Curriculum Manual 19

TYPES OF LEARNING - Learning about LEARNING DOMAINS

This introduces us to the idea of different realms of learning. Since there are several kinds of
learning, it is useful to think of each kind as existing in a separate department or domain. The first two
we may call the “cognitive” (knowing) and “functional” (performing) domains.

Educational and training institutions will

< Functional Domain vary in their emphasis regarding knowledge and
skills. Diagram 1 illustrates this difference. The
SKILLS diagonal (arrowed) line indicates the proportion of
an institution’s agenda or “track” given over to
INSTRUCTION (what to know) and the
what how proportion dedicated to SKILLS (how to do).
BIT proportion
In this diagram the (fictitious) “Academic
of College of Education” (“ACE”) spends 85% of its
to to time providing instruction in various fields of
programme’s knowledge and 15% developing students’ skills.
agenda
KNOW DO On the other hand, the “Basic Institute of
(“track”) Technology” (“BIT”) has two-thirds of its
ACE programme taken up with training the students in
INSTRUCTION how to do the work that one day they will have to
carry out in the outside world. Only one third is
Cognitive Domain > spent giving instruction in head knowledge.

At this point we again ask: What is our

“ACE” Institution: 85% Instruction in
business as theological educators? Are we simply
Knowledge providing knowledge - packing information into
15% Training in the heads of our students so that they may know
Skills what truths, ideas and facts with which to fill
other people’s heads once they leave us?
“BIT” Institution: 33% Instruction in
Knowledge Or should we be developing skills, so that our
67% Training in graduates will be able to handle that knowledge,
Skills apply it to the various situations they will meet,
and even research further information for
Diagram 1. themselves when necessary - knowledge that will
be relevant to their particular ministry?

DISCUSSION
List two major skills that future church leaders need to develop and suggest how these
might be developed in training.

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MINISTERIAL FORMATION
< Functional Domain Affective Domain > Increasingly today those who are
responsible for theological education are
SKILLS FORMATION becoming concerned with what has been
termed “ministerial formation”, that is,
the spiritual development of those being
trained. Indeed often this is the area
what how how where the students themselves experience
most disappointment after they arrive at
Seminary or Bible College. They come in
to to to great anticipation of somehow finding a
spiritual oasis for their thirsty souls,
but find instead all the marks of the
KNOW DO BE world that they thought would be left
outside!
Of-course this has been the experience of
INSTRUCTION the monk and hermit down the ages. Yet
that does not absolve us from being
concerned with the spiritual formation of
Cognitive Domain > our students – what is usually called the
affective domain. This is the part of the
training that aims to affect the behaviour
Diagram 2. of the student as his / her character is
moulded by close discipleship of Jesus
and as attitudes become more Christ-
like.

We must seek to be agents of change as we show our students how to minister to their people in
such a way that the lives as well as the faith of their congregations are radically altered to express God’s
Kingdom values and commitments.
It is here that good modelling demonstrated by teachers has the greatest influence. (See Prof.
Neil Foster’s article in Appendix L.) But such modelling should be reinforced by activities found in the
curriculum.
So we now have three domains (See diagram 2): the cognitive domain of instruction, the
functional domain of skill acquisition. and the affective domain concerned with the spiritual formation
of the student. Thus, as well as coming to know many things and learning how to do the work to which
(s)he is called, the student reflects on how to be a man or woman of God.

Example of a learning objective in the affective domain:

“I came to Seminary to become a pastor who cares about his people’s economic, social,
political and religious problems.”
(- Student’s response to the question: “Why did you come to Seminary?”)

These three educational domains each have their own appropriate mode of learning: formal
study (course materials, books and lectures) in the cognitive domain; informal modelling in the
affective domain; and non-formal practice and reflection (fieldwork) in the functional domain.

DISCUSSION
Which of these three domains is most neglected and why?
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Note carefully: “Doing” here

LEARNING DOMAINS refers not to
of obedience – doing what we have
THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION been told to do – but rather to
practising certain skills, until we
are able to “do” them. Obedience,
< Functional Domain Affective Domain >
on the other hand, is learnt
through “being”, or becoming,
SKILLS FORMATION more like Christ, as attitudes are
changed and character is
(trans)formed.
what how how to
The way Diagram 2 was drawn
UNDER might suggest an imbalance needing to be
to to to corrected. This is indeed the case. For
- STAND further reflection leads us to recognise that
a truly balanced theological curriculum (in
the widest sense of the word) requires a
KNOW DO BE why
fourth element – the dimension of
understanding. There is little point in
knowing about things whose purpose we
INSTRUCTION WISDOM do not truly understand, and many
practical tasks, if they are to be done
effectively and with lasting results, require
Cognitive Domain > < Sapiential Domain an approach that is also purposeful and
wise.
Diagram 3 So we may call this fourth area of
educational development the sapiential (or
prudential*) domain, a label coined to
highlight the discerning characteristic of
this aspect of personal growth.

* “Prudential” and “sapiential” both come from Latin words meaning wise. “Prudential” is defined as: “exercising good
judgement; practical and careful in providing for the future”, and derives from a Latin word meaning “farsighted, acting
with foresight”, surely such qualities that are much needed in the ministry of God’s people.

The Case of Apollos

Acts 18:24-28 shows Apollos as a preacher well instructed in Knowledge, developed in Skills
and well advanced in spiritual Formation, but lacking seriously in Wisdom. He was well informed
(knowing), taught accurately and spoke eloquently (doing), but he needed the help of Priscilla and
Aquila to explain the Way of God more adequately (understanding). Since “eloquently” in the Greek
can be translated also as “full of Spiritual fervour”, there is a strong case for also finding a reference
here to his spiritual character (his being).
All four domains are important in learning, whether in order to write a school essay or to
service a bicycle in the workshop, as has been pointed out by Roger Lewis, Professor of Learning
Development at Humberside University. For in order to service a bicycle, he notes, “I need to:
• know where to apply oil and which components to check;
• have manual skills [doing], e.g. in adjusting brakes;
• want to do it, or at least accept the importance of maintaining the bicycle [which is to do
with attitude and so the formation of one’s being];
• understand why I am carrying out the various tasks [to do with purpose, design, and how
the various parts of the whole fit together]”.*
*in “How to Write Essays”, by R.Lewis, p. 7, Collins Educational, 1995
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So what is really needed in theological education? Should not all four learning domains be
catered for, especially where students train and live together in a college community?
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A PYRAMID MODEL of LEARNING

In a three-dimensional model, these four learning
domains would be best portrayed as the four sides of a
pyramid, with equal emphasis being placed on each
domain. All four are important for the support of the peak.
This pyramid model emphasises the essential nature of
each domain for the over-all development of an
individual’s learning. Thus passing on knowledge by itself
produces only a façade of learning. Knowing needs to be
backed by doing, being and understanding in equal
proportions for substantial learning to take place. If this
mutual support of each domain for the other three is
missing, sooner or later what is supposedly learnt is found
not to have been truly learnt, and the whole edifice of such
“learning” crumbles.

Educational Objectives involved in the four Learning Domains

Within each learning domain many different educational objectives can be identified, each
particular to that domain. The verbs that might be used in stating these objectives when
constructing a course have been usefully charted as follows:

If the goal is: Knowledge Insight Skill Attitude

then the verb List
(or verbal State Select
phrase) Trace Choose
used to describe Write Discern
an objective Know Classify Use
can be one of Recite Contrast Solve Plan
the following: Recall Separate Study View
Define Evaluate Apply Desire to
Identify Compare Assist in Appreciate
Describe Discover Explain Be sensitive to
Delineate Examine Produce Sympathise
Memorise Reflect on Practice with
Recognise Think through Interpret Be convinced
Enumerate Understand Pray about of
Become aware Comprehend Internalise Commit
of Discriminate Experience yourself to
Become between Communicate Have
familiar with Differentiate confidence in
(-Roy B. Zuck, quoted in Expository Preaching: Principles & Practice, Haddon W. Robinson, p.111, IVP, 1986)

To confirm your understanding of the differences between the four domains try the following exercise:
DISCUSSION
Write four educational objectives using a verb from each of the domain boxes above:

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What are Our Goals?

Looking at Curriculum in terms of learning domains helps us to identify our pre-suppositions and
priorities. We are provoked to ask ourselves:
• Are we simply providing knowledge, packing information into the heads of our students so that
they simply know what to say once they leave us (but do not why or when to say it)?
• Or are we developing skills, so that our graduates will be able to handle that knowledge, apply it
to the various situations they will meet, and even be able to research further information by
themselves when necessary?
• Are we seeking to be “agents of change” in human behaviour, training students so to minister to
their people that not only faith is strengthened but lives as well are radically altered to express
the values and commitments of God’s Kingdom?
• Are we training our students to be able to make good judgements and wise choices, based on
clear thinking, sound values and well understood principles of conduct? Are they learning to
reflect on the purpose of their actions, expressing vision and insight in their decisions?
Wisdom comes through an understanding of the purpose of things. It is not simply an
accumulation of past experiences, but rather an insight into the present suitability of something for
fulfilling an ultimate end that accords with the wisdom of God himself. This sense of a human purpose
that is also aligned with God’s purposes (original, present and ultimate) is crucial for development.
Another important way of viewing our goals is to ask questions about the levels of learning
development that we are aiming at in our students. We may want them to be able to understand the
significance of the information they have come already to know. But a further development occurs
when they start to reflect on the application of this understanding to their situation. Development of
learning continues when a student can critique the arguments of others and eventually evaluate his or
her own thinking, attitudes and actions in the light of what he or she has learnt previously. This
encourages the formation of mature thinking and, when combined with the development of good
attitudes, contributes to the spiritual formation of the student.
DISCUSSION

List three significant attitudes that future church leaders should be encouraged to
cultivate. How can training take this kind of formation into account?

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Identify one major area of understanding that needs to be developed during training:
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What steps can we take to include all the learning domains when reviewing our
curriculum and courses?

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Note: A summary of this section, together with further examples of its application, can be found in Appendix A.
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MODES of LEARNING
As educationally we have identified several fields (domains) of learning, equally we must be
aware of several modes (or ways) of learning – termed formal, non-formal and informal.
Formal learning takes place in an environment where grades, classes, examinations, written
work and other academic requirements are emphasised.
Non-formal learning is equally well organised, but the purposeful study combines fieldwork
with dialogue, evaluation and reflection, and emphasises the practical purposes of a course. Students
placed under local leaders as their apprentices (e.g. curates in Anglican type churches) are learning non-
formally from their elders as they get the reactions of their more experienced colleagues to their own
stumbling efforts.
Informal learning occurs as a consequence of the ethos of the training institution, the quality
of community life where students and staff can inter-act, the latter having the role of models as well as
mentors. Students learn from such mentors by absorbing their insights and whole approach to ministry.
Different modes of learning can be used in any domain. The challenge for the teacher (and his /
her educational institution) is to use the appropriate mode(s) for each subject and to plan a curriculum
that not only covers the most relevant subjects in each domain, but also makes use of a variety of
modes in each domain.
Try the next exercise with a colleague or group of colleagues. Brainstorming might be helpful as a
preliminary activity before selecting the examples that might prove most significant for your
programme of training.
DISCUSSION
Can you think of an informal way, and a non-formal way of teaching one subject (of your
own choice) in each domain?
Informal
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If learning does not end at graduation, or at the end of a course, in what ways (if any!)
does our curriculum encourage people to learn for themselves (not necessarily the same
as learning by themselves)?

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The next section deals with levels of learning and advocates a policy of Spiral Learning. It is
presented in diagrammatic form and concludes with two Discussion questions.
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