Modern Practice on Bridge Construction on World Railways

By K.C.Chauhan, DyCE(C)CCG Tarun Beniwal, DyCE(GC)TPJ K.K.Mkonda, Civil Engineer Mahommed Omar, Project Manager Session No.626 Sr.Prof.Course(Bridges & General)

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The project preparation is an important part of Sr Professional Course. This course is mainly to update and refresh the knowledge of the advancements in bridge technology world over. It is highly relevant that the project is also related with advance subject. We are highly grateful to Shri Shiv Kumar, Director, IRICEN and Shri N.C.Sharda, Senior Professor and Course Director for selecting the useful and relevant topics for the project. We also acknowledge gratefully the direction, guidance and support extended by the faculty during the project preparation. We also acknowledge the valuable and timely support given by the Library staff and Computer Cell staff of IRICEN

K.C.CHAUHAN DYCE (C )/CCG

TARUN BENIWAL DYCE(GC)TPJ

K.K. MKONDA CIVIL ENGINEER

MAHOMMED OMAR PROJECT MANAGER

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Introduction
Bridge building can be traced back several -thousand years. In primitive times, man used fallen trees, arches made of a rock fall and suspension. bridges made of vines and creepers to cross streams and ravines. These are the three natural forms of bridging methods, namely, the beam, the arch and the suspension structure. Despite the technological advances of the recent past, these three forms, either singularly or in combination, remain the basis of all bridge construction. The vast majority of arch bridges were built with stone masonry. A few were also built of iron. Some examples of these will be presented during the lecture. Modern arch bridges are built with reinforced concrete and therefore only die construction of reinforced concrete arch bridges will be considered in this paper. Suspension bridges are used to form exceptionally large Spans. They are a highly specialised form of construction and far more expensive than beam bridges. Their use is therefore limited to a very small number of applications where their ability to span large distances is paramount. Beam bridges are by far the most widely used form of bridge construction. They are applicable to small span bridges as well as large spans of around 150m in prestressed precast concrete and spans of around 200m in steel box girder form. In certain circumstances larger spans have been achieved with these forms of construction. Traffic requirements in many parts of the world have made grade separation necessary at junctions. Generally, such grade separations require the construction of small to medium span bridges or flyovers for which beam type bridges are the most appropriate. The techniques of construction of this form of bridges will therefore be considered in detail. Since concrete is the most popular material for bridge construction, emphasis will be given to concrete bridges.

Bridges classified by structural configuration Common bridge construction methods

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Common bridge construction methods Length of bridge (m)

Type of bridge according to method of construction Prefabricated steel or precast concrete beams lifted into place over the full span 1 (i) standard beams (ii) non-standard beams (iii) steel trusses 2 Prefabricated steel or precast concrete beams progressively placed by gantry girder method Precast concrete or prefabricated steel deck pushed out (constant radius deck only) Prefabricated or precast elements or in situ concrete structures supported by false work founded directly on the ground In situ concrete deck constructed on stepping formwork In situ or precast concrete segments constructed in cantilever and progressively post-tensioned Prefabricated steel or precast concrete segments stayed by cables Prefabricated steel or precast concrete segments suspended from cables

Span (m)

10-40 40-250 50-100 No limit

30-60

300600 3001200

25-60

5-125

5-125 300600 No limit No limit

5 6 7 8

20-60 50-150 75-800

Span between towers 400- No 1500 limit

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Arch Bridge
Overview Arch bridges are one of the oldest types of bridges and have great natural strength. Instead of pushing straight down, the weight of an arch bridge is carried outward along the curve of the arch to the supports at each end. These supports, called the abutments, carry the load and keep the ends of the bridge from spreading out. The Romans developed considerable skill in constructing arches and many of their structures remain intact today. However, they were not able to calculate the strength of their-arches although their knowledge of geometry inherited from the Greeks led them to adopt semicircular spans. Their arches were constructed of stone made into the form of wedge shaped segments, or voussoirs, built up side by side on temporary timber supports until the top piece at the crown of the arch is pushed hom(keystone). One of the most famous examples of their handiwork is the Pont du Gard aqueduct near Nmes, France. Built before the birth of Christ, the bridge is held together by mortar only in its top tier; the stones in the rest of the structure stay together by the sheer force of their own weight. Modem arch bridges are built of concrete. It is an effective way to transfer loads to the ground where foundation conditions are adequate to resist horizontal loads. A large number of concrete arch bridges have been constructed in the 20th century in both in-situ reinforced concrete and precast concrete. Today materials like steel and pre-stressed concrete have made it possible to build longer and more elegant arches. (More typically, modern arch bridges span between 200-800 feet.) A prime consideration in the erection of an arch bridge is the method of supporting the voussoirs during construction. The cost of staging required to support the arch centering during the placing of the voussoirs represents a substantial proportion of the cost of construction. Their design and construction therefore requires detail investigation. Stone arch bridge In old days arches were made of stones. Concrete arch bridge Constructing an arch bridge can be tricky, since the structure is completely unstable until the two spans meet in the middle. The method of construction of precast concrete arches is similar to the method of construction used during the Roman period. Wedge shaped precast concrete segments are used as voussoirs and these are built up side by side on temporary supports. There are two basic methods of providing the temporary support system: the provision of a supporting system below the bridge and the use of a tower and stay system. Gladesville Bridge in Sidney, Australia was constructed using hollow precast concrete segments. They were placed on false work supported from the ground.

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The false work was designed to accommodate a 80-foot 200-foot navigation channel. A diagrammatic representation of the construction of an arch using a tower and a stay system is shown in the figure below. In-situ archers are generally cast using shuttering supported the from ground. A notable cast in-situ reinforced concrete bridge is the Plouggastel Bridge in France. Freyssinet used a shuttering system which was floated into position and supported off the river bed. One of the most revolutionary arch bridges in recent years is the Natchez Trace Bridge in Franklin, Tennessee, which was opened to traffic in 1994. It's the first American arch bridge to be constructed from segments of pre-cast concrete, a highly economical material. Two graceful arches support the roadway above. Usually arch bridges employ vertical supports called "spandrels" to distribute the weight of the roadway to the arch below, but the Natchez Trace Bridge was designed without spandrels to create a more open and aesthetically pleasing appearance. As a result, most of the live load is resting on the crowns of the two arches, which have been slightly flattened to better carry it. Already the winner of many awards, the bridge is expected to influence bridge design for years to come. Steel arch bridge It is made of steel trusses or box sections.

Beam Bridge
Overview A beam or "girder" bridge is the simplest and most inexpensive kind of bridge. According to Craig Finley of Finley/McNary Engineering, "they're basically the vanillas of the bridge world." In its most basic form, a beam bridge consists of a horizontal beam that is supported at each end by piers. The weight of the beam pushes straight down on the piers. The beam itself must be strong so that it doesn't bend under its own weight and the added weight of crossing traffic. When a load pushes down on the beam, the beam's top edge is pushed together (compression) while the bottom edge is stretched (tension). Pre-stressed concrete is an ideal material for beam bridge construction; the concrete withstands the forces of compression well and the steel rods imbedded within resist the forces of tension. Pre-stressed concrete also tends to be one of the least expensive materials in construction. But even the best materials can't compensate for the beam bridge's biggest limitation: its length. The farther apart its supports, the weaker a beam bridge gets. As a result, beam bridges rarely span more than 250 feet. This doesn't mean beam bridges aren't used to cross great

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distances -- it only means that they must be daisy-chained together, creating what's known in the bridge world as a "continuous span." Concrete Bridges Concrete bridge construction as opposed to steel is the most common form of construction. The reasons for this have been dealt with in detail by other speakers on this course. In summary, they are: a) ready availability of materials for concrete construction, b) lack of skilled local labour required for fabrication (including Welding) and erection of steelwork, C) cost due to effects of (a) and (b) above, d) lower maintenance required by concrete structures. Due to the very congested nature of the roads especially in the urban area, precast concrete construction is a very popular form of construction. Insitu concrete construction is also widely used where the site conditions permit. These two forms of construction will now be dealt with in detail. Insitu Concrete Construction Insitu concrete construction can be adopted for small single span as well as long multispan bridges. Reinforced insitu construction is normally used for small span bridges. This form of construction can also be used for multi-span bridges of up to maximum spans of around 9.15m. However, for spans greater than 9.15m prestressed concrete construction is normally more economical. There are many types of cross sections used for reinforced concrete bridge decks. For aesthetic reasons, T-beam and inverted T-beam decks are now not favoured and the variation is often adopted. The addition of the bottom flange also improves the transverse load carrying capacity and provides a larger compression zone at intermediate supports. The construction of these types of decks do not in general require special techniques. As previously stated prestressed concrete construction is generally more economical than reinforced concrete construction for spans exceeding 9.15m. Box-girder cross section: bridges, which evolved structurally from the hollow cell deck or the T-beam deck, provide maximum economy with prestressed concrete.As for reinforced concrete bridges, the construction of small prestressed concrete bridges does not generally require special techniques. The costruction of larger bridges, however, require special techniques. These are: a) Balanced cantilever method,

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b) Span-by-span method, C) Incremental launching or push-out method, Balanced Cantilever Method The balanced cantilever method was developed to minimise the falsework required for insitu construction. Temporary shoring is expensive especially in the case of high level bridges. Erection of falsework crossing a river may be hazardous or even impossible. Over navigable waterways, trafficked roads or railways, falsework is either not allowed or severely restricted. Cantilever construction eliminates such difficulties.

The figure above illustrates the construction of a bridge by the balanced cantilever method. To facilitate the cantilever construction, a short section of the deck with a counter balance to one side (a hammer head) is cast on falsework supported from ground at each pier. Temporary strutting is provided on the counter balancing side to ensure stability. The sequence of construction of the cantilevers must ensure that the counter balance is always maintained. There are variations to the method described above. In the case of a low level bridge it may be more economical to cast the end spans on falsework. Where the bridge deck is monolithic with the piers, the temporary struts at the hammerheads could be eliminated. The formwork to cast the cantilevers is supported on a travelling gantry. The gantry moves forward on rails attached to the deck of the completed structure. With the gantry in place, a new segment is formed, cast and stressed to the previously constructed segment. The operating sequence for the cantilever construction is as follows: a) Set up and adjust gantry, b) Set up and align forms; c) Place reinforcement and tendon ducts, d) Concrete segment, 9 of 37

c) Install stressing tendons and stress, f) Remove formwork, g) Move the gantry to next position and start new cycle. Span-by-Span Method The balanced cantilever construction method was developed primarily for long spans, so that construction of the deck can be carried out without the use of extensive falsework. The span-by-span method was developed for long viaduct structures with relatively shorter spans. In the first stage, the end span and a section of the penultimate span up to its nearest point of contraflexure is cast. The supporting formwork is then moved forward and the section of deck up to the nearest point of contraflexure of the next span is cast. This second cycle is repeated until the final section of the end span (from the point of contraflexture to the end support) is cast. The superstructure construction therefore proceeds in one direction span-by-span. To speed up the construction it is also possible to commence construction somewhere in the middle of the viaduct and work towards the ends. The formwork is generally supported on a moving gantry system This in effect provides a type of factory operation transplanted on the job site. It has many of the advantages of mass production commonly associated with precasting as well as the added advantage of permitting versatile adjustments on site. The gantry may be supported from the piers or from the edge of the previously completed cantilever. The formwork gantry can be either above-deck or below-deck. For the above deck gantry, the formwork is suspended from steel rods. After concreting and post-tensioning, the forms are released and the gantry rolled forward by means of outriggers on both sides gantry's superstructure. For a belowdeck gantry, a similar procedure is followed. In some instances the formwork may be supported from the ground. To date all cast insitu span-by-span construction has been carried out using formwork supported from the ground generally. Incremental Launching Method In this method segments of the bridge deck are cast in place in short lengths of between 10 to 30m, on stationary formwork located behind one abutment. Each unit is cast directly against the previous unit. After the concrete has reached sufficient strength, the new unit is post-tensioned against the previously cast unit. The assembly of units is then pushed forward to enable -the next segment to be cast. The alignment of the bridge for this type of construction must be straight or curved with a constant rate of curvature. The constant rate of curvature applies for both horizontal and

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vertical alignments. The deck must have a constant depth which is usually 1/12 to 1/16th of the longest span. To enable the superstructure to be moved forward, special low-friction bearings are provided at the piers and other support locations. Low-friction lateral guides are also provided to guide the deck in the correct horizontal alignment. The main problem associated with this method is to ensure the resistance of the superstructure at all stages of construction. The methods adopted for this purpose are: a) A first stage of prestress is applied concentrically to the entire cross section and in successive increments over the entire length of the superstructure. b) To reduce the large hogging bending moments as the leading edge reaches the next pier, a fabricated structural steel launching nose is attached to the leading edge. An alternative method adopted by the French is to provide a tower and stay system in the forward part of the superstructure. C) To construct long spans temporary piers are provided to keep the cantilever moment to a reasonable magnitude. The longest span built by this method is 168m. Two temporary piers were used in this case. After launching is complete, and the opposite abutment has been reached, additional prestress is introduced to accommodate the moments of the structure in service. Precast Concrete Construction The most common form of precast concrete bridge construction is with the use of the conventional precast bridge beams. Different types of precast concrete decks and their structural advantages have been dealt with. The construction of these types does not in general require special techniques. Precast segmental construction is widely used for the construction of long bridges and viaducts with medium to long spans. In this form of construction, segments are manufactured in a casting yard near the site and then transported to their final position for assembly. During the early stages of development of segmental precast construction, the joints between the segments were wet poured grout or dry mortar pack. These type of joints enabled the segments to be adjusted ensure that the bridge follows the correct alignment. Modem segmental construction uses the match casting technique. In this method the segments are cast against each other in the same relative order they will have in the final structure. No adjustment is therefore necessary between the segments at assembly. The joints are either left dry or skimmed with a layer of epoxy resin. This method enables the prestressing to proceed as soon as practicable after the assembly of the segments. For erection of the precast segments to proceed smoothly, a high degree of geometry control is necessary during match casting to ensure accuracy.

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There are three methods for the construction of precast concrete segmental bridges. These are: a) Balanced cantilever method, b) Span-by-span method, C) Progressive placement method. Balanced Cantilever Method The balanced cantilever method of constructing precast segmental bridges is essentially the same as insitu construction by the same method. The difference lies in the method of assembling the segments. In the case of insitu construction:the segments are cast insitu. Whereas, in precast concrete, construction the segments are transported from the casting yard and placed in position by mechanical means. Three main methods are available for placing the segments. These are: crane placing, beam and winch method and use of launching gantries. Crane Placing - Truck and crawler cranes can be used on land where feasible. Floating cranes can be used over navigable water. Beam and Winch Method - Where access is available under the deck the segments can be transported to the site and lifted into place by hoists attached to the previously erected segments. Launching Gantries - There are basically two types of launching gantries. The first type of gantry is slightly longer than the maximum span length. Its rear support reaction is applied near the far end of the last completed cantilever and the front support is placed on the next pier (off which the segments will be placed). After completion of the cantilevers, the gantry moves forward to place the diaphragm segment at the next pier. The gantry then positions itself for the next cycle. The second type of gantry has a length of twice the typical span. The reaction of its legs is always applied above the piers.

Span-by-Span Method As previously described this method was initially conceived as a cast insitu method. A modified form of that method is used for precast segmental construction. The segments

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are assembled on a steel truss to make a complete span (pier to pier). The assembly is then prestress to provide continuity with the preceding span. Progressive Placement Method Progressive placement is similar to the span-by-span method in that the construction starts at one end of the structure and proceeds continuously to the other end. The method derives from the balanced cantilever concept. In this method segments are placed from one end to the other in successive cantilevers. Because of the length of the cantilever (one span), a movable temporary tower and stay system is required to limit the cantilever stresses to a reasonable level.

Steel Bridge
As previously stated steel bridge construction is not a popular form of construction. Except for a few bridges, no major bridges have been constructed in steel in the recent past. Therefore, the construction of steel bridges will only be considered very briefly. There are three main forms of steel bridge superstructures. They are: a) Plate girder, b) Box girder, c) Truss. Plate girders have largely displaced lattice girders bridges because of the availability of wide steel plates and the ease by which fabrication can be automated. Plate Girders Plate girders acting compositely with a reinforced concrete deck slab provide economic bridges in the range of 12.3m to 30.5m. The composite action is provided by shear connectors which force the slab to act as an integral part of the beam. In the case of multi-span bridges, plate girders are designed as continuous beams. For long spans, plate 13 of 37

girders are fabricated in sections and assembled on site. Site splices can be either bolted with high strength friction grip (HSFG) bolts or welded. Splices are located near the points of contra flexure of continuous beams. For most plate girder bridges, lateral bracing are needed for erection stability and during deck concreting. Box girders Steel box girders are appropriate for long span bridges because of the inherent torsional rigidity of the boxes. Due to their light weight, they are used in the construction of suspension and cable stayed bridges. The deck surface is either a reinforced concrete slab acting compositely with the box or the flange of the box itself (orthotropic deck). The latter form is mainly adopted for the construction of long span bridges. Fabrication of steel box girders is complex and is usually carried out in a fabrication yard under controlled conditions to minimise locked-in stresses and distortions during welding. The segments are erected either by crane or by winching off the already completed deck. Temporary bolting is used initially to accurately locate the girders in position and the assembly is then either welded or bolted using HSFG bolts. In some cases a combination of the two methods has been used.

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Trusses The truss form has been adopted for a number of footbridges in. It has the advantage of being light and hence easy to transport and erect. If required they can be transported in pieces and assembled on site by either bolting or welding. Warren trusses are the most common form used for bridgework. Vierendeel girders have also been used in for footbridges.

Cable-Stayed Bridge
Overview Cable-stayed bridges may look similar to suspensions bridges -- both have deck that hang from cables and both have towers. But the two bridges support the load of the roadway in very different ways. The difference lies in how the cables are connected to the towers. In suspension bridges, the cables ride freely across the towers, transmitting the load to the anchorages at either end. In cable-stayed bridges, the cables are attached to the towers, which alone bear the load. The cables can be attached to the roadway in a variety of ways. In a radial pattern, cables extend from several points on the road to a single point at the top of the tower. In a parallel pattern, cables are attached at different heights along the tower, running parallel to one other.

Parallel attachment pattern

Radial attachment pattern Cable-stayed bridges are proving popular for spans up to about 800 m and when coupled with approach roads very broad crossings are bridgeable. Precast or in situ concrete or steel box segments may be used for the deck, which is supported by cables and staved to a tower. There are four principle configurations, known as radiating, harp, fan and star systems. These arrangements provide compression in the deck by utilising self-weight. In

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this way the deck can be made up of individual segments and made to act like a prestressed beam. Clearly cables can be spaced such that the horizontal component of force cancels out any tensile force in either the top or bottom flange, individual segments can then be assembled one-by-one and left unconnected. In the case of a concrete deck, shear forces would be resisted by shear keys and/or epoxy resin glued joints, whereas steel would normally be welded. Where the cables are much further apart, then the tensile stresses would have to be removed by prestressing or carried in the flange of a continuous steel box girder. Vertical force components in each cable are transferred to the pylon and carried through to a foundation. Even though cable-stayed bridges look futuristic, the idea for them goes back a long way. The first known sketch of a cable-stayed bridge appears in a book called Machinae Novae published in 1595, but it wasn't until this century that engineers began to use them. In post-World War II Europe, where steel was scarce, the design was perfect for rebuilding bombed out bridges that still had standing foundations. Cable stay bridges have begun to be erected in the United States only recently, but the response has been passionate. For medium length spans (those between 500 and 2,800 feet), cable-stayeds are fast becoming the bridge of choice. Compared to suspension bridges, cable-stayeds require less cable, can be constructed out of identical pre-cast concrete sections, and are faster to build. The result is a cost-effective bridge that is undeniably beautiful.

STABILITY CONDITIONS The principle aim of the structural configuration of a cable-stayed arrangement, is to prevent sideways and vertical movements of the tower/pylon and deck under asymmetrical live loading. By careful selection of the foundation types and connection of cable and girder it is possible to maintain stability of the whole structure by resisting only the horizontal and vertical components of the forces generated.

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TRANSVERSE ARRANGEMENT OF CABLES Viewed perpendicularly to the line of the bridge, the cables are usually either arranged in a single-plane or two-plane system (as shown in the figures below). Single-plane is commonly employed with a divided deck, and requires only a narrow pylon and pier. The deck itself generally has a hollow box cross section to provide torsional resistance across the deck width. In the two-plane system the cable can either be arranged to hang vertically or slope towards the top of the tower or pylon, the connection to the deck being through the outside edges.

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THE PYLON (TOWER) The pylon may be fabricated from steel plate, or precast concrete elements or occasionally in in situ concrete. The various configurations shown, in figure below illustrate the flexibility of design options available to produce good aesthetic effect.

THE DECK Like the pylon, the superstructure may be assembled in precast concrete elements, steel plate or girders, or made in situ concrete. The most common form being the box section, which offers good torsional restraint. Plate girders are sometimes used with a double 18 of 37

plane system of hangers, where erection procedures require assembly in small light elements. Trusses are also an option but the high fabrication costs, expensive maintenance to counteract corrosion and poor aerodynamic characteristics now render this method relatively uneconomic.

THE CABLE AND CONNECTIONS The cable material is similar to that used for normal prestressing work and either comprises multi-strand cable made up of cold drawn wires or alternatively as single strand cable (mono-strand cable) consisting of parallel wires. Diameters in the range 40125 mm are typical. Protection against corrosion can be provided by galvanising each wire, but a more thorough practice has been to cover the cable in steel or plastic ducting and subsequently inject cement grout after positioning in place. This latter operation is carried out after all dead loads have been applied to avoid too much-cracking of the mortar.

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The cable is normally connected to the pylon with pin-type joints as illustrated in the examples shown in the figure above or alternatively placed in the groove or guide tube of a saddle, depending upon the design requirements. The cable ends for the pin-type connection have either swaged or filled sockets. Swaging consists of squeezing a socket onto the wire in a hydraulic press and is generally used with strand having a diameter in the range 10-40 mm. Filled sockets are more suited to the larger diameter parallel wire type cable with the socket containing the whole bundle of wires. Several alternative types are manufactured differing slightly in the form of dead ending of each wire and the type of filling material. In the most simple form the wires are led through a plate at the base of the socket and finished with a button head or sockets and wedge. The inside of the socket, conical in shape, is subsequently filled with an alloy of zinc, copper, aluminum or lead, or sometimes with a cold casting compound such as epoxy resin. Thus when the cable is subject to a tension load, wedging action develops thereby increasing the grip on the wires. The deck-to-cable connection is usually of the 'free' type to accommodate adjustment. A flared arrangement is required for multi-strand cable, while only a single socket is usually needed for mono-strand cable. Initial tensioning of the cable to remove slack is generally carried out with a hydraulic jack similar to that used it prestressed concrete, the socket is therefore often manufactured with at internal thread for the jack connection and external thread and nut to take up the extension and other adjustments.

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The cable will be contained inside a protective covering, pulled to the calculated tension, and then the tubing will be filled with concrete grout to further protect the cables. The hydraulic ram will be used to apply the correct amount of tension from the top of the towers. METHODS OF ERECTION The appropriate method of erection is influenced by the stiffness of the pylon cable anchorage system, viability of installing temporary supports, maximum unsupported spans permitted by the design, case of transporting materials etc. However, since stability of the system largely depends upon transferring the horizontal component of the force in a cable through the stiffening girder it is clearly necessary to have girder continuity between each pair of stays. The different procedures commonly adopted to ensures this are: 1. Erect on temporary props. 2. Free cantilever with progressive placing. 3. Balanced cantilever. 4. Push-out. Erect on Temporary Props (Staging Method) This method is appropriate when the pylon is not designed with full end fixity to the pier or cannot be temporarily fixed, i.e. the pylon is not stable unless the anchor cable is held in position. Temporary piers are first installed and the deck units progressively placed 21 of 37

one-by-one and welded together to form short free cantilevers. A derrick-type crane mounted on rail track is commonly used for lifting and thus the weight of a unit would normally have to be significantly less than the derrick capacity (typically about 150 tonnes at minimum radius), and it may sometimes even be necessary for assembly to be carried out in sections. Prefabrication normally takes place off site, and units are erected in 5-15 m lengths. The length of free cantilever possible during the construction phase depends on the deck characteristics and must be carefully determined for the temporary conditions but over 50 m of un propped section have been successfully achieved. similar procedure using precast concrete could be used but because of the much heavier weights involved, either shorter sections or specialised lifting carriages would be necessary until the stays were in position. On completion of the deck, all the stays are connected, tensioned and the temporary piers dismantled. However, some extension of the cable is unavoidable as the self-weight of the deck is taken up. The temporary propping should therefore be erected at a height calculated to allow for this movement. Free Cantilever with Progressive Placing In many situations the installation of temporary supports would be difficult and expensive and cantilever construction might be considered as an alternative. The side spans are constructed on temporary propping followed by the tower. This part of the bridge is often situated on the embankments where access may favour the use of cranes at ground level. The centre span is thereafter erected unit-by-unit working out as a free cantilever from the tower or pylon. Like in the previous method, steel box sections up to 20 m long are commonly lifted either by derrick or with mobile lifting beams and welded into place. Thereafter the permanent stays are fixed each side of the tower and the bending moment caused by the cantilevering section removed. The provision of temporary stays is particularly important with precast concrete segments where units weighing up to 300 tonnes are occasionally erected. The normal procedure is to match cast adjacent segments an subsequently glue the joints with epoxy resin, temporary post-tensioning being applied to bring the two elements together. The permanent cable is tensioned simultaneously as the temporary stay is released. The cable-staying technique using temporary stays only has also proved successful for multi short span bridges of the precast type. This progressive erection method allows units to be transported along the previously constructed deck, which are then swung round and attached to lifting equipment such as swivel arm. The stays are usually tensioned with built-in hydraulic jacks, and the whole device moved forward from pier to pier as each span is erected and post-tensioned.

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Balanced Cantilever The occasional need to have clear uninterrupted space below the bridge, for example railway sidings, private property, etc., has forced designers and constructors to develop the balanced cantilevering technique, whereby all or at least very few props are required, as shown in figure below. Erection proceeds simultaneously each side to the tower, with the first few sections over the piers, temporarily supported on false work until the tower has been erected and the cables attached. Like the other methods, a degree of cantilevering beyond the last attached cable may be possible depending upon the capability of the section to resist bending movement, the potential for this possibility being much better for steel plate than heavy precast concrete segments.

An important feature of this technique is the need to have a stiff tower and fixity between the deck and tower and its foundations, because of imbalances caused by construction plant, variation in segment dead weight, and tension in the cables. Where possible, the tower design should be selected to accommodate this requirement, otherwise substantial extra staying, tempo anchor cables or a heavy deck tower fixing clamp must be provided. 23 of 37

Cantilever ever spans over 150 m each side of the tower are commonly erected, but where ever possible some propping is desirable to aid stability. Push-out Method In some situations access beyond the abutment may not be available or deck units cannot be transported to the tower over adjoining property. To overcome these difficulties a few bridges have used the push-out method as illustrated in the figure below. The deck is assembled at one of the abutments and simple winched out over the rollers or teflon pad bearings. A similar technique has been used with incremental launching when temporary cable stays are used rather than props.

CABLE ERECTION The majority of cable-staved bridges are nowadays designed with monostrand cable either of the parallel wire or locked coil wire type. A complete stay is manufactured in its polyethelene tubing and delivered to site on reels. The simplest erecting procedure is to unreel the cable along the deck and hoist or lift it up to the top of the tower. Unfortunately the natural sag tend to be quite large and therefore considerable take-up has to be provided in the tensioning jack. A more satisfactory procedure is to install a guide rope and pull the cable up with a hauling rope. Intermediate supports to reduce sag are provided by intermittently spaced sliding hangers. Tensioning is initially carried out at the deck connection end to take up the stack, final tensioning to remove bending moment in the deck and transfer dead load into the cable being supplied after all work- on the newly erected section is complete (i.e. welding, post-tensioning of concrete segments, etc. ). The jacking equipment is-similar to that used for prestressed concrete, using the threaded bar system. Finally the ducting is filled with pumped grout to provide protection against corrosion.

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FABRICATION OF STEEL DECK UNITS Steel box sections are ideally suited to modern fabrication methods. In particular automatic numerically controlled cutting, drilling, milling and welding machines are positive encouragements towards manufacturing as much of the deck as possible under workshop conditions and bringing finished units to the site. Furthermore recent advances in welding technology such as submerged arc, C02, etc., make it possible to perform high quality welds quickly in the field thereby facilitating assembly in manageable size components without loss of performance and quality. The time required to erect and weld deck units into place depends upon the amount, type of weld, plate thickness, etc., but a 15 m length section can be typically installed in a 2 week (10 day) period.

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Suspension Bridge
Overview Suspension bridges are suited to spans exceeding 500 m, and comprise cables slung over two towers. The deck units are hung from the cables and connected together to form a stiffening girder. The cable ends are usually earth anchored while the girder generally has fixed hinges at the piers and movable ones at the towers. Thus a live load on the centre span will cause deflection of the deck and pylons and a small change in the position of the suspension cable.

Aesthetic, light, and strong, suspension bridges can span distances from 2,000 to 7,000 feet -- far longer than any other kind of bridge. They also tend to be the most expensive to build. True to its name, a suspension bridge " suspends " the roadway from huge main cables, which extend from one end of the bridge to the other. These cables rest on top of high towers and are secured at each end by anchorages. The towers enable the main cables to be draped over long distances. Most of the weight of the bridge is carried by the cables to the anchorages, which are imbedded in either solid rock or massive concrete blocks. Inside the anchorages, the cables are spread over a large area to evenly distribute the load and to prevent the cables from breaking free. Some of the earliest suspension bridge cables were made from twisted grass. In the early nineteenth century, suspension bridges used iron chains for cables. Today, the cables are made of thousands of individual steel wires bound tightly together. Steel, which is very strong under tension, is an ideal material for cables; a single steel wire, only 0.1 inch thick, can support over half a ton without breaking.Today, wind tunnel testing of bridge designs is mandatory.

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THE TOWER Depending upon the height and mode of erection, towers may be shop-fabricated in steel as complete units or made up from cellular or box girder sections. Occasionally in situ concrete either cast lift-by-lift or slip-formed offers an alternative method.

CABLE Except on very short spans the suspension cable is generally spun in place from individual galvanised wires, or alternatively positioned similar to the method used for cable-stayed bridges. Both systems require the wire or strands to be compacted together and then bound in galvanised wire and coated with weather- resistant paint to aid corrosion protection.

HANGERS Hanger cables are clamped directly to the suspension cable with tightly bolted bands. The main cable wrapping only extends up to the bands as these are fixed prior to the wrapping operation. 27 of 37

DECK UNIT Two types of deck system are used for suspension bridges, namely: 1. Trussed girders. 2. Steel box sections. Trussed girders were predominantly used on the earlier bridges with the members erected piece-by-piece from a crane running on the previously erected deck. Alternatively the trusses were assembled into large sections and lifted into place. The high costs of fabrication, inefficient use of steel inherent in the design, the large quantities of labourintensive work and maintenance costs, however, forced designers towards cellular steel box sections. These can be prefabricated cheaply and quickly delivered to site, complete with footpaths and railing. They are easily connected together with bolts and/or welding. Once the units are joined, the concrete surfacing is laid and the deck finishes completed.

ANCHORAGES The anchorage is fundamental to the stability of a suspension bridge, as all the load in the cable must be transferred to a fixed anchorage (a few small bridges with self anchorages similar to cable-stayed bridges have been used). There are commonly three types: 1. Rock anchors. 2. Tunnel anchorage. 3. Gravity anchorage.

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Rock anchorages simply involve drilling into the rock and grouting in large bolt type anchors to which the strands are subsequently attached. Where suitable rock is available, a U-tunnel can be constructed and the two cables joined to form a loop. However, the gravity anchorage has proved to be most popular with designers. The basic arrangement consists of looped over strand shoes attached to anchor bolts located in the concrete. The cable forces are thus resisted by a combination of overburden, dead weight and bearing friction.

SADDLES The cable is usually spun in place, strand-by-strand. When the required number of wires in a strand is achieved they are grouped together with straps or bands placed at about 2 m intervals. The saddle at the top of each tower and the splay saddles are cast in steel and grooved, stepped and divided with steel spacers to aid wire location during spinning. A cover plate is provided for protection against corrosion. The whole unit is bolted down to resist movement. ERECTION METHODS The two systems most commonly selected for the deck placing sequences are: 1. Start erection from centre of main span. 2. Start erection from the towers. The deck section joints are left unconnected until the last unit is in position as significant displacement of the main cable and towers takes place while the dead loading is progressively increased. Calculations should therefore be made of the cable tension and

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shape, and distortion of the towers during the erection sequence to ensure tolerable limits of deformation are maintained. A typical sequence of operations is as follows: (i) Construct piers and anchorages. (ii) Erect towers and saddles. (iii) Hoist catwalk cables into place and build catwalk. (iv) Place cross bridges and fix storm ties to stabilise catwalk. (v) Haul out tramway ropes for spinning wheels. (vi) Erect suspension cable by air spinning method adjusting wires and strands for sag within tolerance specification. (vii) Compact cable and temporarily clamp. (viii) Fix permanent bands and hangers to approximate positions operating from work carriages running on the tramway cable. (ix) Erect deck units. (x) Connect deck joints when all units are in place and complete tightening of hanger bands. (xi) Wrap main cable. (xii) Complete road surfacing, etc.

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TOWER ERECTION The bridge towers can be assembled in segments or formed from in situ concrete, using either the slip-form method or climbing forms. A tower crane or derrick on gabbards is normally placed at each leg for the purpose. The crane can also assist in placing the saddles and hoisting up the free ends of the catwalk cable strands. A passenger/materials hoist clipped to the side of the tower is also generally provided for rapid transfer of men and materials.

CATWALK AND HAULING SYSTEM Walkways (or catwalks) are provided just below each main cable to access during the spinning and subsequent erection operation. Typically these are about 3 m wide, consisting of hardwood tread boards mounted on galvanised mesh all carried on wire strands, with two additional strands acting as hand railing. Stiffening frames are spaced regularly (approximately 50 m) along the span and cross bridges provided to link the two walks. Also two tramway support strands are stretched above the catwalk between the main towers and from towers to abutments to carry the stabilising cross beams (at approximately 90 m spacing) and spinning wheel haul rope sheaves. The whole system is stabilised by means of strong ropes anchored to the towers and abutments. The walkway strands are the first to be placed in position using barges. The free end of each is raised and connected to the top of the tower while the rest is unwound off the reel along the bed of the river, and subsequently fixed to the abutment or other tower. Adjustment is generally necessary to produce the desired sag for the spinning operation. The rest of the catwalk equipment such as mesh, stiffening frames, main bridging beams, etc., are usually slid down the strands working from the tower tops. 'A small working carriage running on the handrail strands is generally set up to transport the workmen. The tramway support strands are next erected in a similar manner to those of the footbridge, with the cross beams also being slid into position under control from the tower tops and tied to the catwalk frames. With these operations complete the tramway haul rope can be winched along the catwalk. 32 of 37

CABLE ERECTION Reeling Operation The main cable wire is generally transported to site in coils and wound on to 2 m diameter reels capable of holding about 10-15 span lengths. The end of the wire is led round a tensioning wheel (which turns against a controlled brake) and on to the reel. Ends can be spliced together with swaged couplings.

Cable Spinning The drums of wire are taken from the reeling area and set up on electrically powered unreeling machines (in the example shown a single reel is illustrated but often up to eight 33 of 37

wires are simultaneously unreeled across the span). The end of the wire is passed over a series of pulleys housed in a high tower and led via a floating sheave to a strand shoe, where a temporary connection is made. The wire is then looped by hand over the spinning wheel and hauled with the endless tramway drive rope at 200-300 m/min to a strand shoe on the anchorage at the other bank. Thus two wires are simultaneously spun, one dead (i.e. that fixed to the shoe) and the other live. The dead wire is temporarily held in position with hooks spaced at approximately 150 m centres along the catwalk, while the live wire is run through sheaves to aid control. Meanwhile the empty wheel returns to the reeling side. Adjustment of sag for each wire generally takes place while spinning is in operation. As soon as the wheel passes over a tower the dead wire or) the side span is unhooked, pulled clear of the catwalk with an electric winch, lined up with a guide wire and clamped at the top of the tower, it is then manually lifted into the strand formers located along the catwalk at about 150 m centres. The procedure is then repeated in the main span after the wheel has passed the other tower. Adjustment of the remaining side span sag takes place after the wire has been looped over the strand shoe while the wheel is stationary in ready uses for the return journey to the reeling side. During this return period, the previously live wire is released from the sheaves and adjusted in a similar manner to the dead wire.

The process is repeated until a complete strand has been made, where after the loose end is spliced to the temporary connection initially provided for the start end of the wire. The wires are subsequently shaken out, temporarily banded into strands and any final sag adjustments taken up by the strand shoe. The remaining strands are spun in a similar manner until the whole cable is formed. Spinning can usually only take place when wind speeds are less than about 50 km/h. The whole process typically takes up to 6 months for a 1000 m span bridge, with an average about 6 tonnes per day of spun strand. Cable Compaction When all the strands are in place, compaction is required to produce the desired shape and reduce the voids. This process is done with a compacting machine, running on the handrail strands and working down from the towers. The machine encircles the cable and squeezes the wires together with hydraulic jacks, breaking the temporary strand ties in the process. Heavy strapping is then fixed around the cable at 1 m spacing. On completion of these operations the cable is stable and free to hang without the aid of the strand formers. Cable Banding and Hanger Erection

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After removal of the tramway beams, the cable bands for the deck hangers are bolted into the exact position required for each deck unit, a work carriage running on the tramway support strands is generally set up to assist transport. Thereafter the deck hangers are fixed one-by-one, the usual procedure being to unreel the hanger at the top of the tower and allow it to unwind along the catwalk. It is then lowered under winched control and connected to the band. The storm ropes are finally removed and the catwalk slackened off to allow for cable movement during erection of the deck. Deck Erection The sequence of deck erection is shown in the section of erection methods. Modern practice usually prefers box sections either barged or self-floated into position below the hangers. Great care is required in prefabricating the units to ensure matching joints and prevent distortion during transportation. This can generally be managed with 15-30 m long sections weighing up to 300 tonnes. The box sections are usually lifted at four points using two support beams running on the main cable although occasionally derricksmounted barges are used. The winches are usually placed on platforms located at the tower or on its foundation. During the lifting operation the beams are locked to the cable to avoid movement caused by the pull from the winches. Jointing of the units should normally be left until the last section is in place, since hogging or sagging will occur depending upon the erection sequence. CABLE WRAPPING The hangers are given a final tightening where after the cable is wrapped in galvanised mild steel wire (3-4 mm diameter) to provide corrosion protection. The wrapping machine consists of two drums encircling the cable and the wire is unwound as the unit in winched along. Wrapping can be achieved from either end of the machine in order that wire may be brought tight against a hanger band. The drum should contain just enough wire to cover between two hanger bands and allow the drums to be slit apart to pass the bands. The whole unit is hung from the tramway support strands and travels at about 0.5 m/min. The final operation requires the catwalk and other strands to be dismantled, this is a very difficult and dangerous operation requiring the workmen to raise the mesh panels by hand and winch them to the deck below.

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Conclusion
From the above discussion it is clear that the type of bridge and the construction method to a large extent depends upon the site conditions and the type of materials available and the length of bridge. Another criteria is economy. Now a days the aesthetics is considered an important factor for bridge. The forces on the bridges plays a important role in deciding the bridge construction. Large size piles, and jack down method for wells have made the construction of foundations in less time.

References:
Construction and Design of cable-stayed Bridges by Walter Podolny, Jr. and John B.Scalzi BRIDGES: three thousand years of defying nature by David J. Brown Concrete Bridges practice by VK RAINA Concrete Engineering International Volume10 August 2006 Concrete Society Volume 40 number 9 ,2006

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