SHIP SQUAT

When a ship proceeds through water, she pushes water ahead of her. In order not to leave a 'hole' in the water, this volume of water must return down the sides and under the bottom of the ship. The streamlines of return flow are speeded up under the ship. This causes a drop in pressure, resulting in the ship dropping vertically in the water. As well as dropping vertically, the ship generally trims ford or aft. The overall decrease in the static underkeel clearance, ford or aft, is called Ship Squat. It is not the difference between the draughts when stationary and the draughts when the ship is moving ahead. If the ship moves forward at too great a speed when she is in shallow water, say where this static even-keel UKC is 1.0 to 1.5 meters, then grounding due to excessive squat could occur at the Bow or at the Stern. For full-form ships such as Supertankers or OBO vessels, grounding will occur generally at the BOW. For fine-form vessels such as Passenger Liners or Container Ships the grounding will generally occur at the STERN. This is assuming that they are on even keel when stationary.

Salient points
Squat is the decrease in under-keel water, that is, the difference between her underkeel clearence when making way and when stopped over the water.

 Bernoullis theorem states that in any moving fluid, the sum of the potential energy, the kinetic energy and the pressure energy is a constant.

As the water flows aft below the ships hull, the potential energy of the water remains unchanged however its kinetic energy increases.

According to Bernoullis theorem, when the kinetic energy of the water increases, its pressure energy must reduce. Since the ship is supported by the pressure energy of the water, as the pressure energy has reduced, the ship sinks to a longer draft. In addition to the bodily sinkage that occurs, the ship also trims by the head or by the stern.

With a static even keel trim, full form vessels such as tankers and bulk carries with Cb more than 0.7 trim by the head. Fine form vessels such as passenger ships and containers vessels with Cb less than 0.7 trim by the stern.

The factors that affect the amount of squat

1)The ships speed over the water The squat varies approximately directly as the speed over the water in knots squared.
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 Squat occurs even when the ship is moored, if a tide is running. Hence squat should be taken into account when conducting draft surveys. Also, when loading to a particular draft, squat could result in under loading if the drafts are read when a tide is running.
2)

The block coefficient, Cb The squat varies directly as the Cb. The Cb values generally vary from about 0.85 for very large tankers to about 0.75 for bulkers, about 0.7 for general cargo vessels to about 0.6 or less for passenger vessels and container ships.

3)The blockage factor, S The blockage factor, S, is the ratio between the immersed cross sectional are of the vessel and the cross sectional area of the water in the canal.
S = b x S tic ta d ft ra B X d th o w ter ep f a

where b is the breadth of the ship and B is the width of the canal. Even in open waters, this factor is to be considered using the width of influence B in place of the width of the canal B. The width of influence B in open waters is obtained as B = [ 7.7 + 20 (1-Cb)2] b where b is the breadth of the ship. The B value in open waters varies from about 8 b for large tankers to about 9.5 b for general cargo vessels to about 12 b for container and passenger ships. In open waters where the depth of water to draft of ship ratio is about 1.2, the value of the blockage factor S will be around 0.1.
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4)The static under keel clearance The lesser the under-keel clearance, the more is the squat because the stream lines of return flow aft of the water, past the vessel increases due to the reduced clearance under the vessel. This increases the kinetic energy and therefore further reduces the pressure energy of the water. Thus as the ratio of depth of water to draft to ship reduces, the squat increases. 5)The at rest trim of the vessel The squat at the bow increases to a greater extent if her at rest trim was by the head. The squat at the stern will increase to a greater extent if her at rest trim was by the stern. The calculated maximum squat should therefore be applied to the greater of the two end drafts to obtain the minimum under keel clearance. 6)Passing another ship in a river or canal When the ship is passing or overtaking another vessel in a river or canal, the squat can increase upto twice the normal value as the combined blockage factor, S, becomes the sum of the blockage factor of each ship. 7)The squat increases if the ship is close to the bank of a river or canal. 8)Formulae For a vessel at an even keel static trim when the ratio of the depth of water to the draft of ship is in the range of 1.1 to 1.4, the maximum squat in open or confined waters may be predicted fairly accurately by either of the expressions:4

(i)

Maximum squat = Cb x S0.81 x V2.08 20

in the above expressions: S is the blockage factor. V is the ships speed over the water in knots. Cb is the block coffecient Other approximate formulae are:Maximum squat in open waters = Cb x V2 100 Maximum squat in confined waters Where S is between 0.1 and 0.265 = Cb x V2 50 Both the above approximate formulae slightly over estimate the maximum squat thereby erring on the safer side. At this point, a consideration may arise as to the depth of water, which can be considered shallow. This depends on the depth of influence of the ship, which is approximately (5/Cb) x draft.
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In depths lesser than the depth of influence the ship may be considered in shallow waters. Since the depth of influence is more than 5 times the draft, though the ships squat may commence to increase slightly at such depths, it is not of much consequence. The increase in squat is significant when the depth to draft ratio is less than 2. It is much more pronounced and of consequence when this ratio is less than 1.5. The best course of action to reduce squat is to reduce the ships speed, because the squat varies directly as the ships speed squared. Halving the speed will reduce the squat to a quarter. However, the fact that manoeuvring which is already sluggish in shallow waters may deteriorate further should also be considered when reducing the speed.

Signs that a ship has entered shallow water

Maximum Ship Squat increases. Mean bodily sinkage increases. Ship will generally develop extra trim by the bow or the stern. Wave-making increases, especially at the forward end of the ship.
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Ship becomes more sluggish to manoeuvre - To quote a pilot, almost like being in porridge. Draught indicators on the Bridge or echo-sounders will indicate changes in the end draughts. Propeller rpm indicator will show a decrease. If the ship is in 'open water' conditions i.e. without breadth restrictions, this decrease may be up to 15% of the Service rpm in deep water. If the ship is in a confined channel, this decrease in rpm can be up to 20% of the Service rpm. There will be a drop in speed. If the ship is in open water conditions this decrease may be up to 35%. If the ship is in a confined channel such as a river or a canal then this decrease can be up to 75%. The ship may start to vibrate suddenly. This is because of the entrained water effects causing the natural hull frequency to become resonant with another frequency associated with the vessel. Any Rolling, Pitching and Heaving motions will all be reduced as ship moves from deep water to shallow water conditions. This is because of the cushioning effects produced by the narrow layer of water under the bottom shell of the vessel. The appearance of mud could suddenly show in the water around the ships hull say in the event of passing over a raised shelf or a submerged wreck. Turning Circle Diameter (TCD) increases. TCD in shallow water could increase 100%. Stopping distances and stopping times increase, compared to when a vessel is in deep waters. Effectiveness of the rudder helm decreases. Width of the wake increases considerably.
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ANCHORING
Preparation for Anchoring The Chief Officer (or another experienced officer in lieu) must supervise letting go or weighing the anchors and should only assign experienced crew members to anchor work. Prior to Anchoring, the Chief Officer should be aware of: a. Approximate anchoring position b. Method of approach c. Which anchor to use d. Depth of water e. Method of Anchoring f. Final amount of Cables Pre operation checks At the Forecastle: Check brakes are on and clear the voyage securing devices
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(Anchor Lashings, Bow Compressed Bar etc.) a. Start Hydraulic (Source of) Power of Windlasses b. Check Anchor Shapes / Lights c. Check Communication with the Bridge d. Check Lighting on Forecastle including torch, at night time e. Ensure all personnel are wearing Safety Helmets, Safety Shoes and Goggles. Before Letting Go Anchor: The Chief Officer shall confirm that there is no craft or any obstacle under the bow and inform to the Bridge. The Master shall ensure that the vessels GPS speed at the time of anchoring is nearzero or indicates a slight sternway. The speed should be verified by visual transits and/or Radar ranges of Landmarks, if available or other fix conspicuous targets. Where means of communication between Bridge and the Anchoring party is by Portable radio, the identification of the ship should be clear to avoid misinterpretation of instructions from other user of such equipment in the vicinity.
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Routine Anchoring Operation There are 2 methods for Anchoring according to depth of the water: Method 1 (Preferable for Depths up to 50m ) a. Walk out the anchor to Half a shackle above the sea bottom b. Hold the cable on the brake and take the windlass out of gear c. Stop the vessel over ground d. Drop the anchor e. Control the speed of cable flow by the brake , while not allowing pile-up f. Keep paying out as the weight comes on the cable until the required length. Disadvantages: If the brake fails, or there is too much speed over ground, the cable will run out to the bitter end with consequent damage. The brake lining could also be damaged due to this Dynamic load (the Static load on brakes to restrain movement of an anchored vessel is much less). Method 2 (Suggested for Depths over 50m )
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a. Stop the vessel over ground b. Walk out the anchor under power until the complete length of required cable is paid out and anchor holds it position on the seabed. Disadvantages: Vessel must be completely stopped to avoid major damage to Windlass. Particular Caution for VLCCs / big ships VLCCs, because of their inertia require great caution while anchoring. They can suffer equipment failure if attempting to anchor whilst moving at speeds as low as half a knot over the ground. Hence, the vessel must be nearly stopped not only in the linear direction but axial too, meaning the bow should not be swinging much either while anchoring. The depth at which the vessel can safely anchor is about 110m or less, beyond which the windlass may have extreme difficulty in recovering the anchor. Emergency Anchoring Anchors should be ready for letting go on arrival and departure port, when in anchoring depths. At least, any wire lashings are to be removed and the anchors held on brake. In critical situations, to arrest the movement of the vessel, after stopping/reversing the
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main engine, it is preferable to let go both anchors simultaneously instead of one. Anchor retrieval For weighing in the anchors, to reduce the load on the windlass, keep the cable near vertical, as required, short movements to be given on the main engine (and Bow Thruster used, where is applicable) The stay and direction of the cable and the residual shackles are to be continuously reported to the bridge. Anchor Wash to be run to clean the chain and the anchor. When anchor is fully hove, the brake is to be applied and the windlass taken out of gear. Walk Back speed Generally the speed of windlass is 15cm / second (= one shackle of 27.5 meter / 3 minutes) corresponding to 0.3 kts of ship's speed over ground. 1.0 kts = aprx. 50cm / sec 0.5 kts = aprx. 25cm / sec 0.2 kts = aprx. 10cm / sec

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The factors to be considered in choosing an anchorage are:

Holding quality / nature of the bottom: Any slope (uneven surface) of the seabed should be considered poor holding ground Adequacy of room for swing Protection from wind land sea Strength of tidal stream and wind Duration of stay at anchor Type of anchors and cable

Nature of bottom and anchor design Older types of anchors will hold satisfactorily in firm seabeds such as: Clay Soft chalk Sand Sand/shingle Heavy mud But will drag in softer sea beds such as : Soft mud Shingle Shell Amount of cable required The cable must be long enough to ensure that a part of it near the anchor always remains in the seabed.
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 The rest of the cable acts as a spring in preventing the anchor from being jerked when the ship is yawing from side to side, or pitching. The amount of cable required depends on Depth of water Weight of cable Length of stay Weather Nature of bottom An approximate formula for forged steel cable is: Amount of cable to veer in shackles is one and a half times the square root of the depth of water in meters. The amount of cable to be veered depends upon many factors, but it should always be enough to ensure that it imparts a horizontal pull to the anchor at all times, otherwise the anchor will lose much of its holding power and will probably drug. A pull in a direction only 15 degrees above the horizontal will reduce by more than a half the holding power of the anchor. 0 A pull in a direction only 5 above the horizontal will reduce by 25% the holding power of the anchor. Holding efficiency of an anchor Holding efficiency of an anchor is expressed as a ratio of holding pull and anchor weight, and varies, depending on type of anchor from 3:1 to 10:1. Anchor cable offers a holding efficiency of its WT. Anchors and cables are capable of holding a loaded vessel in a current of 3 knots and a wind of 28 knots, maximum
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They are not designed to stop a vessel with way on. The windless motor is designed to lift 3 shackles vertically plus the weight of the anchor, with a 50% allowance on test when new. The cable stopper should be able to carry approx. twice the proof load of the cable and The windlass brake holding power is approx. half the breaking strength of the cable.

Procedure for anchoring: Where conditions permit the approach should be made heading into the current, if the wind has a greater effect upon the vessel then into the wind. It is desirable to approach from such direction that a prominent object or preferably a transit is available dead ahead to serve as steering guide. It is also desirable to have a transit or prominent object near the beam at the point of letting go the anchor. The weather anchor should always be used, otherwise the cable will foul the stem of the ship as the ship drifts with the wind. The ships head is cast about ten degrees to one side just before letting go the anchor to ensure she will pay off in the required direction. In anchorages where hills or mountains descend steeply to the shore, in cracks, lochs or fjords, for example; a particularly sharp lookout on the weather should be kept, because in such localities exceptionally strong, squally winds are liable to occur with little or no warning. The extent to which the speed of a ship should be reduced before anchoring depends upon her type.
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 When anchoring in less than 30 metres of water an amount of cable equal to twice the depth of water should first be allowed to run out freely to enable the anchor to embed itself. Thereafter the brake of the cableholder or windlass should be applied so that the cable is kept growing at an angle of about 30 degrees with the vertical. The brake shoud not be applied fiercely or the cable be snubbed; a quarter of a turn should suffice, so that if the cable tautens unduly it can render and so reduce the strain on itself. When a stationary cable tautens and then slackens it is sign that the ship has come to rest. (brought up to) When anchoring in deep water the anchor should be lowered to the bottom and not let go, because there is then a chance of the anchor being fractured as it hits the bottom or the links of the first shackle of cable being fractured as they pile up on themselves. Provided that sufficient cable is veered to impart a horizontal pull on the anchor, the veering of any more cable will not greatly increase the holding power of the anchor; because while an anchor in reasonably good holding ground will hold from about 3.5 to 7 times its weight according to its type, cable will just give a holding power of three-quarters of its weight. Cable does, however, act as a spring and therefore as a shock absorber, and so the greater the length of cable veered the less will be the possibility of imparting to the anchor sudden loads due to pitching yawing or squalls.

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Anchoring equipment of 150,000 D.W. tanker as per class rules: Windlass brake holding force 395 tonnes force Cable stopper safe working load 650 tonnes force Ultimate tensile strength of cable Weight of one shackle of cable Weight of anchor Lifting power of anchor windlass 600 2.5 10 32 tonnes force tonne force tonne force tonne force

Anchoring plan If a vessel is to anchor at a predetermined point as in an assigned birth, an established procedures should be followed to ensure accuracy of the placing the anchor. Several procedures have been devised. The following is representative. The position selected for anchoring is located in the chart, the direction of the approach is then determined, considering limitation of land, shoals other vessels etc. When working a ship into position, prior to letting go and swinging on an anchor, it may also be useful to consider the following points: Plan to conduct the swing in a direction that favors transverse thrust when going astern, if that it is practicable.
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 Endeavor to get the speed down to the minimum for steerage way when approaching the swinging area. Ensure there is ample space for the stern to swing around in during the turn. Before letting go make certain that the ship is canted the right way, so that the tide is on the correct quarter to assist the turn. At the instant of letter go the speed over the ground should be as low as possible and before the brake is applied the engines should already be going astern, to ease the weight on the windlass.

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