Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Jian Cao
Department of Mechanical Engineering Northwestern University jcao@northwestern.edu www.mech.northwestern.edu/fac/cao
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Micro-Forming
Nexus Market Report for MEMS & Microsystems for 2005-2009
$12 billion market in 2004 $25 billion market in 2009 16% growth rate over the next five years
Micro-Hydroforming
Reference: Tekniker
Statistical Analysis
Materials
Analysis/ Simulation
Press
Sensors
Part/Tooling Design
Process Parameters
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Content
Macro-forming Micro-forming
Part 1: Fundamentals
Material Microstructure Mechanical Properties
Part 2: Challenges
Size effect in material properties Size effect in frictional behavior
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Macro-Metal Forming
Forming is a process in which tooling plastically deforms the incoming metal into the desired form.
Basic Types:
Sheet Forming Bulk Forming
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Macro-Metal Forming
Sheet Forming
Sheet metal undergoes plastic deformation No significant changes in thickness occur, typically < 40% for steel alloys and < 20% for aluminum alloys
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Macro-Metal Forming
Bulk Forming
Workpieces with relatively low surface area to volume ratios are plastically deformed Thickness and cross sectional area are greatly affected
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Macro-Metal Forming
Advantages:
Energy and material savings Little to no scrap is produced Parts are created quickly High reliability Better mechanical properties due to strain hardening
Disadvantage:
Tool cost is high
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Bulk Forming
Rolling Extrusion Forging
Hydroforming
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Shearing Operations
Figure 16.4 (a) Punching (piercing) and blanking. (b) Examples of various die-cutting operations on sheet metal.
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Shearing
Figure 16.3 (a) Effect of the clearance, c, between punch and die on the deformation zone in shearing. As the clearance increases, the material tends to be pulled into the die rather than be sheared. In practice, clearances usually range between 2 and 10% of the thickness of the sheet. (b) Microhardness (HV) contours for a 6.4-mm (0.25-in.) thick AISI 1020 hotrolled steel in the sheared region. Source: After H.P Weaver and K.J. Weinmann.
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Shearing
- Process of cutting thin materials with dies or blades
1. Sheet metal is placed between a stationary lower cutting edge and a movable upper cutting blade.
down on the sheet, the blades penetrate the material until the shear strength is reached.
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Shearing
Limitations
Sheet thickness 50 mm Burr Formation
Present on both sheared piece and original sheet
Tolerance
0.4 mm for 1.5 mm sheet thickness
Tolerance increases with sheet thickness
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Figure 16.5 (a) Comparison of sheared edges produced by conventional (left) and by fine-blanking (right) techniques. (b) Schematic illustration of one setup for fine blanking. Source: Courtesy of Feintool U.S. Operations.
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Burr Formation
Clearance between cutting edges
Excessive clearance
Leads to extreme plastic deformation Causes large burrs
Insufficient clearance
Two fracture lines do not meet during deformation, causing secondary shear
Reference: ASM Handbook 14B
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Burr Formation
Affected by:
Material thickness
Burrs decrease with thickness
Material hardness
Softer metals produce larger burrs
Burr Formation
No formulas/tables exist for optimum clearance dimensions
Consult tables with recommended values Trial and error
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Burr Formation
Cutting Angle
The angle at which the material is cut is critical to burr formation. For a 20 cutting angle, it is possible to achieve almost no burr formation. Large clearances and extremely dull blades have little effect.
Reference: Li, M.
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Punching Limitations
Hole size
Limited by sheet material strength and thickness = 4 * * (T/D)
= punch stress = maximum shear stress of sheet metal T = sheet thickness D = punch diameter
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Sheet Distortion
Holes should be placed at least 2*T away from the sheet edge
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Drawing
A process in which flat sheet metal blank is pressed into a die cavity by a punch. Generally called deep drawing.
Figure 16.11 Schematic illustrations: (a) before and (b) after blanking a common washer in a compound die. Note the separate movements of the die (for blanking) and the punch (for punching the hole in the washer). (c) Schematic illustration of making a washer in a progressive die. (d) Forming of the top piece of an aerosol spray can in a progressive die. Note that the part is attached to the strip until the last operation is completed.
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Relationship between Average Normal Anisotropy and the Limiting Drawing Ratio
LDR = = Do Dp Maximum blank diameter Punch diameter
Figure 16.34 The relationship between average normal anisotropy and the limiting drawing ratio for various sheet metals. Source: After M. Atkinson.
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Figure 16.33 Strains on a tensile-test specimen removed form a piece of sheet metal. These strains are used in determining the normal and planar anisotropy of the sheet metal.
Al 3003
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Bending
Minimum bend radius
Springback
Ri R Y = 4 i ET Rf
R Y + 1 3 i ET
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Bulk Forming
Rolling Extrusion Forging
Hydroforming
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Bulk Forming
Rolling Rolls impart a pressure to a material to change its shape or thickness.
Extrusion A punch applies a force to plastically deform a billet into a new geometry
Roll Forging
Reference: ASM Handbook 14A
Play-Doh Extrusion
Reference: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrusion
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Rolling
Flat/Bar Rolling
Two work rolls squeeze the material to the desired thickness. Performs deformation very quickly. Used for railroad tracks, automobiles, sheet rolling.
Flat/Bar Rolling
Reference: http://www.ganoksin.com/borisat/nen am/metal-rolling-n-drawing.htm
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Rolling
Shape Rolling
Two work rolls squeeze the material to deform it to the desired geometry. Used to produce beams, columns, etc.
Shape Rolling
Reference: ASM Handbook 14A
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Rolling
Roll Forging
Two rolls with impressions press the heated metal to lengthen it and form the geometry. Air plane propeller-blades, tapered axle shafts, tableknives, hand shovels and spades are common examples.
Roll Forging
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Drawbacks
High loads required Limited deformation possible Limited shape complexity
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Cold Extrusion
Forward Extrusion
Material flows in the same direction as the punch. Useful in shaft formation.
Backward Extrusion
Material flows in the direction opposite to the punch. Forms cup-like shapes.
Lateral Extrusion
Material flows perpendicular to the punch.
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Ram pressure in relation to tensile strength of steel for various extrusion ratios. (Forward Extrusion)
Reference: ASM Handbook 14A
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Chevron Cracking
Figure 15.16 (a) Chevron cracking (central burst) in extruded round steel bars. Unless the products are inspected, such internal defects may remain undetected and later cause failure of the parts in service. This defect can also develop in the drawing of rod, of wire, and of tubes. (b) Schematic illustration of rigid and plastic zones in extrusion. The tendency toward chevron cracking increases if the two plastic zones do not meet. Note that the plastic zone can be made larger either by decreasing the die angle or by increasing the reduction in cross-section (or both). Source: After B. Avitzur.
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Ram pressure in relation to tensile strength of steel for various extrusion ratios. (Backward Extrusion)
Reference: ASM Handbook 14A
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Figure 14.9 Comparison of closed-die forging with flash (left side of each illustration) and precision or flashless forging (right side) of a round billet. Source After H. Takemasu, V. Vazquez, B. Painter, and T. Altan.
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Bulk Forming
Rolling Extrusion Forging
Hydroforming
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Hydroforming
Process in which fluid under pressure is used to deform material
Hydroforming sheet metal Hydroforming tubes
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Sheet Hydroforming
1. 2.
3. 4.
The material is placed on the blankholder. The pressure dome, filled with pressurized fluid, is placed over the material and hydraulic pressure is applied. Fluid pressure increases as the punch is raised into the cavity. The fluid pressure causes the material to deform to the punch geometry.
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Tube Hydroforming
1. Dies with the desired geometry are prepared. 2. A tube section is inserted into the dies. 3. The ends of the dies are sealed around the tube.
5.
Reference: http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phasetrans/2006/hydroforming.html
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Statistical Analysis
Materials
Analysis/ Simulation
Press
Sensors
Part/Tooling Design
Process Parameters
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Content
Macro-forming Micro-forming
Part 1: Fundamentals
Material Microstructure Mechanical Properties
Part 2: Challenges
Size effect in material properties Size effect in frictional behavior
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Melting Points
Melting point correlates well with the Youngs modulus and the coefficient of thermal expansion. Hosford: Physical Metallurgy, 2005
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Pole Figure
A pole figure is a graphical representation of the orientation of objects in space. For example, pole figures in the form of stereographic projections are used to represent the orientation distribution of crystallographic lattice planes in crystallography and texture analysis in materials science.
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Miller Indices
Notations in a Cubic
[lmn] a direction (lmn) planes orthogonal to a direction [lmn] {lmn} - all planes that are equivalent to (lmn) by the symmetry of the crystal <lmn> - all directions that are equivalent to [lmn] by symmetry
Stereographic Projection
z
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Texture
Texture is the distribution of crystallographic orientations of a sample. Texture can be determined by X-ray diffraction, or the EBSD-method (electron backscatter diffraction) in Scanning Electron Microscopes, or neutron diffraction.
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Texture
Pole figure of cold rolled and recrystallized brass. It shows a very strong crystallographic texture. [Beck and Hu]
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Texture - Copper
Left (after thermal annealing) : no texture Right (cold working): cubic texture From the axe with the 5300-year-old mummy of the Iceman Neuron for Science www.ill.fr
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c =
c cos cos
c = critical axial stress c = critical resolved shear stress = angle that the slip plane normal n makes with the loading axis = angle that the slip direction s makes with the loading axis cos cos = Schmid factor
Slip plane and slip direction
Ref. Khan & Huang (1995) Continuum Theory of Plasticity
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c =
1 2
Stage I: Hardening rate is low (easy glide region) Stage II: Much higher hardening process Stage III: Characterizing a decreased hardening rate Several conditions that decide whether a particular stage will occur: orientation of the crystals, purity, temperature during deformation, material, grain size, surface condition, strain rate
c- curve
Ref. Khan & Huang (1995) Continuum Theory of Plasticity
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L ( L / 2) b Lb = = L ad
c = KG
b L
1/ 2
Where, L = dimension of the crystal or the distance to the boundary b = magnitude of Burgers vector = average dislocation density = 2/ad G = shear modulus K = proportionality factor
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FCC
z [001]
y [010] x [100]
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Suppose that all the slip systems have the same initial critical stress, c If the loading axis is within any one of the triangles, only one slip system will operate, called single-slip It is possible that more than two slip systems can be operative at the same time, called multislip
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Single and Multi Slip Systems for Rigid Plasticity Models Single Slip
According to Taylors minimum principle, the active slip systems in single slip can be determined as shown below, Where () is the resolved stress-resolved strain or slip curve and also m is independent of the amount of strain
1 = = =m cos cos = m ( ) = m (m )
Multi Slip
Consider the general case where the deformation rate is arbitrarily given Due to the incompressibility, the number of independent components of the deformation rate is five and the relations can be seen in the reference (Khan & Huang, pp. 387) The valid combination of shear rates is the one for which the sum of their absolute values is minimum, satisfying Taylors minimum work principle
Ref. Khan & Huang (1995) Continuum Theory of Plasticity
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Higher
on secondary system
Slip systems are hardened by slip on slip on other systems latent hardening
Ref. Khan & Huang (1995) Continuum Theory of Plasticity
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Continuum Mechanics
Indicial notation
A vector is denoted in indicial notation by xi, where the range of the index is the number of dimensions Indices repeated twice in a term are summed For example in three dimensions
xixi = x1x1 + x2x2 + x3x3
Tensor notation
The indices are not shown The symbol : denotes the contraction of a pair of repeated indices which appear in the same order For example, A:B = AijBij
Ref. Belytschko, T., Liu, W., and Moran, B. (2005) Nonlinear Finite Elements for Continua and Structures
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Motion
xi = i (X, t )
Deformation gradient x Fij = i X j
ui = i (X j , t ) X i
Ref. Belytschko, T., Liu, W., and Moran, B. (2005) Nonlinear Finite Elements for Continua and Structures)
Velocity gradient
L= v v , Lij = i x x j
Cauchy stress
n d = df = td
Rate of deformation
D=
Spin
1 L + LT 2
) )
Nominal Stress
n 0 Pd0 = df = t 0 d0
Where t is the traction
W=
1 L LT 2
Jaumann rate
J =
D W WT Dt
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Ref. Belytschko, T., Liu, W., and Moran, B. (2005) Nonlinear Finite Elements for Continua and Structures
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dx = F dX dp = F P dX
u p = s0 n0 X F p = I + s0 n0
Where, x = current coordinate X = initial coordinates F = deformation gradient dp = corresponding infinitesimal line element after deformation up = displacement caused by plastic flow p = shear strain n = slip normal s = slip direction
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D = D + P
e
=1
n
W =W +
e
=1
s = F e s0 , n = n0 F e
( )
e
s = L s , n = n L
e
Where, L = velocity gradient Le = elastic velocity gradient D = deformation rate De = elastic deformation rate W = spin tensor We = elastic spin tensor
and
1 s 0 n0 + n0 s0 2 1 = s 0 n0 n0 s0 0 2 P0 =
) )
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= C ep : D
C ep = C I C : P + g P : [C I ]
1 n n
=1 =1
=
g = h + P : C : P
Where, = Jaumann rate of Cauchy stress C = fourth-order tensor of elastic moduli h = hardening modulus matrix characterizing the material behavior of the crystalline solids
Ref. Khan & Huang (1995) Continuum Theory of Plasticity
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d = h d
Observations 1. Latent hardening rate >> self-hardening rate 2. Hardening rate of primary system < hardening rate of slip systems to primary system 3. Other intersection slip systems harden at the highest rate Other hardening models 1. Taylor 2. Nakada and Keh 3. Hayer and Shalaby 4. Pierce, Asaro, and Needleman 5. Weng
Note: See reference for more details
Ref. Khan & Huang (1995) Continuum Theory of Plasticity
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The relation between the increment of the axial stress and axial strain is
= D
Where is the unit vector in the loading direction
Ref. Khan & Huang (1995) Continuum Theory of Plasticity
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Polycrystal Plasticity
An aggregate of a great number of single-crystal grains with different orientations
Determination of slip systems
Equivalent stress = initial yield stress Most metals, Initial yield stress is 2 or 3 orders less than E
Material behavior
D = D P = P
=1
Ref. Khan & Huang (1995) Continuum Theory of Plasticity
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Where,
=1 c =1 c* *
The slip systems are assumed to harden at the same rate Taylors minimum principle is used to determine the combination of slip systems that will occur when a prescribed deformation rate is forced on a crystal by an external energy
Ref. Khan & Huang (1995) Continuum Theory of Plasticity
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Content
Macro-forming Micro-forming
Part 1: Fundamentals
Material Microstructure Mechanical Properties
Part 2: Challenges
Size effect in material properties Size effect in frictional behavior
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( ) = K ( ) n
Zinc is cheaper than copper. Zinc lowers the melting temperature. Zinc raises the tensile strength. Zinc increases the strain hardening ( ) = K ( ) n , better coefficient, n in formability. A typical n value varies from 0.4 in pure copper to 0.6 in 65-35 copper zinc alloy. The n value also depends on the grain size.
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Zinc Effect
The increase of tensile strength with increasing zinc. The tensile strength is also increased by a finer grain.
Exp. Hall-Petch
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Exp. Hall-Petch
Hall-Petch S ~ d-1/2
Grain size d
Technical University of Eindhoven
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Compression tested UNS12000 copper cylinders. d is the grain size and D is the sample diameter (5 mm). A lack of grain size effect on strength is evident. (MIRDC)
.
Tsai, M. -C., Y. -A. Chen, C. -F. Wu, F. -K. Chen. 2004. Size effect in micro-metal forming of copper and brass. Forging, 13:2, 41-46 [in Chinese with English abstract].
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300
250
.
200 200 250 300 350 400 Experimental Stress (MPa)
F. Vollertsen, Z. Hu, H. Schulze Niehoff, C. Theiler, State of the art in micro forming and investigations into micro deep drawing, JMPT. 151 (2004) 7079.
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Raulea, L.V., Goijaerts, A.M., Govaert, L.E. and Baaijens, F.P.T., Size effects in the processing of thin metal sheets, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 115 (2001), 44-48. Uniaxial tension tests and bending experiments to investigate the effect grain size and specimen size for Aluminum.
Bending Experiments
Thickness to grain size ratio Two distinct regions: Multiple grains over thickness: Hall-Petch effect Single grain over thickness: reversed trend, increased scatter
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Michel, J.F. and Picart, P., Size effects on the constitutive behavior for brass in sheet metal forming, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 141 (2003), 439-446.
Tensile tests and hydraulic bulge tests for brass. New proposed model for flow stress curves
Tensile Tests
Proposed Model:
(F = Corrective factor, = sheet thickness)
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Grain Size
Measurement of grain size uses ASTM Standard Mean Lineal Intercept Method (Heyn) draw lines randomly with respect to the microstructure count the number of intersections per length (N) 70/30 Brass an alloy widely used for tubes, sheets and wires.
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Punching
Punch forces do not decrease with size Miniature punches must withstand very high forces to puncture the material
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Laser-Assisted Micro-forming
Jens P. Wulfsberg, Sven-Eric Hilpert, Andreas Ostendorf, Christian J. Kulik, Thorsten Temme, and Katja Samm, Sapphire tools for laser-assisted microforming, Fourth International Symposium on Laser Precision Microfabrication, Vol. 5063, pp. 172-176
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Heat-Assisted Micro-Embossing
Ni, Jun et al. (2006), Micro/meso-scale Manufacturing and Applications, ICFDM 2006
Micro-machining Micro-forming (heat assisted) semi-solid forming for micro-reactor mass production Energy device
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Micro-Sheet Forming
Saotome, Y. and Okamoto, T., An in-situ incremental forming system for three dimensional shell structures of foil materials, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 113 (2001), 636-640.
SEM micrograph of deformed specimen (a car body) fabricated using 10 m aluminum sheet.
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Micro-Sheet Forming
Saotome, Y. Yasuda, K, Kaga, H., Microdeep drawability of very thin sheet steels, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 113 (2001), 641-647.
Material: low carbon steel Thickness: 0.05, 0.10, 0.20 and 1.00 mm Material mechanical properties were reported for each thickness. Different die radii and punch diameters were used in the experiments. Grain sizes were not reported. Lubricant and surface condition were not reported. Experimental results were compared to the calculated punch force based on the macro-deep drawing of sheet metals. Results of the comparison are shown in the figure.
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Micro-Sheet Forming
Vollersten, F., Hu, Z., Schulze Niehoff, H. and Theiler, C. (2004), State of the art in microforming and investigations into micro deep drawing, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 151, 70-79.
Review of microforming technology and research. Experimental investigations of micro deep-drawing.
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Micro-Bending
Anisotropy Springback Electronics industry Force size effect
N Matsushita (2003) Laser bending, SPIE Vol. 5063 2003
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Micro-Punching
Joo, B.Y., Oh, S.L. (2001) Development of micro punching system, CIRP, Vol. 50(1), pp. 191-194. (see right) 100 micron meter hole Sang Min Yi, Byung Yun Joo, Min Soo Park, Chong Nam Chu, SooIk Oh (2006) Mechanical punching of 15 m size hole, Microsystem Technologies, Vol. 12(9), 877-882, 15 m hole, 13 m thick, brass & stainless steel foil.
Ike, H., Microforming of cavities for direct-marking of twodimensional barcode symbols, ESAFORM 2006
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Qin, Yi, Proc. Of ESAFORM 2006, April, Glasgow, 2006 Multi-station Univ. of Strathclyde (U.K.), Tekniker (Spain), Gammastamp SpA (Italy), Pascoe Engineering (U.K.)
Micro-Extrusion
Geiger, M., Kleiner, M., Eckstein, R., Tiesler, N. and Engel, U., Microforming, Keynote Paper, Annals of the CIRP, 50-2 (2001), 445-462.
Material: CuZn15
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Micro-Extrusion
Saotome, Y. and Iwazaki, H., Superplastic backward microextrusion of microparts for micro-electro-mechanical systems, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 119 (2001), 307-311. Microgear shafts of dia. 200 m.
Microgear shaft made from Al-78Zn superplastic alloy. Pitch circle dia. = 200 m
Micro-Extrusion Equipment
Arentoft, M. and Padan, N.A., Production equipment for manufacturing of micro metal components, Proc. Of ESAFORM 2006, April, Glasgow, 2006, 579-582.
Sub-millimeters in diameter A few microns in geometrical accuracy IPU (Denmark), Pascoe Engineering (Scotland) and IPK (Germany)
High-speed Micro-press
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Micro-Extrusion Equipment
Cao, J., Krishnan, N., Wang, Z., Lu, H., Liu, W.K., Swanson, A. (2004) Microforming Experimental investigation of the extrusion process for micropins and its numerical simulation using RKEM, ASME Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, Vol. 126, pp. 642652.
1st generation NU micro-press Load capacity: 10kN Max. ram speed: 0.18 mm/sec Linear bearing
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Micro-Extrusion Equipment
Ehmann, K., Krishnan, N. and Cao, J (2006)
210 mm
405 mm
150 mm
Assembled Micro-extruder 2nd generation NU micro-press with sub-assembly, actuator and support frame Load capacity: 19 kN (up to 100mm/sec) Max. ram speed: 230 mm/sec Electro-mechanical actuator
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0
3
pf = 2
0
3
0 = flow stress of the material f ( )= geometric factor (equal to 1.00625 for =30) = semi-cone angle of the die, L = billet length, r0 = billet radius, m3, m4 = friction factors along the die surface and container surface.
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Where, Pf = 2r0 Lm4 0 3 p = extrusion force, pi = force required for internal homogeneous deformation , 0 = flow stress of the material ps = force required for shear f ( )= geometric factor (equal to 1.00625 for =30) = semi-cone angle of the die, deformation L = billet length, psf = force required to overcome r0 = billet radius, friction along the die surface pf = force required to overcome friction m3, m4 = friction factors along the die surface and container surface. along the container surface
Ref. Altan, T., Oh, S. and Gegel, L.H. (1983) Metal Forming: Fundamentals and Applications
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Friction depends on
Surface roughness of the contact pair Material pair Contact pressure Lubricant Temperature
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Stribeck Curve
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Friction in Micro-extrusion
Geiger, M., Kleiner, M., Eckstein, R., Tiesler, N. and Engel, U., Microforming, Keynote Paper, Annals of the CIRP, 50-2 (2001), 445-462.
Forward rod backward can extrusion of CuZn15 specimens from 0.5 to 4 mm with different grain size (4 m and 120 m). Double Cup Extrusion
Specimens with grainsize bigger than cup thickness resist cup formation
Shape of the rim is irregular because grains of different size and orientation have to pass through a clearance between die and punch which is much smaller than the mean grain size.
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Friction in micro-extrusion
Tiesler, N. and Engel, U., Microforming Effects of miniaturization, Metal forming 2000, ISBN: 90 5809 1570, pp.355-360.
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Friction in micro-sheetforming
Vollersten, F., Hu, Z., Schulze Niehoff, H. and Theiler, C. (2004), State of the art in microforming and investigations into micro deep drawing, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 151, 70-79.
Friction coefficient in microforming is great than that in macro-forming. They showed that with the increasing of lubrication the friction force decreases, but the decreasing in micro forming is significant higher than that in macro forming. Friction coefficient decreases when the contact pressure increases. (with lubricant)
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Friction in micro-ring_compression
A. Messner, U. Engel, R. Kals and F. Vollertsen (1994), SIZE EFFECT IN THE FESIMULATION OF MICRO-FORMING PROCESSES, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 45 (1994) 371-376.
Grain size: 47 m and 79 m. Material: CuZn15 Specimen size: 1.0, 2.0, 4.8mm no significant dependency between friction behaviou and specimen dimension.
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CuZn30 billets with varying grain size Segmented Dies Forming assembly
Loading stage with forming assembly mounted. Force-displacement response for microextrusion
* Cao, J., Krishnan, N., Wang, Z., Lu, H., Liu, W.K., Swanson, A., (2004) Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, Vol.126, pp. 642-652. Northwestern University
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5 32 micron (1) 4 Ram force (kN) 3 2 1 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 Ram displacement (mm) 32 micron (2) 32 micron (3)
First set of results for each case is lower than other tests
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5 32 micron (1)87 micron (1) 32 micron (2)87 micron (2) 4 32 micron (3)87 micron (3) Ram force (kN) 3 2 1 0 0.5 0
1 0.5
3 2.5
First set of results for each case is lower than other tests
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3 2 1 0 0.5 0
5 5 32 micron (1)87 micron (1) 200 micron 32 micron (2)87 micron (2) 200 micron (2) 4 4 32 micron (3)87 micron (3) 200 micron (3)
3 2 1
0 1 0.5 0
1.5 1 2 1.5 2.5 2 3 2.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 Ram displacement displacement (mm) Ram (mm) Ram displacement (mm)
2.5 3
First set of results for each case is lower than other tests
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1.5mm region
3
Surface Roughness (microns)
Ra Rq
32
1
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1.5mm region
Surface Roughness (microns)
1.0mm region
3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5
Ra Rq
Ra Rq
3
Surface Roughness (microns)
32
32
1
10
Test Number
Surface roughness decreases during initial tests and then remains approximately the same
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FEM simulations
Mesh: 3600 2D axisymmetric reduced-integration elements (CAX4R) with the adaptive meshing. Die and container surfaces are modeled as rigid analytical solids. Young's modulus E=5429MPa, a Poisson's ratio =0.34, a von-Mises yield surface and isotropic hardening. Plastic behavior of the material is modeled using the power law where the strength coefficient K=379 MPa and the strain hardening exponent n=0.49.
500 True Stress (MPa) 400 300
1.3 mm (6 grains)
Deformed mesh and contour plot for equivalent plastic strain at a friction coefficient of 0.1 (2.00 : 1.33 mm case)
0.3
0.4
True Strain True stress v/s True strain (211 micron grain size)
1
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Tensile test results for 211 micron grain size material with samples of varying cross-section.
Friction Coefficient
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Extruded pins obtained from experiments using the four different dies, (a) 0.76:0.57 mm die, (b) 1.50:1.00 mm die, (c) 1.75:1.17 mm die, (d) 2.00:1.33 mm die.
Die Geometry 0.76 : 0.57 mm 1.50 : 1.00 mm 1.75 : 1.17 mm 2.00 : 1.33 mm
0.15
0.1
0.05
Difference in predictions is apparent at smaller extrusion ratios. Force comparisons show a decrease in friction at smaller pin dimensions.
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 0.76 : 0.57 1.50 : 1.00 1.75 : 1.17 2.00 : 1.33 Die Extrusion Ratio
Decrease in friction factor can be observed for smaller extrusion ratios. Northwestern University
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Coating Effect
5 R am forc e (k N ) 4 3 2 1 0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 Ram displacement (mm)
Fig. 12: Averaged force-displacement response for all dies.
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Friction Tests
Stored-energy Kolsky bar
Incident (input) bar. Transmitted (output) bar. Friction samples attached between the two bars. Static axial load applied by the axial load device. Torsional load produced by torque device and stored by clamp.
Clamp release produces a torsional pulse along incident bar. Pulse transmitted to the output bar via contacting frictional surfaces. Stresses measured with strain gages. Ratio of transmitted torsional stress to the incident compressive stress gives an estimate of the friction coefficient.
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Friction Tests
Typical Signals from the Wheatstones bridge
Normal Stress:
NI = axial compression load, Ac = contact area, ro, ri = outer and inner radii of the annulus. Averaged Shear Stress:
Espinosa, H.D., Patanella, A., Fischer, M., 2000, "A Novel Dynamic Friction Experiment Using a Modified Kolsky Bar Apparatus," Experimental Mechanics, Vol. 40, No. 2, pp. 138-153.
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Friction Tests
Test Scenarios: Vary grain size of CuZn30 Vary contact pressure Vary contact area
Friction Specimens
All samples ground and lapped to ensure perfect flatness. Low contact pressure = 22MPa. High contact pressure = 250 MPa. High pressure test samples were pre-compressed at 150 MPa to prevent indentation of steel into brass
1018 Steel Cups Annular contact along the rim ensures that the torsional stress profile is almost constant. Large area test: 25.4mm outer dia., 1 mm thick. Small area test: 9mm outer dia., 0.5 mm thick.
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Friction Tests
Mori, L., Krishnan, N., Cao, J. and Espinosa, H.D., 2006, Study of the Size Effects and Friction Conditions in Micro-extrusion: Part IISize effect in dynamic friction for brasssteel pairs, submitted to ASMEJ. Manufacturing Science and Technology.
for high pressure tests lower than low pressure results because of lower surface roughness caused by pre-compression. for all tests in the range 0.28 ~ 0.38. for the 211 micro small area test lower than the results for the other tests. Sliding velocity for large area tests = 5~6 m/s Sliding velocity for large area tests = 0.8 m/s
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Friction Tests
Test Results:
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References
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.
ASM Handbok. (2006). Metalworking. (Vol. 14). Materials Park: ASM International http://www.ganoksin.com/borisat/nenam/metal-rolling-n-drawing.htm Li, M., 2000, An experimental Investigation on Cut Surface and Burr in Trimming Aluminum Autobody Sheet, International Journal of Mechanics Science, 42(5), pp. 889-906 http://www.advantagefabricatedmetals.com/metalformingglossaryp.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Diet_Coke.jpg http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrusion Kalpakjian, S. & Schmid, S.R. (2003). Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials. India: Pearson Education, Inc. http://lcdev.kek.jp/photos/20060610Di/20060610Di-026.html http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2006/hydroforming.html http://www.tekniker.es/home.asp?idm=en Nexus Market Analysis. WTC Wicht Technologie Consulting, Frauenplatz 5, D-80331 Munchen. Geiger, M., Kleiner, M., Eckstein, R., Tiesler, N. and Engel, U., Microforming, Keynote Paper, Annals of the CIRP, 50-2 (2001), 445-462. Avitzur, B., 1965, Analysis of Metal Extrusion, J. Engg. Indust., 87(1), pp. 57-70 Altan, T., Oh, S. and Gegel, L.H. (1983). Metal Forming: Fundamentals and Applications, American Society of Metals Ashcroft, N. & Mermin, D. (1976). Solid States Physics. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston Belytschko, T., Liu, W., and Moran, B. (2005). Nonlinear Finite Elements for Continua and Structures. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Khan, A. & Huang, S. (1995). Continuum Theory of Plasticity. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hosford, W. & Caddell, R. (1993). Metal Forming Mechanics and Metallurgy. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
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Homework Assignments
1. 2. 3.
Micro-forming market search Derivation of punch stress formula Tensile stress of a single crystal
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Determine the resolved shear stress resulting from a tensile test on a silver single crystal. The axial stress applied is 10 MPa along the [1 1 0] axis of a silver single crystal to cause a slip on the (1 1 1 )[0 1 1 ] system.
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Constitutive Equations
P : (C I ) : D = g , ( > 0)
=1
n
= 1,2,..., n
: P < k , ( = 0)
=1
n
Where,
k = h P :
: P = k , ( > 0)
=
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* =
d * N
i =1 =1
d i
* = m * (m * *)
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The results of the experiment and prediction are in agreement Taylors model is the simplest approximation of the elastic-plastic behavior of polycrystal metals and can describe the basic features of polycrystalline deformation, such as texture development and stress-strain curve However, the equilibrium condition boundaries is violated by forcing all the single grains to deform the same as the aggregate
Ref. Khan & Huang (1995) Continuum Theory of Plasticity
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is removed from D
Actual strain = +P
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Modified
Where, KT = tangent bulk GT = shear moduli S* = the overall deviatoric stress tensor *m = the overall mean stress *m = the overall mean strain
* S * = 2GT * m I 3 *m = 3K T *m
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= C ep : * = C *ep : *
Where, Cep = tangential elastic plastic stiffness tensor of the single crystal in the case of finite deformation C*ep = tangential elastic plastic stiffness tensor of the aggregate in the case of finite deformation
* = L* : ( *)
Consider the plastically deformed polycrystal aggregate to be an isotropic material
* =
2GGT (7 5 T ) P *P GT (7 5 T ) + 2G (4 5 )
)
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The stress-strain curve obtained by Kroner, Budiansky, and Wu showed much stronger restraint than that obtained by Hills model In actual cases of elastic-plastic deformation of polycrystal, the aggregate cannot be plastically deformed everywhere, and there should be some regions where the material remain elastic Berveiller and Zaoui obtained the solutions of uniaxial tension of polycrystal specimen using their plastic accommodation model and an improved result can be observed
1 1 + (3G / 2)G *P / *
)
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