Designing and Installing Code-Compliant PV Systems

Presented by:

Bill Brooks, PE
for the

Nevada SolarGenerations Program

from materials developed by

Endecon Engineering
and the

Florida Solar Energy Center

Course Acknowledgements
This course is the present status of the ongoing development of materials from a variety of sources including: Florida Solar Energy Center Southwest Technology Development Institute Sandia National Laboratories National Renewable Energy Laboratories PVUSA Endecon Engineering Arco/Siemens Solar

Course Disclaimers and Notices

Opinions expressed in the presentations are those of the presenter and are not necessarily those of the SolarGenerations Program. No product endorsement is intended or implied. Neither the SolarGenerations Program nor Bill Brooks are in any way responsible for the decisions made by installers as a result of taking this training course. None of the materials in this course manual may be reproduced without the express written consent of Bill Brooks.

Course Objectives
This course is intended to focus the installer on the important aspects of system design and installation so as to achieve predictable results in the field. The course will provide the attendee with a basic background in

photovoltaic (PV) fundamentals National Electrical Code requirements and interpretation key design issues related to PV systems generally accepted installation practices based on many years of field experience available PV-specific products

Course Objectives (NOT)

This course is NOT intended to: Make participants PV system designers or PV experts Guarantee that participants will automatically have good experiences with products chosen as a result of taking this course Endorse or reject any product Make decisions for participants on what products to use

Tales from the Crypt: The california buydown program

Field Performance Issues

Design IssuesLack of Experience Installation IssuesNeed Checkout procedures Equipment IssuesNeed better equipment setup
documentation

Performance Estimation IssuesLack of

consistency and understanding of how to calculate performanceneed meters!

Conclusions from California

Early system performance is not encouraging. Training is essential to quality design and installation. Follow-up is necessary especially for new contractors. Metering is required to provide feedback to the system owner.

Photovoltaic System

Fundamentals

Some Benefits of Solar Electricity

Energy independence Environmentally friendly Fuel is already delivered free everywhere Minimal maintenance Maximum reliability Reduce vulnerability to power loss Systems are easily expanded

Difference between PV and Thermal

Photovoltaic (photo = light; voltaic = produces voltage) or PV systems convert light directly into electricity using semiconductor technology. (@ 10% efficiency) Thermal systems (hot water, pool heaters) produce heat from the suns radiation (@ +40 % efficiency) Large difference in value of energy types.

What Are Solar Cells?

Thin wafers of silicon

Similar to computer chips much bigger much cheaper!

Silicon is abundant (sand)

Non-toxic, safe
Light carries energy into cell Cells convert sunlight energy into electric current- they do not store energy Sunlight is the fuel

How Solar Cells Change Sunlight Into Electricity

Light knocks loose electrons from silicon atoms Freed electrons have extra energy, or voltage Internal electric field pushes electrons to top of the cell Electric current flows on to other cells or to the load Cells never run out of electrons

Definitions: PV Cell
Cell: The basic photovoltaic device that is the building block for PV modules.

Connect Cells To Make Modules

One silicon solar cell produces 0.5 volt 36 cells connected together have enough voltage to charge 12 volt batteries and run pumps and motors 72-cell modules are the new standard for gridconnected systems having a nominal voltage of 24Volts and operating at about 30 Volts. Module is the basic building block of systems Can connect modules together to get any power configuration

Definitions: PV Module
Module: A group of PV cells connected in series and/or parallel and encapsulated in an environmentally protective laminate.

BP Solar MSX60 60 watt polycrystalline

Shell SP75 75 watt single crystal

Definitions: Encapsulation
Encapsulation: The method in which PV cells are protected from the environment, typically laminated between a glass superstrate and EVA substrate. Newer light weight flexible laminates use a polymer superstrate and a thin aluminum or stainless steel substrate.

Definitions: Junction Box

Module Junction Box: An enclosed terminal block on the back of PV modules which allows the module to be connected in the electrical system. Newer modules often replace the junction box and use only plug-and-receptacle connectors

Definitions: PV Panel
Panel: A group of modules that is the basic building block of a PV array.

Definitions: PV Array
Array: A group of panels that comprises the complete direct current PV generating unit.

Definitions: Balance of System (BOS)

BOS: The balance of the equipment necessary to integrate the PV array with the site load (building). This includes the array circuit wiring, fusing, disconnects, and power processing equipment (inverter).

Handling requirements of PV modules

Most PV modules have a tempered glass cover, an anodized aluminum frame, and a Tedlar back cover. Amorphous silicon modules are made of annealed glass and can be either framed or unframed. (unframed annealed glass is very susceptible to breakage). All PV modules must be handled carefully.

Review Basics of Energy and Power

Voltage Like water pressure Measured in volts Current Like flow rate (like gallons per minute) Measured in amperes or amps

Review of Power
Power Rate of flow X pressure of the flow Measured in watts Power = Current X Voltage More pressure or more flow means more power Is a RATE of doing work, not an amount of work

Review of Energy
Energy The total AMOUNT of work done by the pressurized flow over a period of time Power X time gives an amount of work generated (by the modules) or consumed (by the loads) Is an AMOUNT, not a rate Measured in watt-hours (or kilowatt-hours, kWh) Energy = Power X Time = Current X Voltage X Time

Review of Energy and Power

So Energy is the AMOUNT you have to work with And Power is the RATE that you work with it

Fundamentals of Solar Energy

Objectives
Understand the relationships between irradiance, and insolation. Explain the effects of the earths motion on the solar energy received at a given location. Describe the use of insolation data in determining photovoltaic systems performance.

Annual Sun Position

Sun Paths for Nevada Latitudes

Ju ne 22 1 2 noo n

Zenith
10 a m 2 pm Marc h 21 a nd Septem be r 23: 1 2 noo n 10 a m 8 am 2 pm Ju ne 22 1 221: 12 Noon December noo n

8 am

E ast

10 a m 8 am

4 pm

2 pm

N or th
4 pm

P oint O
4 pm

S outh

West

Sun Path Calculator

Solar Irradiance
Radiant power per unit area Units:, Watts/m2, or kW/m2 or mW/cm2 Peak value: 1000 Watts/m2, or 1 kW/m2 (100 mW/cm2) Nominal value: 800 Watts/m2 , or 0.8 kW/m2 (roughly half of PV energy is delivered below and half above this value)

Solar Constant
The irradiance on a surface normal to the suns rays immediately outside the earths atmosphere. Solar constant = 1.36 kW/m2

Solar Irradiation
Often called Insolation Radiant energy per unit area Irradiance integrated over time Units: kWh/(m2-day)

Solar Insolation (Peak Sun Hours)

Solar Irradiance (W/m2)
1000 W/m2
peak sun hours

Time of Day

Reno Annual Irradiation

9 8 Solar Energy (kWh/m^2/day) 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Lat Aug Sep Oct Vert Nov Dec

Horiz

Lat-15

Lat+15

Las Vegas Annual Irradiation

9 8 Solar Energy (kWh/m^2/day) 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Lat Aug Sep Oct Vert Nov Dec

Horiz

Lat-15

Lat+15

Magnetic Declination

Isc Imp Current (A) x

Pmp

PV Performance Parameters

1.4 1.2 Current, Power Current, Power 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0

Voltage (V)
1.4 1.2 Current, Power 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Voltage I

Vmp Voc
P

Open-circuit voltage (Voc) Short-circuit current (Isc) Maximum power voltage (Vmp) Maximum power current (Imp) Maximum power (Pmp) Fill factor (ff = Pmp /(Voc*Isc))
I P 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 1.2 1.4 0 I P

FF = 0.558
1 1.2 1.4

FF = 0.692
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Voltage 1

FF = 0.815
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Voltage 1 1.2 1.4

Typical PV Module Label

Current varies with irradiance

Siemens Solar Module SP75 Performance at Different Irradiances
6 Current (amps) 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 Voltage (volts) 1000 W/m2, 25 oC 800 W/m2, 25 oC 600 W/m2, 25 oC 400 W/m2, 25 oC 200 W/m2, 25 oC

Voltage varies with temperature

Siemens Solar Module SP75 Performance at Different Cell Temperatures
6 Current (amps) 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 Voltage (volts) 1000 W/m2, 0 oC 1000 W/m2, 25 oC 1000 W/m2, 45 oC 1000 W/m2, 60 oC

Performance Calculations

The Need For Simple Energy Estimates

System sizing often based on module STC Insolation variability and several important loss factors often ignored Tendency toward overpredicting energy performance (by 20-50%) Field engineering estimates within 10-15% are possible without a computer

The Need For Simple Energy Estimates

Dealers and installers need a simple field estimating tool that does not rely on a computer. Customers need immediate feedback when looking at array mounting options.

This Method Defined

Starting point is module rating (STC or PTC or any defined condition) A series of performance adjustment multipliers are factored in as appropriate to arrive at longterm energy estimate Individual factors that exceed 4% were separately identified. Remaining factors were lumped into more inclusive categories

PV System Performance
Energy Production from PV system is a function of several factors including: Temperature (efficiency) System configuration (battery, non-battery) Solar Resource Orientation Soiling Shading

Temperature (efficiency):
Module performance only has meaning when the rating conditions are specified: Standard Test Conditions (STC) Nominal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT) PVUSA Test Conditions (PTC)

Standard Test Conditions (STC)

Irradiance: 1,000 W/m2 Cell temperature: 25o C Air mass: 1.5 ASTM standard spectrum

Nominal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT)

Irradiance: 800 W/m2 Ambient Temp: 20o C PV Array: open circuit Wind Speed: 1.0 m/s (calm)

Sensitivity analysis showed that annual module temperatures were close to NOCT for most locales, and only small errors were incurred for extreme climates (Miami, FL, and Intl.Falls, MN).

PVUSA Test Conditions (PTC)

Irradiance: 1000 W/m2 Ambient Temp: 20oC (not cell temp.typical cell temp. is 50oC under these conditions) PV Array: Max Power Wind Speed: 1.0 m/s (calm)

System Rating--PVUSA Test Conditions (PTC)

The average annual efficiency is well represented by the module temperatures rendered by PTC, NOCT, and INOCT STC is not useful for energy or power ratings since it poorly represents efficiency of the PV module. Shell SQ-150 is 132.5 Watts dc at PTC conditions. WARNING: THIS IS NOT A SYSTEM RATINGthis is based strictly on manufacturers information

Solar Resource: Data - How to find

Resource information from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory online or order hardcopy: http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/pubs/redbook/ To determine average solar radiation for your system, take the average number for collectors facing south at latitude tilt from the solar insolation table. (orientation dealt with later) (e.g. 6.5 kWh/m2/day for Vegas and 5.8 kWh/m2/day for Reno)

Array Orientation-Optimum Angle

Application Angle

Best Fixed Array

Maximum Energy Production

(net metering)

Normally Latitude
(but local climatic variations can change this--California=30)

Winter Peak Load

(example: off grid)

Latitude plus 15 Latitude minus 15

(Nevada resource is same as Latitude tilt)

Summer Peak Load

(time-of-use net metering)

Proper Module Rating

The Shell SQ-150-PC is rated at 132.5 Watts dc at normal operating conditions. Must also account for overrating by manufacturer. Manufacturers typically have either a +/-10% or +/-5% tolerance. Always assume the low end of the range. 0.88 x 0.95 = 0.84 Module Correction Factor 150-Watt module delivers 126-Watts dc

System Configuration battery or non-battery

Wiring and max power tracking losses account for roughly 7% losses high voltage PV systems. (factor of 0.93) Battery-based systems also have similar wiring losses, but they also have charge controller losses and require a small trickle charge to maintain float voltage for a total of 15% losses (factor of 0.85)

Inverter Efficiency
Annual energy-weighted inverter efficiency ranges from 85% to 90% (use 85% for older battery-based systems and 90% for batteryless systems) Covers the fact that inverter has an efficiency curve and is not always operating at peak efficiency) TOTAL SYSTEM LOSSES: (module x system config. x inverter) Non-battery systems -- (0.84 x 0.93 x 0.90 = 0.70) Typ. battery systems -- (0.84 x 0.85 x 0.85 = 0.61)

Orientation Factor
For Annual Energy Production in California (Nevada similar-not exact)
FACING South SSE,SSW SE, SW ESE,WSW E, W Flat 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 4:12 0.97 0.97 0.95 0.92 0.88 ROOF PITCH 7:12 12:12 1.00 0.97 0.99 0.96 0.96 0.93 0.91 0.87 0.84 0.78 21:12 0.89 0.88 0.85 0.79 0.70 Vert. 0.58 0.59 0.60 0.57 0.52

Soiling:
Three basic categories for Rainy/Dry Season Areas Washed as often as necessary - 1.0 Washed once in July 0.96 Never Washed - 0.93 Factors affecting number Rainy/Dry Seasons Dirt roads Near agricultural activity Close to road surface of busy street In airport flight path

Monthly Soiling Loss Profile

Wet (-4%) Normal (-7%) Dry (-11%) Weighted (-7%)

0 -5 Soiling Loss, % -10 -15 -20 -25 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Shading Factor
Shading has a significant impact on PV system operation. Electrical layout of PV modules can reduce or enhance the impact of shading. Goal is to be free of shade from 9:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m. every day of the year (10-4 in summer) Solar Pathfinder, or similar device, is critical to get ballpark value on shading.

Dont do this!

Is This Method Good Enough?

So far, method has been compared with a variety of real systems with good agreement. Solar resource data uncertainty (+/-9%) is as large or larger than the uncertainty associated with this method suggesting that this simple method is adequate for most design purposes.

Photovoltaic Array Electrical Design

Objectives
Describe basic PV design principles Describe series and parallel wiring strategies for PV modules and arrays. Explain the function and location of protection diodes in a PV electrical system. Identify the appropriate ratings and locations for overcurrent protection and disconnect devices in PV systems.

Initial Design Philosophy

A choice must be made between lower voltage and higher voltage options These two classes of inverters have some definite advantages and disadvantages that must be reviewed in the context of the specific application.

System Comparison
Lower Voltage benefits Somewhat lower risk of shock or fire. Can be more tolerant of shading because array is in smaller segments Allows installation on smaller roof sections Allows for battery-backup systems High Voltage benefits Less wiring (more modules per series stringfewer circuits smaller conduit) Lower voltage drops (smaller wirepossibly more efficient inverters)

Photovoltaic Array Wiring

First, build series strings to obtain desired array output voltage. Next, Connect series strings in parallel to obtain desired output power. Example--2,400 Watt, 48-volt system using 24-volt, 150Watt(STC) modules: 2 modules in series to reach proper voltage. (2 x 150W = 300-watts per string) 2,400W/300W = 8 series strings (in parallel) Total modules 2 x 8 = 16, 150-Watt modules

Building a PV Array

Current (A)

Voltage (V)

# of Modules in Series for High Voltage Inverters

First, determine overall voltage limits of inverter. Next, determine voltage limits of max power tracking for inverter. Next, determine maximum number of modules allowed in series. Lastly, check to make sure inverter can max power track voltage at hottest array temperature

Example
SMA Sunny Boy SB2500U Inverter: Max DC voltage600V Tracking voltage range 250V 550V DC Max number of modules in series Voc = 43V, max voltage per module = 43V x 1.25 (1.17 for Vegas) = 53.75 V; 600V/53.75V = 11 modules Module voltage at hottest condition Vmp = 27V (from graphs in literature-typical value); 250V/27V = 9 modules Maximum range of 24V modules--9 to 11; recommendation from manufacturer10 or 11

DC Over-voltage
Inverter Vdc Range

Trouble

Power electronics limitations Causes Poor array design Poor choice of inverter

DC Under-voltage
Design issue for selecting inverter Voltage limits may be a problem with amorphous silicon modules Causes Poor choice of inverter Degradation of array Excessive temperature or unexpectedly large Voc temperature sensitivity Consequence: Lost energy

Max Power

Protection Diodes
Diodes are semiconductor devices that allow current to flow in only one direction. Analogous to check valves in plumbing systems. The two uses of diodes in PV system electrical design are: Blocking diodes Bypass diodes

Protection Diode Selection

Silicon diodes have 0.7 volt drop. Germanium and Shottky diodes have less than 0.3 volt drop. Rated for current and voltage. May require heat-sinking.

Blocking Diodes
Placed in series with a module or "string" of modules to prevent reverse current flow. As a result of faults being fed by paralleled PV source circuits. As a result of reverse power being fed from grid or battery-tied malfunctioning inverter. Conduct current during normal operation. Typically only used for amorphous silicon systems operating above 100 Volts dc. Becoming less common

Blocking Diode Sizing

Size for 1.5 times the rated array source circuit Isc Size for 1.5 times the rated array source circuit Voc.

Blocking Diode

PV
module or series string

blocking diode

Bypass Diodes
Also called "shunt" diodes, used to pass current around, rather than through a group of cells or modules. Permit the power produced by other parts of the array to pass around groups of cells that develop an open-circuit or high resistance condition. Installed in all UL-listed crystalline modules

Bypass Diode Selection

One diode for 9-24 series-connected cells recommended. Most 36-cell crystalline modules have 2 bypass diodes. Many 72-cell modules have 3 bypass diodes Size for 1.5 times the module Isc rating. Size for greater than 1.5 times the Voc of cells bypassed.

Bypass Diode Location

series connected cells or module

PV

bypass diode

ASE Module Shading Tests Shading Along Module Horizontal Dimension (Width)
7 6 5 Current (A) 4 3 2 1 0 0 10 20 30 Voltage (V) 40 50 60
Wid t h Shad ed (2 ro ws o f cells ) Wid t h Shad ed (1 ro w o f cells ) Wid t h Shad ed (3 / 4 ro w o f cells ) Wid t h Shad ed (1 / 2 ro w o f cells ) Wid t h Shad ed (1 / 4 ro w o f cells ) No Shad ing

ASE Module Shading Tests Shading Along Module Vertical Dimension (Length)
7 6 5 Current (A) 4 3 2 1 0 0 10 20 30 Voltage (V) 40 50 60
Leng th Shad ed (4 ro ws o f cells ) Leng th Shad ed (3 ro ws o f cells ) Leng th Shad ed (2 ro ws o f cells ) Leng th Shad ed (1 -1 / 2 ro ws o f cells ) Leng th Shad ed (1 ro w o f cells ) Leng th Shad ed (3 / 4 ro w o f cells ) Leng th Shad ed (1 / 2 ro w o f cells ) Leng th Shad ed (1 / 4 ro w o f cells ) No Shad ing (full o ut p ut )

Overcurrent Protection and Disconnects

Overcurrent Protection
Used to protect conductors from creating a fire hazard under circuit overload conditions. Options include fuses and circuit breakers. Use devices with appropriate dc ratings. [NEC 690.9(D)]

Overcurrent Protection
Size string fuses or circuit breakers according to UL max series fuse listing-- should be at least 1.56 times maximum current (Isc) (to protect PV module). [NEC 690.8] Size fuse holders for maximum voltage (Voc) (depends on Temp.). [NEC 690.7]

Module Interconnect Methods

daisy chain

Individual circuits to combiner

Unacceptable

Acceptable

PV Combiner Boxes

PV Circuit Conductors
Minimum size according to series fuse rating. May be larger size due to voltage drop issues.

Inverter Circuit Conductors

Inverter may draw sizable dc currents if connected to a battery bank. Conductors must be rated to handle 125% of the maximum full load inverter dc current.

Disconnect Requirements
Required to isolate major system components, e.g., the PV array, inverter, battery, and load. Switches or circuit breakers may be used. Use appropriate dc rated components. Maximum of six (6) disconnect devices are allowed, must be marked and labeled.

PV System Electrical DesignReview

Explained the function and location of protection diodes in a PV electrical system. Discussed appropriate ratings and locations for overcurrent protection and disconnect devices in PV systems.

Photovoltaic Array Mechanical Design

Objectives
Assess system structural loads. Compare alternative roof mounting techniques. Produce a mechanical design that is safe and appropriate for the site and application.

Array Mounting System Design

Minimize installation costs. Maximize array performance. Provide accessibility for maintenance. Meet local code requirements. Make aesthetically pleasing.

Minimizing Array Installation Costs

Use pre-engineered designs that incorporate plug connectors to connect modules together. Pre-assemble modules into panels. Pre-wire modules in each panel. (Check modules visually and Voc & Isc before hauling onto the roof) Minimize the number of attachment points and roof penetrations.

Maximize Array Performance

Find location that has a minimum of shade while being closest to a southern orientation (must use Solar Pathfinder) NO INTERROW SHADING ALL modules in a series string MUST be in the SAME orientation Keep array as cool as possible.

Inter-row shadingBig Problem

Example of series string with multiple orientations-WRONG!!

Array Cooling
Improves efficiency Increases reliability Extends life of solar array

Installed Nominal Operating Cell Temperature

Rack mount INOCT = NOCT - 3 C Direct mount INOCT = NOCT + 18 C Standoff/Integral INOCT = NOCT + X W (inches) X(C) typical* INOCT 1 11 56C 3 2 47C 6 -1 44C Rack mount 42C Direct mount 63 C

@Tamb of 45C 81 C 72 C 69 C 67 C 88 C

where W is standoff, entrance or exit height or width, whichever is minimum. Add 4C if channeled. (Reference SAND85-0330)
*

Typical NOCT is around 45C for Tamb of 20C

Array Orientation
Orientation is specified by relative angle from south and tilt angles. Array orientation may be fixed, adjustable, or sun tracking. Selection of array orientation should be based on location, application, type of array, type of system and cost. (generally roof-mounted systems governed by roof orientations)

Array Mounting Configurations

Ground-mounted (rack, shade structure, pole, or tracking) Roof-mounted (rack, integral, or standoff)

Standoff-Mounted Arrays
Above and parallel to roof slope Allows for clearing of debris Promotes array cooling by allowing air to circulate beneath the array Reduces heat gain into buildings by separation from roof Provides underside access on roof top for diagnostics and maintenance Can be used effectively for new construction or retrofit on existing homes Recommended

Standoff-Mounted Arrays

Rack-Mounted Arrays

The California/Nevada Patio Cover

Integrally-Mounted Arrays
Often referred to as Building-Integrated PV or BIPV Replaces conventional roofing materials Labor intensive Dimensional tolerances important Increases operating temperature Amorphous modules may perform okay in these applications

Roof-Integrated PV Products

Where are the PV modules?

Photo courtesy of USSC

Solar Electric Metal Roofing

Photo courtesy of USSC

Peel and Stick solution from UniSolar

Roof Slates

GE Energy Gecko

Photos courtesy of GE Energy

Primary Structural Concerns for the Building Official

Mounting structurally sound Roof properly weather proofed

Structural Loads on PV Arrays

Dead loads 3 - 8 psf Wind loads 25 - 55 psf (corresponds to 85 mph to 120 mph winds) Snow loads 15 psf (Sierras can require 10-20 times typical snow loads)

Mounting Structurally Sound

Two main types of loading to consider dead load (typically 3-5 lbs./ft2 for standard standoff install and 2-12 lbs./ft2 for integrated products) wind load (25 lbs./ft2 maximum in California (higher in select mountain regions) Structure must be capable of supporting dead load and module attachment method must be capable of withstanding the wind load trying to lift the PV array from the roof (or relevant structure).

Mounting Structurally Sound (cont.)

Most modern truss roofs are capable of handling the extra 3-5 lbs./ft2 dead load provided that the roof is not masonry. (similar to additional layer of comp shingles Masonry roofs may require a structural analysis to add weight. An alternative is to remove the existing product and replace it with comp shingles in the area of PV array. Attachment method must be capable of keeping the PV array on the structure.

Attachment Method: Lag Screw Mounting

Penetration depth: (7 to 10) x (screw diameters) Pilot hole diameter : ( to ) x (shank diameter) Example: 5/16 lag screw Drill 3/16 (i.e., 3/5 x 5/16) pilot hole 2.8 (i.e., 9 x 5/16) into support member.

Fastener Withdraw Loads-Wood (conservative)

Screw Size #8 #10 #14 (1/4") #18 (5/16") #20 (3/8")

Allowable Withdraw (lb./in) Redwood Spruce Doug Fir 64 72 87 74 100 119 94 113 152 114 154 194 124 168 207

Sample Structural Calculations

2kW system 2 x 4 truss roof on 24 centers with composite shingle roof (acceptable for 5 psf added weight) 18 modules @ 12 ft2 per module = 216 ft2. 24 mounting brackets 3 fastener depth in Doug Fir 25 lb/ft2 uplift force

Sample Calculations
216 ft2 x 25 lb/ft2 = 5,400 lb (total uplift) 5,400 lb /24 brackets = 225 lb per mount 194 lb/in x 3 in depth = 582 lb (more than twice as strong as necessary)

PV System Mechanical Design: Review

Structural loads and code compliance Ease of installation and access Array output and thermal performance

PV Inverter Fundamentals

Inverter Basics
Convert battery or PV array DC power to AC power for use with conventional utility-powered appliances. Inverters can be motor-generator (not discussed further here) or (more commonly) electronic types. Vary in utility interaction, power ratings, efficiency, and performance.

Overview
Why: Need ac power from dc source How: Power electronics, supervisory control Where: In the shade, if possible Who: Nobody, except you when it is broken! And...

Overview (continued)
What: PCU: Power Conditioning Unit Inverter: Power electronics and controls

PV Array Batteries

PCU DC Disconnects Inverter AC Disconnects Transformers Utility/ Standalone Grid

Common AC Waveforms
square wave sine wave quasi-sine wave quasiTime

Amplitude

One Cycle

Standalone Sources
Inverter creates voltage waveform Load current demands may create phase shifted or non-sinusoidal current waveform Examples Motor current lags voltage Computers demand current at peaks of voltage waveform

Grid-Connected Sources
Grid creates voltage waveform Inverter unlikely to distort voltage unless there is a poor connection Inverter behaves like a negative load, feeding current back into grid Nearby loads respond to grid voltage, not inverter current

Power Quality
Distortion IEEE limits utility-interconnected inverters to 5% current distortion Good Utility Grid Voltage < 3% voltage distortion Radio Frequency Interference FCC classifies equipment for allowable radiation of high frequencies from electronic devices. Inverter should be tested to meet FCC regulations. (Class BPart 15)

Effects of Harmonic Distortion

Some electronic equipment may not work Sensitive to extra zero crossings (clocks may run fast) Not useful power Many devices cannot utilize harmonic power Excessive heating in motors and transformers

Inverter Classifications
Stand-Alone Inverters: Operate from batteries, independent of the electric utility. Can provide control/protection functions for hybrids. Utility-Interactive or Grid-Connected Inverters: Operate only in conjunction with the electric utility, synchronizing the output phase, frequency and voltage with the utility. Directly connected to the PV array. Utility-Interactive with Backup Power Mode: Can operate in conjunction with utility but provide backup power if utility fails.

Inverter Characteristics
Voltage ratings Power and surge ratings Efficiency

Voltage Ratings
Limited choice (wide input range preferred) Low voltages imply higher currents and higher losses Battery systems e.g. 48 Vdc nominal Grid-tied systems e.g. 350 Vdc nominal

Power Rating
Derived from device current/temp. limits Surge Can handle higher power output for short periods as specified by manufacturer (backup/standalone power systems) Power Factor Derate backup power inverter for low power factor loads (Inverter output capability based on VoltAmps not Watts)

Inverter DC Input Voltage

For battery-based systems, nominal battery voltage dictates the input voltage ratings for the inverter. Higher output power levels require higher DC input voltage specification to reduce input currents.

Inverter Sizing (UPS loads)

Size inverter to supply expected continuous load demand. Sum all AC loads which may operate from inverter at same time. Surge ratings must be capable of starting motor loads such as pumps, compressors and other machinery. Anticipate growth of load in inverter size selection.

Power Conversion Efficiency

Efficiency = Pac/Pdc High Efficiency(peak>94%) Avoids inverter overheating Most power per module $ Lower efficiency (peak>91%) may allow wider input voltage range or better maximum PV power tracking

More About Efficiency

Some inverters work best at low load E.g. Xantrex SW5548 Others work best at midrange power E.g. SMA SB2500U ...or full-range power E.g. Xantrex PV20208
Power

Efficiency

Normal Operation
How PV Array I-V curves change over time Automatic sequencing Manual adjustments Maximum Power Tracking

PV Array I-V Curves Variation

Envision curve shape sliding up/down with light level (irradiance) Isc changes quickly w/ irrad. Voc changes little above low light levels Shape (thus Voc) changes a little with temperature Shape also changes with degradation, shading, or faults in array

Batteryless Sequencing
Morning Wakeup (Turn On) Identify available power (typ. Voc>Vstart) Identify grid power availability (V and F within limits) Safely sync inverter with grid or generator Operation Maximum power tracking Shutdown Saves energy (should disconnect transformer)

Manual Adjustments
Battery Float Voltage Setting (temperature compensated) Grid settings (only with utility approval for large units) O/U Voltage & Frequency limits Manual Peak-Power Adjustment (testingrarely available on small units)

Maximum Power Tracking

Typically performed by perturbing operating point Vary voltage, current, or effective resistance (PWM rate); the other two will change in response Timing (200ms-2 minute period, depending on design) MPT tracking errors are one common reason for poor system performance

V I P

MPT with Batteries

PV MPT Batteries Inverter Backed-up Loads Utility

MPT requires varying the PV voltage Batteries require voltage levels for charging and discharging MPT dc/dc converter separates voltages

Grid Problems
Inverter should shut down when grid power goes out of frequency or voltage limits Avoid dumping power into a short Avoid Islanding (Inverter powering loads on disconnected local portion of grid) Safety hazard for working on lines Inverter should restart after grid is ok! (5 minute wait according to IEEE 929)

Other Grid Problems

Bad connections = Bad Power Quality Current distortion encounters high resistance, yields voltage distortion Voltage distortion affects nearby loads Inductive Loading on Feeder High Currents Voltage Drop Raised Voltage at Substation Load/PF Correction Capacitor Switching Wide Voltage Variations

Sample Grid-Tie Only Inverters

Review of characteristics of some residential gridtied inverters Fronius IG 2000, IG 3000 PV Powered PVP1100, PVP1800, PVP 2800 SMA Sunny Boy 2500, 1800, 1100, 700 Sharp SunVista JH-3500U Xantrex/Trace Engineering Sun-Tie XR

1.8 and 2.5 kW ac rating 150-450V dc input 240Vac 94% eff. at 75% load Utility-interactive only IGBT-type inverter Forced air cooling Reverse polarity protected Built-in approved meter

Fronius IG 2000, IG 3000

PV Powered
1.1, 1.8, and 2.8kW ac rating 1100W90-180Vdc input 1800W120-360Vdc input 2800W200-450V dc input 208 or 240Vac for 2800 120Vac for 1100 and 1800 93-94% eff. at 75% load (higher claimed) Utility-interactive only IGBT-type inverter Reverse polarity protected Passive air cooling

SMA Sunny Boy

0.7, 1.1, 1.8, and 2.5kW ac rating 700 W100-250Vdc input 1100W129-400Vdc input 1800W139-400Vdc input 2500W250-550V dc input 240Vac for 1100 and 2500 120Vac for 700 and 1800 93-94% eff. at 75% load Utility-interactive only IGBT-type inverter Reverse polarity protected Passive air cooling Meter optional

Sharp SunVista JH-3500U

3.5 kW ac maximum output (3kW rating) 160-380 Volt input voltage Allows up to 3 different input voltages on one system 240Vac single-phase output 92% eff. @ 75% load Utility-interactive only Forced air cooling Meter for house included

Xantrex/Trace Engr. Sun-Tie XR

1.5, 2.5kW models 42-85 Volt input voltage 240Vac single-phase output 89-90% eff. @ 75% load Utility-interactive only FET-type inverter Forced air cooling Built-in meter Built-in combiner and disconnects

Sample Grid-Tie Only Inverters

Review of characteristics of some commercial grid-tied inverters Ballard Power Systems EPC-PV-480-75KW SMA Sunny Central 125 SatCon Power Systems AE-100-60-PV-A Xantrex/Trace Technologies PV-xx208

Ballard EPC-PV-480-75KW
75 kW ac rating 95% efficiency @ 75% Load (w/ xfmr) 330-600V dc input 208V or 480V 3 ac output Utility-interactive IGBT-based Forced liquid cooling

SMA Sunny Central 125

125 kW ac rating 94% efficiency @ 75% Load (w/ xfmr) 275-600V dc input 480V 3 ac output Utility-interactive IGBT-based Forced air cooling

SatCon Powergate AE-100-60-PV

100 kW ac rating 95% efficiency @ 75% Load (w/ xfmr) 330-600V dc input 480V 3 ac output Utility-interactive IGBT-based Forced air cooling Fused disconnect for 6 PV subarrays

Xantrex PV-XX208
5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 45, 100, and 225 kW ac ratings 96% efficiency @ 75% Load (xfmr not counted) 300-600V dc input 208V 3 ac output Utility-interactive IGBT-based Forced air cooling

Sample Grid-Tie Inverters w/ backup capabilities

Review of characteristics of some grid-tied inverters with backup capabilities

Beacon Power M-5 Outback Power FX2548, VFX3648 Xantrex/Trace Engineering SW

Beacon Power M-5

5 kVA ac rating, 7 kVA surge capability 42-62 V dc input 90% eff.@ 75% load 120Vac single-phase FET-type inverter Integral charge controller Max power tracking Forced air cooling

Outback Power FX2548, VFX3648

2.5 and 3.6 kVA, 6 kVA surge capability 40-66 Vdc input 90% eff.@ 75% load 120Vac single-phase FET-type inverter Forced air cooling on VFX, passive cooling on FX

Trace 5548 Power Module

5.5kVA ac rating, 10 kVA surge capability 44-60V dc input 89% eff.@ 75% load 120(240)Vac single-phase FET-type inverter Batteries and controls all in the same cabinet Forced air cooling

Inverter Review
Match array to inverter limitations Be aware of voltage limits of inverter and how they interact with the array. Think about shading, temperature, and degradation when selecting inverter Be cautious selecting inverter for a-Si since Vmp is much less than Voc. Still the weak link in reliability Power electronics failures Software malfunctions

List of key web resources

www.solargenerations.com www.californiasolarcenter.org www.consumerenergycenter.org/erprebate/index.html www.consumerenergycenter.org/renewable/estimator/ System suppliers: www.kyocerasolar.com/products/mygen.htm www.rweschottsolar.com solar.sharpusa.com www.bpsolar.com www.shellsolar.com www.solardepot.com

Utility Interconnection Issues

Utility Interconnection Issues

Personnel safety Equipment protection Service reliability Power quality

Utility Interconnection Requirements

IEEE standard 929 UL standard 1741 Utility practice and requirements Public utility commission statutes

IEEE 929-2000
Passed by IEEE Standards Board in January, 2000. Represents an excellent primer on PV inverter interconnection issues.

P929 Recommended Practice for Utility Interface of Photovoltaic (PV) Systems

Prepared by the Utility Working Group of Standards Coordinating Committee 21, on Photovoltaics

Copyright 1998 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc. 345 East 47th Street New York, NY 10017, USA All Rights Reserved This is an IEEE Standards Project, subject to change. Permission is hereby granted for IEEE Standards committee participants to reproduce this document for purposes of IEEE standardization activities, including balloting and coordination. If this document is to be submitted to ISO or IEC, notification shall be given to the IEEE Copyrights Administrator. Permission is also granted for member bodies and technical committees of ISO and IEC to reproduce this document for purposes of developing a national position. Other entities seeking permission to reproduce portions of this document for these or other uses must contact the IEEE Standards Department for the appropriate license. Use of information contained in the unapproved draft is at your own risk. IEEE Standards Department Copyrights and Permissions 445 Hoes Lane, P.O. Box 1331 Piscataway, NJ 08855-1331, USA

Standard for Inverters, Converters and Controllers for Use in Independent Power Systems

UL 1741

UL

Underwriters Laboratories Inc .

Subjects 1741

First released in May of 1999 Was revised to match IEEE 9292000 Will be revised to match IEEE 1547.1 when it becomes approved.

333 Pfingsten Road Northbrook, IL 60062 March 3, 1999 Industry Advisory Group of Underwriters Laboratories Inc. for Power Conditioning Units for Use in Residential Photovoltaic Power Systems, Electrical Council of Underwriters Laboratories Inc., Subscribers to UL's Listing Services for Photovoltaic Charge Controllers (QIBP), Subscribers to UL's Listing Services for Photovoltaic Power System s Accessories (QIIO), Subscribers to UL's Listing Services for Power Conditioning U nits for Use in Residential Photovoltaic Power System s (QIKH), and Subscribers to UL's Listing Services for AC Modules (QHYZ) Request for Comm ents on the Proposed First Edition of the Standard for Static Inverters and Charge Controllers, UL 1741; PROPOSED EFFECTIVE DATE

TO:

SUBJECT:

Attached as Appendix A for your review and comm ent are proposed requirements for UL 1741. Questions regarding interpretation of requirements should be directed to the responsible UL Staff. Please see Appendix B of this bulletin regarding designated responsibility for the subject product categories. Please note that proposed requirem ents are of a tentative and early nature and are for review and comment only. Current requirements are to be used to judge a product until these requirements are published in final form.PROPOSED EFFECTIVE D ATE The proposed requirements will necessitate a review and possible retest of currently Listed products. Therefore, UL proposes that the new requirem ents become effective 18 m onths after publication. This is intended to provide manufacturers with sufficient tim e to subm it m odified products for investigation and to im plem ent the necessary changes in production. Please note that this also includes the time that will be needed by UL to conduct a review of the m odified product. RATIONALE The first edition of the Standard for Static Inverters and Charge Controllers for Use in Photovoltaic Power Systems, UL 1741, was proposed in the subject bulletin dated August 1, 1997. The proposed Standard has been significantly revised since then. The revisions are a result of the comm ents UL received from industry m embers regarding the proposed draft. In addition, the revisions were m ade to align the proposed Standard with the Ninth Draft of Recommended Practice for Utility Interface of Photovoltaic (PV) Systems, P929, and other UL Standards. This bulletin proposes the revised first edition of the Standard for Static Inverters and Charge Controllers for Use in Photovoltaic Power Systems, UL 1741.

What is UL 1741 and how does it relate to IEEE 929?

First official version published in May of 1999. Final version released November of 2000. 1741 incorporates the testing required by IEEE 929 (frequency and voltage limits, power quality, non-islanding inverter testing) 1741 testing includes design (type) testing and production testing. Line-tie inverters should have the words Utility-Interactive printed directly on the listing labelthis makes identification of the listing much more straightforward (several inverter manufacturers currently using this designation).

What remains to be done?

Additional testing standards need to be developed for PV inverter performance and reliability (goto www.endecon.com to read latest version of document) These things wont happen overnight, but were getting there.

Terms and Conditions for Interconnection

May involve the following: Metering options Size restrictions on metering options Carryover credit on monthly billings Net Meter or differing buy and sell rates Outdoor disconnect requirements Insurance requirements Interconnection costs

Net Metered Systems in California (Similar to some other states)

Requires a contract with the serving utility company. Inverter must be acceptable to utility for interconnection. Utility also may have a list of acceptable manual disconnects to choose from. Starting January 1, 1999, systems are to be billed on annual basis. Starting January 1, 2001, systems may elect time-ofuse net metering (up to 30% increased financial benefit)

Utility Interconnection Planning

Contact the utility well in advance. Become familiar with the terms and conditions for interconnecting. Always be courteous when working with utility or inspection personnel -- They have a lot of control over the destiny of the project!

Battery Systems

Battery Functions in PV Systems

To store energy produced by the PV array and supply it to electrical loads as needed. To power electrical loads at stable voltages, suppressing transients. To supply surge currents to electrical loads or appliances.

Battery Types and Classifications

Motive Power or Traction Batteries

Designed for deep discharge cycle service, typically used in electric vehicles and equipment. Fewer number and thicker plates than SLI (starter, lighting, ignition) batteries. Lead-antimony grids provide good deep cycle performance.

Lead-Antimony Batteries
Advantages include: improved mechanical strength excellent deep discharge and high discharge rate performance Disadvantages include: high self-discharge rate need for frequent water additions.

Valve Regulated Lead-Acid (VRLA) Batteries

Electrolyte is immobilized, sometimes called captive or starved electrolyte batteries. Electrolyte can not be replenished, intolerant of overcharge Minimal maintenance, spill proof

VRLA Batteries

Gelled VRLA Batteries

Lead-calcium grids Electrolyte is 'gelled' by the addition of a silica based gel. Silica gel will not liquefy at 40o C. Only ultrasonic vibration or extreme discharge can liquefy gel. Constant-voltage, current-regulated, temperature compensated charging is recommended. Recommended for remote off-grid systems that need maintenance-free batteries.

Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) VRLA Batteries

Electrolyte is absorbed in glass mat separators. Intolerant to overcharge and high operating temperatures. Similar charging recommendations as for gelled VRLA batteries. Not as tolerant to deep discharge cycling as gel batteries, but better at float than gels. Recommended for Grid-Connected systems

Battery Charge Control

Functions of Battery Charge Regulators and System Controls

Prevent Battery Overcharge Provide Load Control Functions Provide Status Information Interface and Control Backup Energy Sources Divert PV Energy to an Auxiliary Load Serve as a Wiring Center

Backup Charge Controller Algorithms

On-Off Interrupting, Constant-voltage Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Charge control setup for backup systems is critical Must be set above inverter operating voltage to prevent control before PV power reaches battery Typically set one volt higher than inverter (inverter53.6Vdc; controller 54.6Vdc)

Pulse-Width-Modulated (PWM) Controller Design

Battery at Low State of Charge Until the battery is fully charged, the current pulses to the battery are wide.

Battery at High State of Charge Once the battery becomes fully charged, the current pulses to the battery become narrower.

Battery Gassing is Key to Regulator Set Point Selection

Flooded batteries require some level of gassing. Gelled and AGM batteries are not tolerant to excessive gassing. Float voltage for all lead acid batteries is approximately 53.2 Volts to 54.0 Volts (temperature compensated) for nominal 48 Volt dc systems (2.21 2.25 V/cell)

Voltage Regulation Set Point - Temperature Compensation

Adjusts end of charge voltage based on battery temperature. Increase regulation voltage when battery is cold, improving state of charge. Decreases regulation voltage when battery is warm, decreasing electrolyte loss. Coefficient approx -5 mV/oC/cell for lead-acid batteries.

Lead-Acid Battery Charging Characteristics

3.0 2.9 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 2.0 0
Lead-Antimony Grids

Cell Voltage (volts)

Charge Rate

C/2.5 C/5 C/20

Gassing Voltage at 0 Gassing Voltage at 27 oC Gassing Voltage at 50 oC

20

40

60

80

100

Battery State of Charge (%)

Battery Selection Criteria

Battery Selection Criteria

Performance Lifetime Size and dimensions Maintenance Costs Availability

Battery System Issues

PV system design and autonomy requirements Ambient and environmental conditions

Autonomy
supply energy to the system loads when there is no energy input from the PV array. Determine average load and choose capacity that will run that load for the required time. Example: 1 kW load for 8 hours = 8 kWh 8000 Wh/48 Volts = 167 Amp-hours Choose an AGM battery like Concorde PVX-12210 180 amp-hours at 8-hour rate (210 A-h at 20 hour rate)

Autonomy refers to the time a fully charged battery can

Ambient and Environmental Conditions

Batteries prefer ambient conditions of 77oF. Battery temperature tends to run slightly warmer than the average daily ambient temperature due to thermal mass of the battery. Battery capacity is reduced to half at 32oF battery temperature (very cold ambient conditions). o Battery life is reduce by half for every 18 F of continuous operation above 77oF.

Battery System Design Considerations

Installation, maintenance, and structural requirements Overcurrent protection and disconnects Battery enclosure Corrosion resistant Non-flammable Vented Cost and warranty List battery enclosures now exist PV industry needs listed battery systems

Inverters Require High DC Input Currents

Example: Inverter rated to supply a resistive load of 5500 VoltAmps AC at 120 volts at 80% efficiency. Battery voltage is 42 volts DC.

DC input power level: 5,500/0.80=6,875 watts DC DC input current at 42 volts: 6,875/42 = 164 amps DC. (also should add RMS AC current of 35 amps 164 + 35 = 199 Battery cable rating 200 amps x 1.25 = 249 amps (4/0)

Battery Overcurrent and Disconnect Requirements

Proper dc rated overcurrent and disconnect devices are supplied from several manufacturers If additional devices are necessary, they must have adequate ampere interrupt rating (AIR).

Battery Fundamentals: Review

Defined types and classifications of batteries used in PV backup power systems. Discussed characteristics of charge controllers used in PV backup systems. Presented design and selection criteria for batteries in PV backup systems.

PV Array Installation Issues

Lag Screw Mounting

Lag Screws must be screwed into at least 1 of wood (usually the rafter or truss)

Point Attachment Through Tile or Shake Roof

Weather Proofing of Roof

Attachments must be properly sealed to preclude leakage. Urethane caulks such as Sikaflex 1a are both temperature and UV resistant. Silicones must be UVrated. Roofing tars are less durable and can leak over time. Post and flashing method provides excellent weather proofing

Post and flashing method

Foot Installation

Materials Selection
Good materials practices include: Avoid contact dissimilar metals Use only high quality fasteners Use only sunlight resistant materials Structural members corrosion resistant aluminum, 6061 or 6063 hot dip galvanized steel per ASTM A123 Stainless Steel

Fasteners
stainless steel greatly corrosion issues galvanized should only be used if 5/16 diameter or larger due to wood auguring. Not recommended in coastal installations

Material SelectionReview
Weather sealants Urethane sealants recommended that are UV and temperature resistant Avoid contact of dissimilar metals contact of aluminum with concrete low quality fasteners

More inter-row shading-aint that purdy

and this is so much prettier

Vent pipe shading

mud shading

Module Shading Effects -50% loss of power

Module Shading Effects -50% loss of power

Module Shading Effects -100% loss of power

Shading Effects on Module Output

ASE Module Shading Tests Shading Along Module Horizontal Dimension (Width)
7 6 5 Current (A) 4 3 2 1 0 0 10 20 30 Voltage (V) 40 50 60
Wid t h Shad ed (2 ro ws o f cells ) Wid t h Shad ed (1 ro w o f cells ) Wid t h Shad ed (3 / 4 ro w o f cells ) Wid t h Shad ed (1 / 2 ro w o f cells ) Wid t h Shad ed (1 / 4 ro w o f cells ) No Shad ing

Balance of System (BOS) Installation Issues

Objectives
Understand accepted engineering practices associated with the design and installation of photovoltaic and electrical power systems. Identify common problem areas in the electrical design of PV systems. Discuss differences between PV systems and conventional ac electrical systems.

Objectives (cont.)
State the purpose of the National Electrical Code and discuss Articles applicable to PV electrical systems. Evaluate the types and sizes for dc and ac conductors based on ampacity and voltage drop requirements.

Electrical System Design: Requirements

A PV system designer or installer should have working knowledge of electrical codes and understand the basic design principles and hazards associated with electrical and photovoltaic power systems.

Electrical System Design: Considerations

Safe, reliable and easily maintained electrical systems Compliance with electrical codes and standards Use wiring strategies, types, sizes and terminations compatible with DC systems Properly apply Overcurrent protection and disconnect devices Observe proper Grounding and surge protection techniques

Differences Between PV and Conventional Electrical Systems

PV systems have dc circuits that require special design and equipment. PV systems can have multiple energy sources, and special disconnects are required to isolate components. Energy flows in PV systems may be bi-directional.

Differences Between PV and Conventional Electrical Systems

PV systems may require an interface with the ac utility-grid and special considerations must be adopted. (involve utility personnel early) As the maximum current in a PV array is shortcircuit limited, a fault may not generate currents high enough to clear fuses. This is normal for PV systems but abnormal for many other electrical systems.

PV System Electrical Design: Common Problem Areas

Insufficient conductor ampacity and insulation Excessive voltage drop Unsafe wiring methods Lack of or improper placement of overcurrent protection and disconnect devices Use of unlisted, or improper application of listed equipment (e.g. ac in dc use) Lack of or improper equipment or system grounding Unsafe installation and use of batteries

NEC Article 690 overview

The National Electrical Code (NEC)

A guide on safe and reliable practices for electrical system design and installation. Purpose is to safeguard persons and property from electrical hazards. Not intended as an instruction manual for untrained persons. Handbook is available with additional explanation.

Scope of the NEC

Covers nearly all electrical power systems, including grid-connected and stand-alone PV systems operating at any voltage. Covers PV systems for outdoor lighting, RVs, and other remote applications. Exceptions are automobiles, railway cars, boats, self-contained electronic devices, and utilityowned properties.

PV Systems and the NEC

Article 690 addresses safety standards for the installation of PV systems. Many other articles of the NEC may also apply to most PV installations.

NEC Sections Applicable to PV Systems

Article 110: Requirements for Electrical Installations Chapter 2: Wiring and Protection Most of the chapter--especially Article 250: Grounding Chapter 3: Wiring Methods and Materials Most of the chapterespecially Article 300: Wiring Methods Article 310: Conductors for General Wiring Article 480: Storage Batteries Article 690: Solar Photovoltaic Systems

NEC Article 690: Solar Photovoltaic Systems

I. General (definitions, installation) II. Circuit Requirements (sizing, protection) III. Disconnect Means (switches, breakers) IV. Wiring methods (connectors) V. Grounding (array, equipment) VI. Markings (ratings, polarity, identification) VII. Connection to Other Sources VIII. Storage batteries IX. Systems over 600 Volts

Electrical Equipment Listing

AHJs generally require listing for components and electrical hardware. Some components available for PV systems may not have applicable or any listing. Recognized testing laboratories include: Underwriters Laboratory (UL) ETL Semko (Formerly Edison Testing Laboratories)

PV Issues in the NEC

AC Point of Connection
690.64 (b) Exception: allows the installation of additional overcurrent devices up to 120% of busbar rating. 100-Amp Panel allows up to 20 Amp breaker. Main breaker can be derated. (e.g. 125-amp busbar can take a 100-Amp and a 50-amp breaker) Connection can also be make on the line side of the main breaker (with double lugs or bolt on lugs)

Sub-panel fed by inverter

must first carefully characterize all loads to be connected to sub-panel. Article 702--Optional Standby Systems Allows sizing based on supply of all equipment intended to be operated at one time (702.5).

Safety Alert
Multiwire Branch Circuits and PV Systems
Multiwire BranchCircuit 120 VAC

120 Volt 60 Hz Inverter PV Array Battery Bank

H N G Load Center Neutral

120 V Branch Circuits

120 VAC

Inverters100 watt - 6 kW @ 120 volts Load Centers120/240 v @ 100 - 200 amps Multiwire Branch Circuitscommon Neutral Overload Possible

multi-wire branch circuits--consider options

install 240-Volt transformer on the output of the inverter to supply these circuits. rerun two separate runs to replace multi-wire branch circuits to be powered by inverter. stay away from those circuits. (laundry and furnace are on dedicated circuits in newer homes)

Electrical Code Compliance: Issues

Many PV systems may not comply with the NEC because: Designers/installers have little experience with dc electrical systems. Listed equipment is not widely available for PV components and dc hardware. Suggestions that PV systems are easily designed/installed by untrained personnel.

Electrical Inspection Guidelines

Many local inspectors have little experience with PV systems. Contact the local inspector in advance to discuss system requirements. Electrical inspectors normally expect equipment used in PV systems to be listed.

Wiring Methods

Wire Termination Methods

Use as few connections as possible. Make sure each connection is the highest quality (think about 20-year connections). Bad terminations result in high-resistance hot spots and power losses. Coat connections in outdoor locations with antioxidation grease to minimize corrosion.

Crimped Terminals
Useful for securing a conductor to a ring or spade type terminals. Prone to developing high resistance over time. Should be crimped with heavy-duty electricians tool. Soldering recommended on 12-Volt systems Use high-grade UL listed terminals.

Binding Post Terminals

Often called box or pressure terminals. Accept a bare wire and secure it by pressure from a screw. Eliminates the one extra connection required with crimped terminals. May need to be retightened periodically to ensure a good connection. One of the most common array problems is loosening of these connections

Twist-On Wire Splices

Often called wire nuts. Frequently oxidize and develop high-resistance hot spots. Allowed on DC systems if installed according to manufacturers directions and applied in the correct location (e.g. wet, dry). Available in waterproof, non-corrosive version

Plug and Receptacle Type Connectors

Advantages include:
rapid connections with no tools labor savings polarized and noninterchangeable protect live parts easy for troubleshooting and maintenance

Plug and Receptacle Type Connectors

Disadvantages include:
higher material cost possible corrosion and increasing resistance over time if not installed according to design. Most connectors do not have interrupt rating. Installers often get lazy by not supporting wire and not fully engaging the connectors

Junction Boxes
Connection between conductors in an outdoor location generally must be done within a rainproof junction box, NEMA 3R or 4 (unless with approved connector) Junction boxes are commonly used on PV modules and in combining array source circuits. Dont do this!

Conductors and Wiring Methods

Conductors are the wiring and cable used in electrical systems. Available in a variety of types, sizes and ratings. Copper conductors are recommended over aluminum. Single vs. multi-stranded options.

Conductor Insulation Types

Protects wire from coming into contact with personnel or equipment. Insulation types specifications include: temperature rating sunlight, oil or water resistance location (dry, wet)

Insulation type dictates the ampacity rating at operating temperatures.

Types of Conductors in PV Systems

Application Array Wiring Wire Type USE-2, TC(holds XHHW-2 or THWN-2), (sun resistant-check temp rating) THWN-2 or XHHW-2 (conduit) THWN or XHHW (conduit), or THWN-2 or XHHW-2 (conduit) THW Flexible (hundreds of strands)

BOS Wiring Battery Cables

Conductor Locations
Location affects ampacity and temperature derating for conductors. Single conductor cables outside of conduit only allowed in the PV array. Interior exposed cable runs are only permissible with sheathed type cables (must be clearly delineated from AC wiring with tagging or labeling)

Conductor Color Codes

The insulation on grounded conductors must be white, or if larger than No.6 AWG it may be marked white as long as the insulation color is not green (almost always black). Module frame and equipment grounding conductors must be bare wire or have green colored insulation. In negative grounded PV systems, the positive conductor may be any color except for green or white, and the negative grounded conductor must be white.

Conductor Sizing
Conductor sizing is based on ampacity and voltage drop considerations. Sizes are specified by American Wire Gage (AWG), the higher the number or gage, the smaller the conductor.

Ampacity of Conductors
Ampacities are determined by: wire type (copper or aluminum) wire gage (AWG) insulation rating (wet rating for outdoor) highest insulation temperature location (free air, conduit or buried) Ampacity decreases with increasing temperature: I2 = I1 x factor

Temperature Corrected Ampacity: Example

A No. 10 AWG USE-2 cable has a 90oC rating and ampacity of 40 amps in ambient temperatures of 2630o C. When the same conductor is used for module interconnect wiring for rooftop applications it may experience temperatures of 71-80o C. In this situation its temperature corrected ampacity is reduced to 16 amps.

Temperature Corrected Ampacity: Example

A No. 10 AWG USE cable has a 75oC rating and ampacity of 35 amps in ambient temperatures of 2630o C. When the same conductor is used for module interconnect wiring on an open rack it may experience temperatures of 61-70o C. In this case its temperature corrected ampacity is reduced to 11.5 amps.

Conductor Sizes and Ratings

Conductor Size (AWG) 4 6 8 10 12 Ampacity (amps) 28 21 17 11 8 Resistance (ohms/kft) 0.32 0.51 0.81 1.29 2.05

Resistances for 7-strand copper conductors at 75oC. 7Ampacities for USE at 61-70oC in conduit. 61-

Resistance of Conductors
Resistances are determined by: wire type (copper or aluminum) wire gage (AWG) ambient temperature length of wire

Voltage Drop Considerations

Voltage drop is a major factor in low-voltage systems. Voltage drop increases with increasing current and decreasing conductor size. May affect the operation of battery charge controller set point functions or inverter sensing circuits.

Voltage Drop Considerations

Factors contributing to voltage drop include terminations, fuses and disconnects. According to Ohms law, voltage drop is calculated by:
Voltage Drop = Current x Resistance/Length x Length

Voltage Drop: Example

Determine the Inverter to service entrance voltage drop with 500 feet (250-foot one-way distance) of #10 AWG cable round-trip with a nominal 10 amp current:
Voltage Drop = 1.29 ohms/kft x 0.5 kft x 10 amps = 6.45 volts (5.4% drop @ 120 Volts)

Grounding and Surge Protection

Objectives
Explain acceptable methods for equipment and conductor grounding in PV electrical systems. Discuss various surge and lightning protection strategies for electric circuits.

Electrical System Grounding

The NEC defines grounding as a connection to the earth, where electrical charge can dissipate safely. Grounding of electrical systems offers personnel safety and minimizes the effects of lightning and surges on equipment.

Electrical Grounding Types

System Ground: Connecting the circuit to ground (i.e. the negative of a dc array, the neutral of a split single-phase system, or the neutral of a bi-polar dc system) Equipment Ground: Connecting all non-current carrying metal parts to ground (metal enclosure, module frame, etc)

Grounding and Grounded Conductors: Definitions

A grounded conductor normally carries current in the system and is grounded. Normally, the negative leg of a two conductor dc PV system is grounded. A grounding conductor does not normally carry current, and is used to connect all the exposed metal portions of equipment or the grounded conductor to the grounding system.

Grounding Requirements in PV Systems

For two-wire PV systems operating above 50 volts, one dc conductor must be grounded. In a three-wire system, the neutral or center tap of the dc subsystem shall be grounded. Some 3-phase inverters do not allow the ac neutral to be grounded at the inverter. Grounding is accomplished through the dc array circuit and the isolation transformer. Ungrounded systems are allowed in 2005 NEC

Grounding Requirements in PV Systems

Non-current-carrying metal components must be grounded. The equipment grounding conductor for the DC-side of the system is based on Table 250.122 in the 2002 NEC as long as the ground fault protection is used. (otherwise must be same size as current-carrying conductors) Disconnect switches must not open-circuit the grounded conductor.

Grounding Electrodes
The grounding electrode in most PV systems should be a corrosion-resistant rod, a minimum of 5/8 inch in diameter and driven a minimum of 8 feet into the earth. A secondary grounding electrode may be connected to the PV module and array frames and must be connected to the primary grounding electrode with an appropriately sized grounding electrode conductor according to 2002 NEC Table 250.66. (at least 6 ft away from primary electrode)

Grounding Electrodes (Cont.)

There should be only be one point in the system where the grounding conductor is attached to the grounded conductor in the PV system. This mitigates the possibility of circulating ground currents under normal operating conditions. exceptiongrounding of separate structures The dc system grounding electrode shall be in common with or be bonded to the ac system grounding electrode.

Grounding Electrodes (Cont.) Grounding of Separate Structures

For arrays that are mounted a long distance from the service entrance building (more than 20 feet), grounding of separate structures allows for a grounding electrode to be installed at the array with no separate grounding electrode conductor. Grounding electrode conductor is essentially the grounded conductor and is connected to the grounding electrode at each end and run in non-metallic conduit.

Traditional Equipment Grounding

R1

R3 motor R1 R4 R2 ac supply R2 motor

R3

R4

Grounding and Safety in PV Systems

module frame cell circuit R6 R4 R4 R1

R6 R3 R5

R3

R2

R2

R5

R1

Ground-Fault Protection
NEC Article 690-5 requires ground-fault detection and interruption (GFDI) for PV arrays mounted on the roofs of dwellings. This requirement is for fire protection in dwellings constructed of wood, not for personnel protection.

Ground-Fault Protection Equipment

Most inverters have these capabilities built-in. A GFP device automatically: senses excess ground-fault currents interrupts the currents open the circuit between the array and load

PV Array Current Leakage

A current path that develops between the cells in a module and the module frame. Valuable current is lost and a safety hazard exists. Grounding reduces the safety hazard.

Measuring Leakage Currents

module frame

A leakage path Ammeter

Lightning Protection
Direct strike interception Equipment grounding Surge arrestors Prayer

Surge Arrestors
Metal Oxide Varistors (MOVs), Silicone Oxide Varistors (SOVs), and Zinc Oxide Non-Linear Resistors (ZNRs) are three types of surge arrestors. Transient Voltage Suppressors (TVSs) include the above surge arrestors and also include very fast acting devices used close to sensitive electronic equipment that are typically not replaceable. Provide protection from current and voltage surges.

Surge Arrestors - SOVs

Surge Arrestors- MOVs

Whole House Surge Arrestors Some fit under meter collar Some fit inside Main Service Panel or in conduit knockout hole

Surge Arrestors Both sides of inverter

Surge Arrestor Ratings

High impedance devices under normal conditions, short-circuit to ground under surge conditions. Rated for breakdown or sparkover voltage (>Voc), current and energy dissipation capability.

Surge Arrestor I-V Characteristics

Operating 120 100 Am pe re s 80 60 40 20 0 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 M ax Open Circuit B reak down Clam ping

V olts

Surge Arrestor Locations

Locate on all ungrounded legs of array strings, and on electronic equipment. Locate where catastrophic failure will not damage other wiring or components.

Marking and Labeling

The NEC requires a variety of Marking and Labeling

Any fuse or circuit breaker that can be energized in either direction must be labeled as such. (NEC 690.17) UL listing covers markings on PV modules. (NEC 690.51) System Ratings: operating current, voltage, max voltage, and short-circuit current. (NEC 690.53)

Marking and Labeling (cont.)

Interactive Point of Connection (NEC 690.54) Provide any additional information that you think would be helpful to the homeowner, inspector, or fire officials. If system contains uninterruptible capabilities, provide a diagram at the external house disconnect to notify fire fighters. (NEC 702.8)

Final Inspection and System Acceptance

Checklist for PV System Installation

PV Array Conductors Overcurrent Protection Charge Controllers Disconnects Batteries Inverters Grounding Safety Signs

SAFETY SIGNS
Make sure all required "warning" and "caution" signs are installed in the proper locations as required in the NEC.

System Final Inspection

Have all system information and documentation available to address any potential questions from the inspector. Point out system labeling. If issues arise that need to be addressed, deal with them as quickly as possible. Always be courteous -- never condescending. (e.g. I know PV-you dont)

System Acceptance
Plan to do acceptance on as sunny a day as possible. Check Voc and Isc for each source circuit Compare current from each source circuit to a single module at same orientation to see if there is reasonable agreement. (Note any variations not due to clouds.) Compare currents under load (inverter on)

System Documentation and Walkthrough

Provide customer with copy of all drawings and product literature. Thoroughly cover any operating procedures that the customer must observe. Provide information for what to do in the case of any emergency or system malfunction.