CA MERA MOVEMENTS Pan During a pan, the camera is aimed sideways along a straight line.

Note that the camera itself is not moving. It is often fixed on tripod, with the operator turning it either left or right. Panning is commonly utilized to capture images of moving objects like cars speeding or people walking; or to show sweeping vistas like an ocean or a cliff. One of the earliest and best appearances of panning was in Edwin S. Porters 1903 movie Life of An American Fireman. While the camera follows the fire brigade approaching their destination, the operator pans to reveal it a house burning. Remember: the best pans are used to reveal information. A smooth pan with be slow enough to allow the audience to observe the scenery. A fast pan will create blur, in which case it will be called a Swish pan. Newsgathering etiquette demands panning from left to right, as to allow the viewer to read any text that may be captured on camera, like headlines or marquises. Tilt Tilts refer to the up or down movement of the camera while the camera itself does not move. Tilts are often employed to reveal vertical objects like a building or a person. Dolly When the entire camera is moved forward or backward, this move is called dolly. If the camera is on tripod, the tripod will also be moved. Dollies are often used when recording a subject that moves away or toward the camera, in which case the goal would probably be keeping the subject at the same distance from the camera. For an optimal dolly, the camera should be mounted on a wheeled-platform, such as an actual dolly, or a shopping cart, depending on the budget. Moving the camera forward is called dolly in. Moving the camera backward is called dolly out. Track Tracking is similar to dolling. The main difference being that in dollies the camera is moved toward or away from the subject, whereas in a track shot, the camera is moved sideways, parallel to an object. Pedestal In a pedestal move, the camera body will physically be lowered or elevated. The difference between tilts and pedestals is that in the former, the camera lens is just being aimed up or down, whereas in the latter, the camera is being vertically moved. Zoom Despite a common misconception, the terms zoom and dolly are not interchangeable. With dollies, the camera is being moved in a physical space. With zooms, the camera remains at a constant position, but the lens magnify or minimize the size of the subject. Zooms happen at the push of a button. Zoom in refers to seemingly approaching the subject, thus making it look bigger in the frame. Zoom out refers to seemingly distancing the subject, thus making it look smaller. Note that zooms change focal length, thus affecting depth of field. Zoom in transforms the lens into telephoto, while zoom out changes it into wide-angle. Zooming is considered amateurish and is not preferred by professional. An interesting exception is the opening shot of The Conversation (1974), in which Francis Ford Coppola elects zoom to articulate the films themes of espionage or voyeurism. Note: Zooms are not really moves, for the camera doesnt change position. But, in film studies and filmmaking courses, they have been traditionally combined with real camera moves.

Dolly Counter Zoom A dolly counter zoom is a rare type of shot of great stylistic effect. To accomplish it, the camera must dolly closer or further away from the subject while the zoom is adjusted so the subjects size remains the same. Notably, Hitchcocks Vertigo (1958), Spielbergs Jaws(1975), and Scorseses Goodgellas (1990) used dolly counter zoom to demonstrate a characters uneasiness. Exposure In cinematography, exposure refers to the amount of light being captured by the camera. One of the most basic photographic principles, exposure is directly connected to the brightness and darkness of the image. An image is said to represent normal exposure when it is similar to what the eye sees. Overexposure happens when too much light is reflected into the camera, rendering an image that is brighter than normal exposure. Underexposure is the opposite: not much light enters the camera, thus creating a dark image.

Creating ideal exposure is often a cumbersome task because some factors are controllable, while others arent. If youre shooting under daylight, obviously you cannot turn off or dim the sun; ergo you must either adjust the camera settings to create the exposure desired or move to a different location. Another possibility is flagging sunlight. If you shoot in a studio, then you have absolute control over lights.

Notice that ideal exposure is subjective because exposure is a creative act, thus its properness depends on what is intended by the filmmaker. Underexposure, for instance, is often purposefully used in horror movies to provoke suspense or fright. Subtle overexposure is often used during dream sequences or flashbacks. Four factors regulate exposure: 1. Amount of light. The sun obviously produces more light than any light bulb known to men. If the camera produces an image that looks normal under bright sunlight, it will with the same settings produce underexposure in a scene lit by a dim tungsten bulb. 2. Aperture. The opening in the camera lens has the capability to block or admit light. The narrower the aperture, less light enters the camera, thus creating dark images. Read more 3. Shutter Speed. The plate located between the lens and the camera recording surface rotates at an adjustable speed and determines the time that each frame is exposed to light. Read more 4. Recording surface sensitivity. The imaging device is the part of the camera that is hit by light. In a video camera, the recording surface is a CCD chip, where the image is first created. In a film camera, the

recording surface is the actual film stock. When the CCD chip or film stock is sensitive to light, then they are more likely to produce bright images with small amount of light. Controlling these factors is absolutely fundamental to create optimum photographic imagery. Camera Angles Whereas shot sizes direct who and what we see, camera angles affect how we perceive it. Is a character going to appear dominant and tall? Or short and weak? A strong weapon in the cinematographers arsenal is the ability to position the camera in relation to the subject or scenery. Eyelevel Angle An eyelevel angle is the one in which the camera is placed at the subjects height, so if the actor is looking at the lens, he wouldnt have to look up or down. Eyelevel shots are incredibly common because they are neutral. They often have no dramatic power whatsoever, thus they are ideal for romantic comedies and news casting.

Low Angle Low angles are captured from a camera placed below the actors eyes, looking up at them. Low angles make characters look dominant, aggressive, or ominous.

High Angle In a high angle, the camera is above the subject, looking down. This position makes characters look weak, submissive, or frightened. They are also good POVs of an adult looking at a child:

Dutch Tilt Also called canted angle, a Dutch tilt has the camera leaning sideways, transforming the horizon into a slope. A Dutch tilt changes horizontal and vertical lines into diagonals and creates a more dynamic composition. Though rare, canted angles can be employed with great artistic effect to disorient and disturb the viewer.

Point-of-View (POV) As the name suggests, point-of-view shots are angles in which the camera incorporates a characters eyes. POVs are usually preceded by a close-up of the characters eyes.

The Aperture (Iris) The word aperture means opening. In the world of cinematography, this opening is located in the camera, more specifically on the lens. The size of the aperture is regulated by the lens diaphragm, which opens to admit light and closes to block it. The figure to the right shows the diaphragm, which is formed by several blades that leave a circular hole in the center the aperture. When the camera is in auto mode, the diaphragm achieves a certain level of autonomy (self-control) and behaves according to the cameras sensors, which determines the amount of light entering the lens. In auto mode, the camera uses its built-in reflected light meter to average the quantity of light falling on the subject in frame. If too much light is reaching the subject, causing the image to beoverexposed or washed out, the aperture closes to shield some of the light. When this happens, the image darkens and exposure is corrected according to the cameras judgment. F-Stops

The size of the aperture is measured in f-stops. In technical terms, the f-number is the focal length divided by the diameter of the aperture. The figure to the right shows the same lens open to two different f-stops. In the top picture, the f-stop is 2.8. In the bottom picture, the f-stop is 16. Ergo, the greater the f-stop number, smaller the aperture is, resulting in less light entering the lens and the production of dark images. Conversely, the smaller the f-stop number, bigger the aperture is, meaning more light admitted through the lens and the production of bright images. Also note that the variation from f/2.8 to f/16 is quite drastic. In the figure, several f-stops were skipped to better illustrate the point. Between f/2.8 and f/16, there are four whole stops, as the f-stop scale below demonstrates:

The f-stop scale can begin at f/1 (the widest possible for most cameras) and end at f/32. Most video or film cameras, however, dont go that narrow; though some still cameras can stop down all the way to f/64 and beyond. Also note the scale above only shows full stops, disregarding fractional stops that exist between one full stop and the next. Whole stops are important because they represent the admittance or blockage of half or double the light. For instance: f/1 lets in twice as much light as f/1.4. Likewise, f/1.4 lets in twice as much light as f/2. On the other hand, f/16 lets in half as much light as f/11. And f/5.6 lets in half as much light as f/4. And so on. Aperture and Depth of Field The aperture has a major role in determining not focus per se, but depth of field. The greater the f-stop number, the deeper the depth of the field is, meaning that more objects are likely to be sharp in frame. Likewise, the smaller the f-stop number, the shallower the depth of field is. The diagram below demonstrates the relationship between aperture and depth of field. Assume that the camera is on the left side of the image, where lens and aperture readings are located.

The area in red represents whats in sharp focus. With a 100mm lens, the plain of critical focus is at 4 meters (approximately 13 feet) from the camera. Observe the variation as the f-stop number increases. To illustrate, consider the following example. The photo below was taken with the aperture at f/2 :

Note that the background is in soft focus and not much detail can be recoderd. Only the lenses in the front and intermediate grounds can be identified. Now, the following photo was taken with the aperture at f/11 and the very same settings (aside from the shutter speed, adjusted to keep decent exposure.)

Compare both pictures. In the second, we have far more detail on the background, which seems to contain a VCR deck with VHS tapes on it. The object on the right-hand side looks like a helmet. On the left there is a bag. The Language of Cinematography The forward slash or dash is silent when the f-stop is said. F/16 would be read as f sixteen. F/2.8 would be read as f two point eight. The word iris and aperture are interchangeable. However, you could be asked to do an iris rack, while you probably will never hear someone say aperture rack. When the DP wants you to close the aperture, he may ask you to stop down. If the DP wants you to open the iris, he may simply say open up. Theres no such thing as stop up. Shutter Speed In film and video cameras, the shutter is a plate located between the lens and the film stock or CCD chip. This plate has an opening that blocks and admits light at variable speeds according to the camera settings. The shutter speed is measured in fractions of second. 1/50 (0.02 second) is the standard shutter speed for film cameras, while for video cameras the standard is 1/60 (0.167 second). Exposure Shutter speed determines the length that each frame is exposed to light, which, like the f-stop, affects the image overall exposure. The more a frame is exposed to light (when slow shutter speed is used) the brighter the image will be because light hits the each frame for a longer period of time. Conversely, the less a frame is exposed to light (when fast shutter speed is used) the darker the image will look. While shutter speed is often non-adjustable in film cameras, video cameras offer a wide range of shutter speed options starting at 1/30 (slow, producing bright images) and going all the way to 1/4000 (fast, producing dark images).

Motion Blur Besides affecting exposure, shutter speed also determines the prominence of motion blur. Motion blur happens when an object in movement leaves a blur in the frame (or a series of frames). The blur is more pronounced during freeze frames and slow motions. Note that on the example that follows the aperture was adjusted so that exposure would be consistent throughout. In the pictures below, the windflower is rotating at the same speed, but the motion blur varies in each picture because of the different shutter speed. Compare:

Shutter speed: 1/60

Shutter speed: 1/250

Shutter speed: 1/4000 Still Photography Although shutter speed references the same feature in still photography, the results can be quite different when compared to video making. This happens because still cameras print the image in only one frame every time you press the shutter button. And the frame doesnt change like in a film camera. Therefore, in still cameras, you can leave the shutter open for more than one second while letting the image be recorded throughout. Observe:

The photograph above was taken with the shutter open for 20 seconds, thus moving vehicles leave a trail. Also, note that the picture was captured at night, not day. But, as explained above, the longer the shutter speed, the brighter the image turns out; hence with a 20-second shutter speed, nighttime looks more like afternoon in a shaded street.