1. UDP and TCP (Session 11 Transport Layer Protocols) a.

UDP: - User Datagram Protocol - Simple, connectionless protocol - Providing for low overhead data delivery - pieces = datagrams. - "best effort" - Applications that use UDP include: a. Domain Name System (DNS) b. Video Streaming c. Voice over IP (VoIP)

b. TCP: - Transmission Control Protocol - Connection-oriented protocol - Incurs additional overhead to gain functions - Same order delivery, reliable delivery, and flow control - TCP = 20 bytes of overhead header - UDP = 8 bytes of overhead header - Applications that use TCP are: a. Web Browsers b. E-mail c. File Transfers

2. Electronic mail and www (Session 12 Application Layer) a. Electronic mail: (standard email format RFC 822) - E-mail is full of jargon a. BTW (By The Way) b. ROTFL (Rolling On The Floor Laughing) c. IMHO (In My Humble Opinion) - Use little ASCII symbols called smileys or emoticons in their e-mail - 2 subsystems User agents which allow people to read and send e-mail local programs that provide a command-based, menu-based, or graphical method for interacting with the e-mail system Message transfer agents which move the messages from the source to the destination system daemons, that is, processes that run in the background. Their job is to move e-mail through the system - 5 basic functions Composition Process of creating messages and answers Transfer Moving messages from the originator to the recipient Reporting Telling the originator what happened to the message Displaying Incoming messages is needed so people can read their e-mail Disposition What the recipient does with the message after receiving it - Mailboxes store incoming email - Mailing list a list of email addresses

- A key idea in e-mail systems Envelope Encapsulates the message Contains all the information needed for transporting the message, such as the destination address, priority, and security level, all of which are distinct from the message itself The message transport agents use the envelope for routing, just as the post office does. Contents Header Control information for the user agents Body Human recipient - MIME The Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions - Message Transfer: SMTP The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol accepts incoming connections copies messages from them into the appropriate mailboxes If a message cannot be delivered, an error report containing the first part of the undeliverable message is returned to the sender Port 25 - Final Delivery: POP3 - Post Office Protocol Version 3 POP3 begins when the user starts the mail reader The mail reader calls up the ISP (unless there is already a connection) and establishes a TCP connection with the message transfer agent at port 110 Once the connection has been established, the POP3 protocol goes through three states in sequence: Authorization. Transactions. Update.

a. Permanent Internet Connection b. Dial-up Connection - IMAP Internet Message Access Protocol Advantages: Connected and disconnected modes of operation Multiple clients simultaneously connected to the same mailbox Access to MIME message parts and partial fetch Message state information Multiple mailboxes on the server Server-side searches Built-in extension mechanism

b. WWW: - Client Side a. The browser determines the URL (by seeing what was selected). b. The browser asks DNS for the IP address of www.itu.org. c. DNS replies with 156.106.192.32. d. The browser makes a TCP connection to port 80 on 156.106.192.32. e. It then sends over a request asking for file /home/index.html. f. The www.itu.org server sends the file /home/index.html. g. The TCP connection is released. h. The browser displays all the text in /home/index.html. i. The browser fetches and displays all images in this file. - Server Side a. Accept a TCP connection from a client (a browser). b. Get the name of the file requested.

c. Get the file (from disk). d. Return the file to the client. e. Release the TCP connection - URL - Uniform Resource Locators a. What is the page called? b. Where is the page located? c. How can the page be accessed? - Some common URLs

- Static Web Documents: HTML The HyperText Markup Language XML Web content in a structured way XSL a family of recommendations for defining XML document transformation and presentation. Ex.: XSLT The formatting independently of the content XHTML The eXtended HyperText Markup Language new Web standard and should be used for all new Web pages to achieve maximum portability across platforms and browsers - Dynamic Web Documents: a. Server-Side Dynamic Web Page Generation

b. Client-Side Dynamic Web Page Generation

a. Server-side scripting with PHP b. Client-side scripting with JavaScript

3. QoS (Quality of Service) (Session 9 Internetworking) - Requirements: a. Flow a stream of packets from a source to a destination b. Needs of each flow - Reliability - Delay - Jitter - Bandwidth c. Together form QoS d. ATM networks classify flows in four broad categories with respect to their QoS demands - Constant bit rate (e.g., telephony). - Real-time variable bit rate (e.g., compressed videoconferencing). - Non-real-time variable bit rate (e.g., watching a movie over the Internet). - Available bit rate (e.g., file transfer). - Techniques for Achieving Good Quality of Service: a. Overprovisioning provide so much router capacity, buffer space, and bandwidth that the packets just fly through easily b. Buffering flows can be buffered on the receiving side before being delivered c. Traffic Shaping regulating the average rate of data transmission d. The Leaky Bucket Algorithm to check that data transmissions adapt to defined limits on bandwidth e. The Token Bucket Algorithm - The leaky bucket holds tokens, generated by a clock at the rate of one token every DT sec - In Fig. 5-34(a) we see a bucket holding three tokens, with five packets waiting to be transmitted - For a packet to be transmitted, it must capture and destroy one token f. Resource Reservation - Three different kinds of resources can potentially be reserved x Bandwidth

x Not oversubscribing any output line. x Buffer space x There will always be a buffer available when the flow needs one, up to some maximum x CPU cycles x Making sure that the CPU is not overloaded is needed to ensure timely processing of each packet g. Admission Control the decision made based on 3 dimensional of bandwidth, buffers, cycles conditions h. Proportional Routing split the traffic for each destination over multiple paths i. Packet Scheduling - fair queuing algorithm x A scheduling algorithm used in computer and telecommunications networks to allow multiple packet flows to fairly share the link capacity - weighted fair queuing x A data packet scheduling technique allowing different scheduling priorities to statistically multiplexed data flows RSVP

The Resource reSerVation Protocol allows multiple senders to transmit to multiple groups of receivers permits individual receivers to switch channels freely optimizes bandwidth use while at the same time eliminating congestion

4. IP Addressing (Session 8 The Network Layer) - Every host and router on the Internet has an IP address which encodes its network number and host number. - The combination is unique a. No two machines on the Internet have the same IP address b. All IP addresses are 32 bits long and are used in the Source address and Destination address fields of IP packets c. It is important to note that an IP address does not actually refer to a host d. It really refers to a network interface, so if a host is on two networks, it must have two IP addresses e. However, in practice, most hosts are on one network and thus have one IP address. 5. RPC (Session 11 Transport Layer Protocols) - The idea - to make a remote procedure call look as much as possible like a local one - Client stub

y Small library procedure y That represents the server procedure in the client's address space - Server stub y The server is bound with a procedure - These procedures hide the fact that the procedure call from the client to the server is not local. - Step 1 y Is the client calling the client stub. This call is a local procedure call, with the parameters pushed onto the stack in the normal way. - Step 2 y is the client stub packing the parameters into a message and making a system call to send the message. Packing the parameters is called marshaling. - Step 3 y is the kernel sending the message from the client machine to the server machine. - Step 4 y is the kernel passing the incoming packet to the server stub. - Step 5 y is the server stub calling the server procedure with the unmarshaled parameters. The reply traces the same path in the other direction 6. Datagram and Virtual-Circuit subnets (Session 7 The Network Layer)

7. Congestion (Session 9 Internetworking) - Congestion when too many packets are present in the subnet, performance degrades

8. Segmentation, Multiplexing, etc (Session 10 The Transport Layer) - Controlling communication: a. Segmentation and Reassembly 1. Most networks have a limitation on the amount of data that can be included in a single PDU 2. The Transport layer divides application data into blocks of data that are an appropriate size 3. At the destination, the Transport layer reassembles the data before sending it to the destination application or service b. Conversation Multiplexing 1. There may be many applications or services running on each host in the network 2. Each of these applications or services is assigned an address known as a port so that the Transport layer can determine with which application or service the data is identified c. Establishing a Session 1. Creating a sessions between the applications 2. These connections prepare the applications to communicate with each other before any data is transmitted 3. Within these sessions, the data for a communication between the two applications can be closely managed. d. Reliable Delivery 1. High possibility for a piece of data to become corrupted, or lost completely, as it is transmitted over the network. 2. Ensure that all pieces reach their destination by having the source device to retransmit any data that is lost. e. Same Order Delivery 1. multiple routes that can have different transmission times, data can arrive in the wrong order

2. By numbering and sequencing the segments, the Transport layer can ensure that these segments are reassembled into the proper order. f. Flow Control 1. Regulating the amount of data the source transmits as a group 2. Flow control can prevent the loss of segments on the network and avoid the need for retransmission. 9. Routing configuration (static and dynamic)