Origin of soils

Soil
Unbonded granular material topsoil ~ top 1m soil
Variable, so often consider only as a surcharge for deep / large foundations But NZ houses often founded in top 300mm

ENCI252 Geotechnical Engineering 1

Origins
Mostly breakdown of rocks Some organic (e.g. peat) Modified by
breakdown process (chemical, biological, mechanical) Transportation

Can be man-made (fill)

Powrie: 5-7

Geotechnical Engineering
Some typical geo terms:

dams pavements / roading Geotechnical engineer Geologist tunnels Engineering geologist Geoenvironmental engineer foundations slopes Geomechanics Soil mechanics retaining walls Rock mechanics landfills Geotextiles; ground engineering; ground improvement; geo-remediation; foundation engineering

Wind: aeolian => loess

Water: alluvial => alluvial deposits

Transportation
None => residual soils Ice: glacial (moraine) => till fluvial glacial => drift deposits

Powrie: 7-10

Powrie: 10-16

Mineralogy 1
Most soils are silicates Clay minerals are phyllosilicates or sheet silicates (Si4O10)4 E.g. kaolinite, illite, montmorillonite (sometimes called smectite and used as bentonite) & others Different structures can lead to very different mechanical behaviour!

Mineralogy 2
Non-clay minerals
Quartz, SiO2 (most abundant, framework crystal silicate, hard & stable) Feldspars (some Si replaced by Al, less hard, can be easily cleaved) Micas (Si4O10)4-, phyllosilicates (flakey and can be flexible) Mechanical behaviour of non-clay soils (i.e. silts, sands, gravels) mostly governed by particle size and packing

(SiO44-)

Mica structure Kaolinite

SEM images courtesy Mineralogical Society, London (2007)

Illite

Montmorillonite

Quartz sand (SEM)

Feldspar rocks (note cleavage planes)

Photos 2&3 courtesy Stewart Mccallum (2006) & University of New Hampshire (2007)

Phase relationships
Soil is made up of
Solid particles (skeleton / matrix) with Spaces or voids filled with air and/or water

Phase relationships
Volumes Masses Va Vw Ma = 0 Mw

Particle

Void
Total volume VT

Volume voids VV

Soil is therefore a 3 phase material

To simplify we either assume
Voids are filled completely with water = saturated Voids are filled completely with air = dry

Volume solids VS

Vs

Ms

Reduces problem to 2 phases!

Powrie: 16-18
Microscope section of silica sand fixed in resin

There are a number of volumetric and mass relationships that are useful:

Phase relationships
Voids ratio e:
e= VV VS
Typical values for sands/gravels: 0.4 - 1.0 Typical values for clays: 0.3 - 1.5

Phase relationships
Specific volume V:
V=
V +V VT = S V =1 + e VS VS

Porosity n:

n=

V VV e = V = VS + VV 1+ e VT

e, n & V are indicators of the efficiency of packing

the lower the value, the denser the soil e used most often, V useful mathematically, n used more in hydrology

Theoretically 0 - 1.0 (if e varies from 0 to ), Reported as percentage or decimal: e.g. 50% or 0.5

Phase relationships
Saturation ratio Sr:
Sr =

More definitions
VW VV

Lies between 0 and 1.0 Dry soil: Sr = 0; fully saturated soil Sr = 1 If 0 <Sr <1, call partially saturated or unsaturated M w= W Moisture (or water) content w: MS Ranges from 0 up to 5.0 (500%), Commonly w < 1.0 in most natural soils Cant measure Sr and w directly. Need to weigh soil sample with water then dry to find dry weight of soil & water see example
Powrie: Example 1.1

Specific gravity:

GS =

S W

Where s is density of solids, w is density of water For pure quartz sands, Gs ~ 2.65 Overall, Gs ~ 2.6 2.8

Unit weights:

(units: kN/m3)

Useful concept connecting mass & volume sides of phase diagram More useful than because can calculate stresses in ground directly ( includes gravity g!)

More definitions
Unit weight water:
W = W g
w ~ 9.81kN/m3 (can use 10kN/m3)

More definitions
There are special cases for saturated and dry unit weights of soil: Saturated unit weight (Sr=1): Dry unit weight (Sr=0): Buoyant unit weight:
( = w )

W (GS + S r e )
GS W (1 + w) 1+ e

sat =
dry =
'=

W (GS + e )
1+ e

Unit weight soil:

=

1+ e

W GS
1+ e
1+ e

It is more complicated Includes solids & voids either filled with air or water (or both) We can derive this equation (Powrie & Aysen)
Powrie: 19-22

W (GS 1)

Particle size
Soil Type Clay Silt Sand Gravel Cobbles Boulders BS & NZ 0.002-0.06mm 0.06-2mm 2-60mm 60-200mm >200mm Measure by
hydrometer sieving looking!

Particle size distribution, PSD

US (ASTM)* <0.005mm 0.005-0.075mm 0.075-4.75mm 4.75-75mm 75-300mm >300mm

<0.002mm (<2m)

The particle or grain size distribution (PSD) is very important to how soil behaves
Affects how water flows through soil
Smaller the pore size, the harder it is & longer it takes for water to flow through

Affects mechanical response to loads

E.g. due to the time water takes to flow through E.g. how easy the soil is to compress

Further gradings within these types are Fine, Medium, Coarse

*There are also AASHTO & USCS in USA
BS: British Standards AASHTO: America Association for State Highway and Transportation Officials USCS: Unified Soil Classification System ASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials

We plot PSD on a semi-log plot with particle size on log x-axis and percentage passing or percentage finer by weight on linear y-axis
Powrie: 29-30

Powrie: 6 Fig. 1.3

Particle size distribution, PSD

100

Particle size distribution, PSD

Sometimes refer to particular particle size
D10 or d10 is defined as particle size at which 10% of the mass of the sample passes (i.e. through a sieve) or is smaller than D50 size or mean particle size, is not necessarily linked to mechanical behaviour! D30-D10 sizes generally dictate most mechanical behaviour D10 size can approximately indicate overall pore size of soil (i.e. linked to soil permeability)

Percentage finer by weight (%)

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Uniform (gravel) Uniform (sand) Gap-graded Well-graded

?
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

0 0.001

Particle size (mm)

Clay
F

Silt
M C F

Sand
M C F

Gravel
M C

Cobbles

Boulders

However, a single particle size does not describe many soils well, particularly if a range of sizes is present

Particle size distribution, PSD

Percentage finer by weight (%)

Particle size distribution, PSD

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Uniform (gravel) Uniform (sand) Gap-graded Well-graded

Coefficients can indicate how well-graded or uniform a soil is:

Coefficient of Uniformity, CU or U For For U10 U>10 uniformly graded well-graded

D U = 60 D10

Coefficient of Curvature, CZ or Z

D30 Z= D10 D60

For 1 Z<3 typical for well-graded Z<1 or Z>3 can mean gap-graded, but use with care!
Sometimes terms like poorly graded, are used (USCS) for gap-graded, but try not too as can be confused with geologists terms like poorly sorted (which means well graded!) etc.

Particle size (mm)

D10 = 0.05mm, D30 = 0.1mm, D60 = 0.9mm U=18, Z=0.22 D10 = 10mm, D30 = 20mm, D60 = 35mm U=3.5, Z=1.14

Gap-graded fine gravely SAND Uniform medium GRAVEL

Powrie: 32-35, Example 1.5

D10 = 0.004mm, D30 = 0.5mm, D60 = 4mm U=1000, Z=15 Well-graded clayey sandy GRAVEL; w.g. gravelly SAND, some clay?

Soil classification
Systematic classification used in NZ is a hybrid of USCS and BS systems, follows BS divisions but some terms from USCS Initially determine soil type based on particle size, then further classify:
If coarse, use PSD, colour, shape If fine, use index tests

Coarse soils: Grain shape

Shape of particles is important to mechanical behaviour of coarse soils (sands & gravels)
Affects interlock of particles Affects compressibility of whole system

Typically use a visual classification system:

Compare with chart below (from Field description of soil and rock, NZGS 2005). Can also have platey, flakey, flat, elongated etc. as terms

Classification figure courtesy NZGS (2005)

Example classification: Sub-rounded coarse SAND with platey mica Angular medium GRAVEL

Granular soils: void ratio

Recall void ratio
e= VV VS

Granular soils: emax

At maximum void ratio, soil has lowest possible density BS1377 Pt 4: method to measure emax (other methods in ASTM, USCS etc).
Known mass soil in 1L gas jar

For granular soil (silt, sand, gravel), soil packing (how dense) depends on how soil was deposited and loaded Theoretical maximum and minimum void ratios, emax and emin can be found for a particular soil emax and emin depend on:
PSD Particle shape

Tip gently (upsidedown)

Set down & measure height

Repeat at least 10 times and take highest value for emax

Granular soils: emin

At minimum void ratio, soil has highest possible density BS1377 Pt 4: method to measure emin (other methods in ASTM, USCS etc).
Maximum void ratio, e
max

emax and emin of 300 granular soils

Clean sands, sands with fines and silty soils 2.5
(JGS procedures for emax and emin ) Clean sands Sands with fines Sands with clay Silty soils
(FC = 0 - 5%) (5 < FC 15 %) (15 < FC 30 %, PC = 5-20 %) (30 < FC 70 %, PC = 5-20 %)

Vibrate, remove weight, add soil

Remove weight, collar & smooth

1.5

1
12 gravelly sands
(PG = 17-36 %, F < 6 %) C

0.5
30 gravels

12 coarse sands
(ASTM & non-standard procedures) (non-standard procedures)

3 layers soil in mould (with collar) of known volume & mass. Vibrate on vibrating table with weight on top between each of 3 layers. (Wet?)

Smooth soil with straight edge, weigh whole.

0 0 0.5 Minimum void ratio, e

min

1.5

Repeat at least once with different soil batch and take lowest value for emin

Powrie: 19

Granular soils: relative density

Once theoretical emax and emin are determined, the actual density of a granular soil can be defined in terms of a density index called relative density: min e e I D or DR = max = emax emin max min
ID varies between 0.0 (minimum possible density) and 1.0 (maximum possible density), often expressed as %
Descriptive term Note, Powrie and other UK authors use symbol ID, but many other authors (US, etc.) use DR. NZGS uses RD! Very dense Dense Medium dense Loose Very loose Relative density (%) >85 65-85 35-65 15-35 <15

Fine-grained soils: index tests

Fine-grained soils (silts and clays) are difficult to classify using visual inspection alone Albert Atterberg (1911) proposed tests linking changes in clay consistency with moisture content: Atterberg limits
Analogous to emax and emin for granular soils Are empirical index tests based on mechanical response Relate to clay mineralogy and amount in soil

Plastic limit, wPL, is water content below which fine soil behaves brittle and crumbly Liquid limit, wLL, is water content above which fine soil behaves as a liquid Plasticity index: IP = wLL - wPL

Fine grained soils: index tests

To determine wLL:
BS: use a standard fall-cone apparatus; for clay mixed at wLL, standard cone will penetrate specified distance US: use a Casagrande apparatus, cut V-shape in soil; link number of standard taps to cause to disappear to wLL. Roll out threads of soil to 3mm diameter. wPL when threads become brittle
1st Pro Lab.

Fine grained soils: index tests

Once w, wPL and wPP are known for a particular clay, can determine Liquidity index, IL

IL =
Standard fall-cone

w wPL wLL w PL

To determine wPL:

Determine moisture content, w, of a clayey soil by weighing, oven drying and then weighing again (e.g. Powrie Example 1.1) IL analogous to ID (relative density) for granular soils If IL = 1.0, w=wLL, clay at liquid limit (runny like a liquid) If IL = 0.0, w=wPL, clay at plastic limit (dry, brittle and hard)
Powrie: 43-44

Casagrande apparatus
Pictures courtesy Verruijt (2001)

Powrie: 40-43 &

Fine soils: classification

Clays above A-line Silts & organics below A-line

Compaction

wPL = 22%, wll = 65%, IP = 43% CH: High plasticity CLAY wPL = 25%, wll = 29%, IP = 4% ML: Low plasticity SILT

Soils are often used as a structural material in the construction of embankments, land reclamation, backfills and earth dams. Dense soils have superior engineering properties to loose soils: - Higher stiffness - Higher strength Smaller deformability Improved stability

Powrie: 44, Fig 1.15

Figure from BS5930:1990 Section 6

Performance of loose fills

Compaction methods
Specially designed equipment is used to compress or densify soils. All equipment uses one or more of the following techniques:
Sheepsfoot roller

pressure (the most important factor) - impact load (dynamic component) - vibration (15-60 Hz; enhances compaction) - complex loads involving shearing
Portable equipment

It is necessary to compact the soils in the field and compress them into a smaller volume (reduce the volume of the voids) to increase strength.
Steel-wheel roller

Proctor Compaction Test

Used to investigate compaction characteristics of a particular soil in the lab Standard Proctor Test:
- Compaction of a soil sample in a cylindrical mould (1 litre capacity and Di = 105 mm) - Standard rammer (m = 2.5kg, drop height 300mm) - 3 equal layers, each receiving 27 blows of the rammer

Modified Proctor Test:

- m = 4.5kg, h = 450mm, 5 layers (more energy)

Selection of equipment depends on the type of the soil, size of the project and compaction requirements

The test is carried out on at least 5 samples, each prepared at a different water content.

Calculation procedure
1. Trim the sample and then weigh it: Mms 2. Calculate the mass density of the sample, (since we know the volume Vm and mass of the mould Mm):

Compaction curve
Compaction curve

M ms M m Vm
w= Mw Ms
Sometimes is expressed as:

3. Calculate the water content, w: 4. Calculate the dry mass density, d:

d =

1+ w

d = d g
Optimum water content (wo)

5. Plot the data on a graph of d against w

Mechanics of the compaction curve

Low w High suction Water provides lubrication Improves compactibility High w High Sr No / little air

Characteristics of compaction curves

- The Proctor test results suggest that all fills should be compacted at wo - However, the compaction curve depends on the compactive effort d increases with the applied energy while wo decreases

In this case: optimum water content wO = 11.7%

Usually the peak of the compaction curve occurs at about: Sr ~ 80 %

- The Proctor test result is not directly applicable to field conditions - Usually field compaction will lie between the Standard and Modified Proctor Test results

Standard Proctor Test results for 8 typical soils

Suitability of different soils as fills

- Gravels: Make good fills High strength and low compressibility; high permeability - Sands: Usually make good fills

Zero air voids curve Sr = 100 %

High strength and low compressibility; can be easily brought to wo

Note the compaction curve shifts up and leftwards with increasing grain size - Low plasticity silts: Less desirable than gravels and sands Lose more strength and require more moisture control - High plasticity clays: Only when very low permeability is required (landfill caps; clay core of earth dams) Higher D50 leads to higher d and lower wo - Organic soils and peat: Extremely poor; weak, compressible

Ground investigation - brief intro

Site Investigation (SI) is fundamental to geotechnical engineering
Process by which geological, geotechnical & other information which might affect civil engineering project is acquired

Ground investigation
Soil strata may be of variable thickness May be discontinuous soil lenses & cavities

Powrie: 56-60

Try to locate BHs and TPs as efficiently as possible.

Soil Classification
Identification of material, composition and intrinsic properties (can used disturbed soil)

Soil Description
In situ properties of material (prefer to use undisturbed soil)

Ground investigation is part of SI

Aims to determine ground and groundwater characteristics Enables soil classification & description by:
Drilling boreholes (BHs) and digging trial pits (TPs) Testing soil in situ (in the ground) and enabling soil to be removed (sampled) for testing in the lab.

Try to infer 3D picture from relatively few holes! Cannot eliminate risk but can reduce it by good planning Better to spend $ earlier than $$$ later

Ground investigation
Boreholes are usually 150mm diameter, drilled to depths up to 30m Trial pits are typically 2m deep by 2m wide holes

Ground investigation
Soil samples can be taken for lab testing:
Strength, compressibility, permeability Stress-strain behaviour, classification, etc.

Disturbance is a big issue!

Particularly for granular soils Soil behaviour depends on deposition & stress history, i.e. soil remembers past events Taking samples (sampling) from the ground can wipe this memory! Sometimes we test in situ to avoid this
Undisturbed sampling method from trial pit OKAY Undisturbed soil sample tools used in boreholes REALLY?
Figures courtesy USBR (1998)

Borehole core

Borehole log

Figures courtesy DJ Douglas & Partners (2006)