Introduction to Thermodynamics and Energy Conversion

Course Overview Thermodynamics is in part about conversion of energy from one form to another and about the direction in which such processes tend to occur. Think of ways that we convert energy from one form to another to live our lives Eating food Driving automobiles Electricity generation
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ENES232: Univ. of Maryland Prof. Greg Jackson

Estimated U.S. Energy Use in 2010: 98.0 Quads

1.0 Quad = 1015 BTUs = 1.055*1018 J | 98.0 Quads = 1.034 *1020 J = 3280 GW*years

ENES232: Univ. of Maryland Prof. Greg Jackson

Systems and Surroundings in Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics is about analysis of systems with definable properties and the interactions of those systems with their surroundings. Types of Systems closed system: no mass can cross the boundary of the system isolated system: closed system where no heat or work crosses the boundary open system: mass, heat, and work can cross the system boundary (often referred to as a control volume)

Surroundings are the sinks or sources of mass and energy which border the system.

ENES232: Univ. of Maryland Prof. Greg Jackson

Scales of Thermodynamic Systems (for analysis)

Molecular chemical reactions, material transformations Machine cycles and efficiency analysis Global Global warming and environmental issues Cosmic Dynamics of universe

ENES232: Univ. of Maryland Prof. Greg Jackson

Closed System Analysis

Air and fuel mixture inside cylinder of a car engine during compression and power stroke
Analysis approach 1: Good Choice Closed system with moving boundary

Fuel/air mixture

Reaction

Combustion Products

Analysis approach 2: Poor Choice Open system with fixed boundary

Fuel/air mixture

Reaction

Combustion Products

ENES232: Univ. of Maryland Prof. Greg Jackson

Open System: Control Volume Analysis

Hazardous waste incinerator with boiler
Analysis approach 1: Poor Choice Closed system following the mass
exhaust

Analysis approach 2: Good Choice Open system with fixed boundary

exhaust

high pressu re water waste fuel air

high pressu re steam

high pressu re water waste fuel air

high pressu re steam

ENES232: Univ. of Maryland Prof. Greg Jackson

Integrated Open Systems: Combined Cycle Power Plant

Exhaust Gases 5 Liquid Pump Feed water Fuel 2 Combustor Compressor 1 Air Electric Generator Turbine Fuel 3 Fired boiler 4 Electric Generator

HP Steam

Steam Turbine LP Steam for Process Heat

Thermal Efficiency th =

Net Work Output of Plant Fuel Chemical Energy Input

th =

(Work Turbine Out + Work Steam Turbine Out) - (Work Compressor In + Work Pump In) mass of fuel burned * (heat ot combustion of fuel per unit mass)
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ENES232: Univ. of Maryland Prof. Greg Jackson

General Electric Heavy Frame Gas Turbine

Model: H Series Purpose: Large gas turbine for combined cycle power plants Compressor Combustor Expansion Turbine 400 MW net power out in combination with a steam boiler driven by exhaust Thermal Efficiency: ~ 60% when combined with downstream boiler hsystembrochure.pdf
multi-stage compressor

multi-can combustor

multi-stage turbine

ENES232: Univ. of Maryland Prof. Greg Jackson

Thermodynamics of the Human Body

Human body energy conversion Chemical energy in food converted to readily available chemical energy as ATP or stored as less available energy as glycogen or fat Muscles convert ATP chemical energy into work Low availability byproducts of digestion are passed out of the system To maintain temperature, body dissipates energy as heat to the surroundings. Energy density of foods and availability of food energy is different Carbohydrates have more available energy than cellulosic molecules
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about 100 W dissipated as heat

around 700 W dissipated as heat and maybe we could say some work

ENES232: Univ. of Maryland Prof. Greg Jackson

Open Systems Coupled with Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Heat Transfer Fuel Vapor Explosions
Integrating millions of little thermodynamic systems together to model complex fluid flows with reactions, acoustics, and heat transfer
C3H8 mass fractions
uwind

tank

building

Pressure (in atm.)

tank

building

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ENES232: Univ. of Maryland Prof. Greg Jackson

Thermodynamic State of a System

Systems composed of 1018 to 1028 molecules can not describe the position and velocity of each molecule Statistical thermodynamics: statistical distribution of molecular properties used to calculate state Classical thermodynamics (this course): macroscopic average description of molecular properties used to define state Macroscopic description of system state (method in this course) Properties must be averaged over sufficient distances to remove effects of molecular nature of matter Thermodynamic state: a set of macroscopic properties which uniquely defines the system (such that all other properties are determined). Properties can include some combination of temperature (T), pressure (p), density (), internal energy (u), entropy (s), etc

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ENES232: Univ. of Maryland Prof. Greg Jackson

Thermodynamic Phases
Phases are a state of matter defined by a particular arrangement of molecules with each other solid phase(s) (amorphous or crystalline) multiple solid phases for most substances due to changes in crystal structure or molecular arrangement Iron for example has multiple phases. So does ice H2O(s), liquid phase gas phase Phases are characterized by different property values such as temperature: T (in K or C), pressure: p (in Pa), density (in kg/m3), internal energy per unit mass: u (I J/kg), etc During phase changes p and T do not vary independently.

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ENES232: Univ. of Maryland Prof. Greg Jackson

Specific Properties of Thermodynamic Systems

Properties of a system depend only on the state and not on the process to get to that state Types of properties Extensive properties: depend on mass of system Intensive properties: do not depend on mass of system Course symbol convention U, internal energy (units Joules, J) u, energy per unit mass (units - J/kg) , energy per unit mole (units - J/kgmol or J/gmol) Density (units kg/m3) and specific volume v (units m3/kg) v=1/ Temperature, T (units - K, C) Associated with random kinetic energy of molecules in system including translational, rotational, and vibrational energy. Pressure, p (units Pa = N/m2 or bar = 105 Pa) Force per unit area on a substance
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ENES232: Univ. of Maryland Prof. Greg Jackson

Closed Systems Revisited

Air and fuel mixture inside cylinder of a car engine: Can we approximate gases in cylinder chamber as a uniform state?
Analysis approach: Closed system with moving boundary

Fuel/air mixture

Reaction

Combustion Products

Lessons from the Internet http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O9tfIfwlmz8&feature=related

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ENES232: Univ. of Maryland Prof. Greg Jackson

Concept of Pressure
Pressure, p, is a force per unit area normal to a surface. Any substance within a container pushes on the walls of the container. Pressure can also be measured at any location in a system by calculating the force normal to an imaginary wall at that location and assuming that there is a vacuum on the back side of the wall. In a gravitational field, pressure is associated with the weight of the fluid above a given plane. In such a case the equation for pressure can be written as
z

p(z ) = p(z0 ) z ' gdz'

For constant , this becomes
z z0

z0

p ( z ) = p ( z0 ) z' g dz ' = p ( z0 ) z' g ( z z0 )

This principle is used for the age-old instrument the manometer.
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ENES232: Univ. of Maryland Prof. Greg Jackson

Concept of Temperature
Temperature T is a property that measures the ability of a system to transfer random molecular motions (heat energy). It is related to the random kinetic energy stored in system molecules. An absolute temperature scale (also known as a thermodynamic scale) is used where when the random kinetic energy of molecules approaches zero as T 0. Absolute temperature scales Kelvin (K) and Rankine (R) This temperature scale can be shown to be proportional to the volume of an ideal gas at constant pressure. Two-point scales such as Celsius (C) and Fahrenheit (F) fix a zero point based on some physically observable phenomena such as the triple point of water or the boiling of water at 1 atm.

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ENES232: Univ. of Maryland Prof. Greg Jackson

Thermodynamic Equilibrium
A system is in thermodynamic equilibrium with itself and its surroundings if there are no internal or external driving forces leading the system to change property values. Temperature is related to thermodynamic equilibrium. Zeroth law of thermodynamics: If system A in equilibrium with system B and with system C, system B is in equilibrium with system C. Thermodynamic equilibrium includes mechanical equilibrium: Pressure is not changing in system due to a balance of all forces thermal equilibrium: Temperature is not changing in system due to a balance of heat fluxes. chemical equilibrium: concentrations of species are not changing in system due to a balance of reaction rates and diffusion. Equilibrium is always an approximation, but often a very good one.
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ENES232: Univ. of Maryland Prof. Greg Jackson

Thermodynamic Processes
Thermodynamic process is simply an event which transfers a system from one state to another. e.g. compression in a piston chamber e.g. electrochemical reaction in fuel cell e.g. melting of solder Equilibrium states are by definition independent of the path. Quasi-equilibrium is often assumed for analyzing processes. path of process passes through equilibrium states valid approximation even for many processes because molecules quickly equilibrate with surrounding molecules e.g., car engine compression stroke , power stroke Reversible process vs. irreversible process. A sequential grouping of processes that returns a system to its original state is called a thermodynamic cycle.
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ENES232: Univ. of Maryland Prof. Greg Jackson

Review - Definitions to Remember

Thermodynamic systems closed system: a system which allows no mass to cross its boundary; also called control mass isolated system: a system which allows no mass or heat to cross its boundary open system: a system which allows mass and heat to cross its boundary; often referred to as a control volume Intensive properties temperature: T, an intensive property that measures the ability of a system to transfer heat; related to random kinetic energy stored in molecules pressure: p, an intensive property equal to the average force normal to an area divided by that area (as area tends toward zero) specific volume: v = m3/kg = total volume / total mass = V/m V is the extensive property and v is the intensive property density: = kg/ m3 Remember: = 1/v

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ENES232: Univ. of Maryland Prof. Greg Jackson

Review - Definitions to Remember

Thermodynamic state (usually for systems assumed to be uniform) Macroscopic definition: collection of properties which uniquely defines the condition of the thermodynamic system Thermodynamic process Transfer of system from one state to another Thermodynamic equilibrium state of a system which has no tendency to change due to driving forces internally or from its surroundings Zeroth law of thermodynamic If system A in equilibrium with system B and with system C, system B is in equilibrium with system C. Quasi-equilibrium process Transfer of system from one state to another along a path defined by points of equilibrium. Assumption often made for analysis

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ENES232: Univ. of Maryland Prof. Greg Jackson