hens. 1994. 3rd edn [29] G J C Kayye and T H my. Tobler of Phy.nml and Chemical Co~,.,nsnmrr. Longman, New York. 1975. pp 155-167. 14th &I.

[IS] [

Appendix

A 3970 kg m- for alumina particles 2650 kg rn* for quartz particles 439Jkg- [II] K- l808K[lI] 660 MPa 0.108 g cm _ 3 when not a variable 7800 kg m- [29] 100 pm when not a variable 5240 kg mm3 [29]

Biiraphies

[ 111 [ 11 I

Margaret Stack received mg from University

a BE degree m Indusuial

Enginecr-

College Galway, Republic of Ireland, in 1984 followed by an MSc and PbD from the University of

Manchester in 1986 and 1990. She has been a lecturer in Corroston Science and Engineering in UMIST. Manchester smce 1992. based in the Corrosion and Protection Centre. Her primary research interests include all aspects of solid parttcle erosion of materials m dry and wet corrosive envt-

ronments. including erosion-corrosion mapping. Other interests include corrosive wear in dry and in aqueous conditions. Nigel Corlett graduated with a degree in Minerals Engineermg from the Cambome School of Mines. Cornwall, in 1990. After a period in South Africa working in the Mining industry for Anglo American Corporatton, he returned to the UK in 1994 IO do an MSc in Corrosion Science and Engineering m UMIST. He is currentlv a PhD student in the Corrosion anJ Protection Centre. UMIST. working on an EPSRC funded project on the development of models of erosion-corrosion of steels m aqueous shimes.

Shenqui Zhou graduated from Htmanan University of China in 1982 and completed an MSc at the Cahngchun Institute of Applied Chemis-try in 19&1. He receiver-a PhD from the University of Newcastle upon Tyne in 1991 and following a period as Post-Doctoral Research Officer in 1992, at Aston University, joined the staff in the Corrosion and Protection Centre. UMIST from 1994-1996 to work on an EPSRC funded project on the identification of erosionxorrosion regimes in aqueous slurries. Since October 1996. he has been based in the National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, London. where he holds the position of Senior ResearchScientist.