CIV301 Soil Mechanics Shear Strength Handout

CIV 301 Dr.
Reem Sabouni
Sour ce: J. Cernica, Geot echnical Engineer ing, Soil Mechanics, 1995. Page 1 of 18

Shear Strength of Soil

1. INTRODUCTION
In many soil mechanics problems, the shear strength of the soil emerges as one of its most
important characteristics. Indeed, this problem group may include:
1. Stability of slopes (e.g., hillsides, cuts, embankments, earth dams)
2. Ultimate bearing capacity of a soil
3. Lateral pressure against retaining walls, sheeting, or bracing
4. Friction developed by piles
Only a small number of construction problems are not in some manner related to the shear strength
of the soil.
The shear strength of the soil may be attributed to three basic components:
1. Frictional resistance to sliding between solid particles
2. Cohesion and adhesion between soil particles
3. Interlocking and bridging of solid particles to resist deformation
It is neither easy nor practical to clearly delineate the effects of these components on the shear
strength of the soil. This becomes more apparent when one relates these components to the many
variables that directly or indirectly influence them, not to mention the lack of homogeneity and
uniformity of the characteristics that typify most soil masses. For example, these components may
be influenced by changes in the moisture content, pore pressures, structural disturbance, fluctuation
in the groundwater
-
table; underground water movement, stress history, time, perhaps chemical
action, or environmental conditions.

There are a number of tests, both laboratory and field, that are used to obtain a
measure of the shear strength of a given soil. These are coupled with various theoretical
considerations. A combination of-the theoretical with the experimental efforts provides
the background and tools for the basic understanding of and dealing with many of the
phenomena related to the shear strength of the soils.

CIV 301 Dr. Reem Sabouni

2. BRIEF REVIEW OF SOME ELEMENTS FROM BASIC MECHANICS
With some appropriate modifications, many of the concepts used in some of the basic
mechanics courses can be employed to explain various phenomena in soils. In this
chapter we shall focus on the soil strength and some related parameters.
Fri cti on Between Sol i d Bodi es
A block of weight W is placed on a horizontal plane as shown in Fig. 1. The forces
acting on the block in. Fig. 1a are its gravity and the reaction of the plane. Although a
friction force is "available," it does not come into play since there is no horizontal
force applied to the block. Suppose now that a horizontal force, P
I
, is applied to the
block, as shown in Fig. 1b. If P
1
is small, the block will not move; the resultant, R
a
,
makes an angle, , commonly referred to as the angle of obliquity of force P
1
. For
equilibrium, a resisting horizontal force, F
1
, must therefore exist to balance P
1
. For this
case, the angle is less than the angle of friction denoted by . N is the component of
the weight normal to the plane.
If the applied horizontal force is increased to P2, as shown in Fig.1c, the friction
force also increases to a value of F2 It reaches a maximum value when the angle of
obliquity is equal to the angle of friction . One notes that at this point a state of
impending motion (slip) exists. For the range of values 0 < < no slip or sliding
occurs. At the point of impending motion, the maximum or available frictional force F could
be related to the normal resisting force by a coefficient
-
of friction as given by Eq. 1:

F = pN

(1)
The coefficient of friction is independent of the area of contact. It is, however, strongly
dependent on the nature of the surface in contactthe type of material, the condition of
the surface, and so on. Furthermore, in most materials the coefficient of static friction is
somewhat larger than the kinetic coefficient.


If the horizontal force is increased to a value of P3 as shown in Fig.1d, such that the
angle is greater than , the block will start sliding. The frictional force cannot exceed
the value given by F = N, and therefore the block will accelerate to the right.
A similar analogy is indicated in Fig.2. The block resting on a plane inclined at an
angle
1
will remain at rest provided the angle
1
is less than the friction angle, .

Figure 1 Development of friction on a horizontal plane. (a) No
friction. (b) Development of friction. (c) Friction, impending motion.
(d) Friction, motion (acceleration).

Figure 2 Development of friction on inclined plane. (a) Friction, no motion. (b)
Friction, impending motion. (c) Friction, motion (acceleration).

The frictional force F is only as large as necessary to balance the component of the
weight parallel to the plane. On a steeper slope, as indicated in Fig.2b, we have a case
of impending motion when the angle of the plane,
2
, equals the angle of friction, . It
is equal to the coefficient of friction times the normal force, as indicated by Eq. 10-1.
Finally, if the plane is inclined at an angle 3 that is greater than angle , the block
will start sliding. The maximum available frictional force is smaller than the
component of the weight parallel to the plane.
From either Fig.1c or Fig.2b, both conditions of impending motion, one notes that
tan =
F
N
= (2)

Although the frictional resistance in sands and other cohesionless granular materials resembles
that discussed above, there are some important differences. In such soils the frictional
resistance consists of both sliding and rolling friction, coupled with a certain degree of
interlocking of the solid particles. In addition, various other factors, such as degree of
saturation, particle size and shape, consistency, or intergranular pressure, have a pronounced effect
on the shear strength of the soil.


Stress at a Point
One may recall from mechanics that, in general, both normal and shear stresses act on planes
passing through a point in an element of mass that has been subjected to external loading. Figure
3 depicts these stresses on a small element containing point A, which is located within the mass
shown in Fig.3a. The stresses normal to a plane are designated by and those parallel to any
given plane by . Thus, nine components of stress define the state of stress at a point. If such
stresses on all possible planes through a point are investigated, three planes at right angles to each
other will be found to be subjected to normal stresses only, as shown in Fig.3c. These stresses, in
our case
l
,
2
, and
3
, are known as principal stresses, and the planes on which they act are
known as principal planes. Sometimes these planes are further defined as the major, the
intermediate, and the minor principal planes, tied to the magnitudes of the respective stresses
acting on them. Of course, such planes are at a different orientation from those shown in Fig.
10.3b since shear stresses do not exist on principal planes.
It is convenient, and in the case of soil studies usually sufficient, to illustrate some of the above-
mentioned relationships by considering the case of biaxial stresses, as shown in Fig.4. The element
in Fig.4b is an enlarged version of the element indicated in Fig.4a. As mentioned previously, the
general case of stress consists of both normal and shear stresses. Now let us assume the element
to be cut by a plane passing through m-n, and place the left segment in equilibrium, as shown
in Fig.4c. If the inclined plane is oriented degrees relative to the y axis, and if A
n

represents the area on the inclined plane, the areas of the vertical and horizontal faces of the
elements are A
n
cos and A
n
Sin , respectively. The components of these forces, parallel
and perpendicular to the m-n plane, are shown by the dashed lines. Summing the force in the
direction normal to the plane, we have

o
n
A
n
= o
x
(A
n
cos 0 ) cos 0 -
x
(A
n
cos 0 ) sin0 + o
(A
n
sin0 ) sin0
-
x
(A
n
sin0 ) cos 0


Figure 3 Stress at a point; case of triaxial stresses. (a) Point A in element of mass
subjected to load. (b) General state of stress at point A. (c) Principal stresses at point A.

which reduces to

o
n
= o
x
cos
2
0 + o
sin
2
0 - 2
x
sin0 cos 0

From the trigonometric identities,
cos
2
0 =
cos 2 +1
2
; cos 0 sin0 =
sin2
2
; sin
2
0 =
-cos 2 +1
2

Thus, after rearranging terms, in terms of double angles, the above equation becomes
o
n
= [
c
x
+c
j
2
+[
c
x
-c
j
2
cos 2 -
xy
sin2 (3)

Figure 4 Stresses at a point; case of biaxial stresses.

Summing forces in the direction parallel to the plane, we have

A
n
= o
x
(A
n
cos 0 ) sin0 +
x
(A
n
cos 0 ) cos 0 - o
(A
n
sin0 ) cos 0
-
x
(A
n
sin0 ) sin0
which reduces to

= (o
x
-o
) sin0 cos 0 +
x
(cos
2
0 - sin
2
0)
and, in terms of double angles,
= [
c
x
-c
j
2
sin2 +
xy
cos 2 (4)
The orientation of the principal plane is determined by setting the derivative d
/d=0. From
Eq.3,
-(o
x
-o
) sin20 -2
x
cos 2 = u

from which
x =
-
xy
(
x
-
y
)2

Mohr's Circle for Stress
The normal and shear stresses given by Eqs. 3 and 4, respectively, may be represented graphically by
an extremely useful device known as Mohr's circle for stress. It is named after the German
engineer Otto Mohr, who devised it in 1882. The Mohr circle represents these equations in a
manner that makes them more easily understood and remembered and brings out their physical
significance more lucidly.
It is a rather simple matter to show that these are the equations of a circle in
n
- plane. For
convenience, Eqs. 3 and 4 are rewritten below, Eq. 3 having been slightly rearranged:
o
n
- [
c
x
+c
j
2
= [
c
x
-c
j
2
cos 2 -
xy
sin2 (3)
= [
c
x
-c
j
2
sin2 +
xy
cos 2 (4)


Squaring both sides of each equation, we get
_o
n
-
o
x
+o
2
]
2
= [
o
x
- o
2

2
(cos 2)
2
-(o
x
- o
)(
xy
) cos 2sin2 +
xy
2
(sin2)
2

and
2
= [
o
x
- o
2

2
(sin2)
2
+ (o
x
- o
)(
xy
) cos 2sin2 +
xy
2
(cos 2)
2

Hence
.
, adding the two equations,
_o
n
-
o
x
+o
2
]
2
+
2
= [
o
x
- o
2

2
+
xy
2

This is the equation of a circle of the form
(o
n
- a)
2
+
2
= R
2

where the radius is

R =
_
[
o
x
- o
2

2
+
xy
2

and o =
c
x
+c
j
2
. The center of the circle lies at a point j
c
x
+c
j
2
, u[. Note that the center of the circle
always lies on the
n
axis.
The above discussion may be more meaningfully complemented and expanded

Figure 5 (a) General case of stress at a point. (b) Mohr circle for the stress condition in (a).
by an actual construction of a Mohr's circle. As a start, some basic steps shall be outlined:
1. The normal stresses are plotted as horizontal coordinates. The tensile stresses are considered
positive (plotted to the right of the origin); the compressive stresses are considered negative
(plotted to the left of the origin). However, in soil mechanics it is customary to indicate
compressive stresses as positive.
2. The shear stresses are plotted as vertical coordinates. Positive shear stresses
are plotted above the origin; negative shear stresses

are plotted below the origin.

3. Positive angles on the circle are obtained when measured in the counterclockwise sense;
negative angles on the circle are obtained in the clockwise sense. An angle of 2 on the circle
corresponds to an angle of on the element.
Figure 5b shows Mohr's circle for the assumed stresses given in Fig.5a at the stressed point,
assuming that
x
>
y
> 0. The normal and shear stresses on vertical plane P give the coordinates of
one point on the circle, as indicated in Fig.5b by point D. Plane R, also vertical and 180 from P,
is located at 2 = 360
on the circle from plane P, resulting in the same point on the circle.
Similarly, the stresses on horizontal planes Q and S plot a different single point E. This
shows that the stresses on parallel planes of an element oriented at any angle are corre-
spondingly equal. The point of intersection of a line DE connecting these two points and the
horizontal axis
n
gives the location of the center of the circle. The diameter of the circle is
the length of line DE.

Figure 6 Mohr's circle for case of principal stresses.

3


The circle proves to be indeed a valuable visual aid. For example, the maximum shear
stress is readily apparent to be equal to the radius of the circle. The orientation of this
stress with respect to the original plane can either be measured or easily calculated with
the help of trigonometry. The principal stresses
max
and
min
can likewise be spotted
and determined easily, and the orientation can easily be measured or calculated.
Furthermore, on the principal planes (at
max
and
min
) the shear stresses are zero.
Figure 7 shows a number of additional basic relationships; which can be obtained
from Mohr's circle, such as that for the element of Fig. 10.6.

Figure 7 Some basic relationships, Mohr's circle for element of Fig.6a.

Observed directly from Fig.7, some of these basic relationships are:
1. The maximum shear stress is equal to the radius of the circle. Furthermore, the
maximum shear stresses are on planes that make an angle of 45 with the principal
planes.
2. The resultant stress on any plane, e.g., S, has a magnitude of o
2
+
2
. Its magnitude is
equal to the distance 0S shown in Fig.7. Furthermore, its angle of obliquity is equal to
tan
-1
(
:
c
).
3. The maximum angle of obliquity is constructed by the line 0T in Fig.7, such that the
line is tangent to the circle at point T. Correspondingly, the stresses, normal and shear,
that correspond to point T on the circle, represent the stresses on the plane of maximum
obliquity. Note that the shear stress on this plane is less than
max
. Interestingly, one
notes that slippage occurs at the point of maximum obliquity and not at the angle
where
max
occurs. It is, therefore,
f
that assumes the more prominent position
regarding slip failure.

3 MOHR'S THEORY OF FAILURE
The shear strength of soil is generally regarded as the resistance to deformation by
continuous shear displacement of soil particles along surfaces of rupture. That is, the shear
strength of the soil is not regarded solely in terms of its ability to resist peak stresses, but it
must be viewed in the context of deformation that may govern its performance. In that light,
therefore, shear failure is necessarily viewed as the state of deformation when the functional
performance of the soil mass

is impaired.
There are a number of different theories as to the nature and extent of the state of stress
and deformation at the time of failure. Failure of a soil mass, particularly cohesionless soil,
which develops its strength primarily from solid frictional resistance between the
interlocking of grains, appears to be best explained by Mohr's rupture theory. According to
Mohr's theory, the shear stress in the plane of slip reaches at the limit a maximum value
that depends on the normal stress acting in the same planes and the properties of the
material. This represents the combination of normal and shear stresses, which results in a
maximum angle of obliquity
f
(see Fig.7).
Hence, based on Mohr's theory, the shear strength of a given soil is a function of the
normal stress and the soil properties (e.g., strength parameters c and ). For
cohesionless soils, for example, the angle of obliquity reaches a maximum or limiting
value
f
equal to the friction angle as, indicated in Fig.8. Hence, for this special case,
where the cohesion intercept is zero (c=0), the shear strength could be expressed as
s =
]
= o
]
ton ( 7 )
where s represents a convenient and widely used symbol to denote shear strength in soils.
One may note that for
f
> 0, the value for s is always less than
max
.
Figure 9a depicts a general s- relationship, while Fig.9b illustrates a linear s-
relationship. The linearity may not be quite correct (for example, see Fig.17), but is
reasonably accurate and mathematically quite convenient.

Figure 8 Relationship between shear strength, normal stress, and angle of obliquity .
Now let us assume that the function s = f () represents the shear strength of the soil at
impending failure. This may be represented by the heavy line in Fig.10, designated as
Mohr's envelope. Based on Mohr's theory, any combination of stresses that falls within this
envelope represents a stable condition. All five Mohr circles represented in Fig.10 fall in
this category. It is to be noted, however, that circles IIV are tangent to the Mohr
envelope, thereby depicting a condition of impending failure. The corresponding points of
tangency represent the resultant's shear and normal stresses for the respective angles of
obliquity. Also, the corresponding shear strengths for the various cases are the shear
stresses at the points of tangency. Circle V, on the other hand, is well within Mohr's
envelope. The maximum shear stress for this condition is below the shear strength of the
soil.
The friction angle decreases slightly in most soils, and particularly granular soils, with
increasing confining stresses. Hence, Mohr's envelope is slightly curved, a beast-fitted curve,
as indicated in Fig.10. However, the variation from a straight line in most instances is
relatively small. Thus, it is mathematically convenient to represent the Mohr envelope by
a straight line, sloped at an angle . This is shown in Fig.9b as first proposed by
Coulomb in 1776 in connection with his investigations of retaining walls.
Figure 11c shows a Mohr circle and the corresponding strength envelope for an
element stressed as shown in Fig.11a. For this case the expression for the

Figure 9 Shear strength according to (a) Mohr and (b)
Coulomb.
Mohr's envelope
Tension Compression s= f()

Figure 10 Mohr's circles for various cases of stress: I, simple tension; II, pure shear; III, simple
compression; IV and V, biaxial compression.


shear strength, s, may be given as
s = c + o ton (8)
where
c = cohesion or cohesion intercept
= angle of internal friction
Also from Fig.11c, the orientation of the failure plane with reference to the plane of major
principal stresses in a granular soil may be readily established as

Figure 11 (a) Element,
1
>
3
. (b) Normal and shear stresses on plane of failure. (c) Mohr's

circle for stress condition shown in (a) .
20
c
= 9u + or
0
c
= 4S
o
+

2

(9)
The normal and shear stresses on the plane of failure are shown in Fig.11 b.
Although it is difficult to measure it very accurately, pore-water pressure has long been
recognized as an important factor in shear-strength evaluation. Hvorslev's work
provided relevant data to support the use of effective stress parameters in describing the
shear strength of soils. Sometimes referred to as the Mohr-Coulomb-Hvorslev
equation, the relationship is
s = c' + o' ton ' (10)
Where
c= effect i ve cohesion val ue
= effective normal stress = -u
u = pore-water pressure
= effective angle of internal friction
Equation 10 does not imply, however, any unique relationship between effective stress and
shear strength. Many other factors enter into the picture. Void ratio at failure, time, stress
history, grain structure (i.e., flocculated or dispersed), environmental conditions (i.e., pore
water, water table fluctuation, temperature), degree of saturation, conditions that
formulate the formation of soil, capillary tension, and effective stresses in the direction
normal to the plane of greatest shear distortion are some of the factors that may have a
significant effect, particularly for clay soils.


4 DETERMINATION OF THE SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS
In the preceding section the strength envelope was developed primarily from theoretical
considerations. Little was said about the practical and the experimental aspects. That is,
while the theoretical presentation serves as a satisfactory tool in defining failure in soils,
its validity and usefulness must be closely tied to the parameters observed
experimentally and under field conditions. Indeed, to foundation designer the very
essence of the Mohr envelope is experimental data. The failure criteria for soils,
subsequent to due considerations of the related parameters, are usually determined
experimentally by one or a combination of the following laboratory tests:
1. Direct shear test
2. Triaxial compression test
3. Unconfined compression test
As a general comment the typical soil stratum is neither continuous, homogeneous, nor
isotropic. Hence, under the best of conditions, a limited number of tests give but a
rough approximation of the stratum characteristics. It is thus rather apparent that a
soil sample being tested should be as representative as possible of the sample in the
field, and as undisturbed as possible. Also, the loads, restraints, and other conditions
of testing should correspond to a reasonable degree to those in situ. Yet it is
recognized that the more act of obtaining a sample from a natural deposit radically
alters the state of stress and induced strains.

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