2. What are the steps of the scientific method? Observation, Hypothesis, Experiment, Analyze & Conclusion 2a.

What are the three attributes of good science? Measurable data, repeatable, & uses a standard method 3. What is the difference between a fact, a hypothesis and a theory? Fact- an objective and verifiable observation Hypothesis- educated guess Theory- A hypothesis that has been supported with repeated testing 4. What are the steps to the asceptic technique? 1. wash hands 2. disinfect lab space 3 bunsen burner to reduce likelihood of contaminents 4. expose cultures for the minimum time necessary 5. do not pass nonsterile surfaces over sterile ones. 5. Define the different phylogeny and evolutionary terms: Genetic drift- a change in allele frequencies Natural Selection- Nonrandom process where species with certain genotypes contribute different number of offspring due to their survival and reproductive abilities (species with better survival and reproductive abilities produce more offspring ) Divergent Evolution- two species form one species Homologies- traits that have evolved from common ancestor Convergent evolution- two different species evolve similarly Homoplasies- independently evolved, but similar traits Phylogeny- the evolutionary history of a species Paraphyletic- ancestor included, but not all descendents

Polyphyletic- Descendants included, but not all from a common ancestor Clade- group that contains a common ancestor and all descendents Synapomorphy- New species share a common trait with most common ancestor, but not with that species ancestor Allopatric speciation- physical barriers to reproduction Sympatric speciation- Genetic differences prevent interbreeding 6. What are the parts of the Dissecting microscope, what are their functions , and when is it appropriate to use the dissecting microscope? Dissecting microscope- used for 3-d at low magnification Binocular- has two oculars Objective lens- what magnifies the specimen Total magnification = Objective lens x ocular lens 2 types of light- transmitted or reflected light 6a. What are the parts of the compound microscope, what are their functions, when is it appropriate to use the compound microscope? Compound microscope- used for very small specimens at high magnification 2 different lens to form image- ocular lens close to the eye, objective lenses are close to the specimen. Revolving nosepiece- rotates the ocular lenses Working distance- distance between the specimen and the lens Total magnification- objective lens x ocular lens (10) Coarse and Fine adjustments- for moving the lenses closer to specimen 7. what are the five conditions needed for the Hardy-Weinberg equation? What is the equation and how is it used to determine if the population is in equilibrium? Conditions needed- Large population, Random mating, No mutations, No gene flow (migrations) & No natural selection P+q= 1 or P2+2pq+q2= 1

P= AA, q= aa 2pq = Aa 8. What is the chi squared equation, how does a chi square analysis work, and how do you find the chi square critical value in a table? X2 = [(O-E)2 / E] Total chi square is the total of all of the separate chi square analysis Degrees of Freedom is equal to the number of categories (phenotypes) minus 1, DF= n-1 9. Define- Genetic drift, founder effect, & natural selection. How do they affect allele frequencies in a population? Genetic drift- random change in allele frequencies from one generation to the next Founder effect- random difference in allele frequencies when a small population splinter off from the original population (can be significantly different than original pop allele frequency) Natural selection- Non random process that favors traits that increase survival and reproduction capabilities. (increase a certain allele frequency) 10. What are the three domains of life? Archaea, bacteria, and Eukarya 10a. What are the basic characteristics of each of the three domains? Archaea- Extremophiles who live in salt marshes & hydrothermal vents. Prokaryote Bacteria- live in many ecosystems, cell walls contain peptidoglycan. Prokaryotes. Eukarya- membrane bound organelles, nucleus, 10 b. What is the basic phylogeny of eukaryotes (eukarya)? Protista Eukaryotic, unicellular and multicellular a. Plantae- Multicellular eukaryotes b. Animalia- multicellular eukaryotes c. Fungi- Multicellular eukaryotes 10 c. Compare and contrast Eubacteria and Archaea. Eubacteria- cyanobacteria, carbon loving Archaea- solt loving, heat loving 11. what are the four basic shapes of bacteria and their arrangements?

Coccus- circular Arrangements- Diplo, tetrad, strepto(chain) , Sarcinae (2x2x2, double tetrad) staphylo (almost hexagonal shape) Bacillus- Rod shaped Vibrio- Comma Spirilium spiral 11a. What is the difference between gram positive and gram negative bacteria? Gram Positive- thick peptidoglycan layer, no outer membrane (purple) Gram negative- thin peptidoglycan layer, outer membrane (pink) 11b. what are the steps to gram staining(include the role of the peptidoglycan layer)? Apply the crystal violet to the slide which stains the cell purple. a. Rinse 2. Apply the grams iodine to the slide which allows the crystal violet to pass the thick peptidoglycan layer of the gram positive bacteria and the peptidoglycan layer traps the crystal violet inside the cell. a. Rinse 3. Apply the decolorizer which removes the excess stain from the slide and removes the purple color from the gram negative bacteria while also shrinking the cell wall. a. At this point the gram pos is purple and the gram neg is clear. 4. Apply the saffranin which stains the colorless gram negative pink. 1. Arrangements- strepto ( chain) & palisade(like columns)

12. What is the difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells? Prokaryotes- lack nucleus and other membrane bound organelles, smaller in size Eukaryotes- Contain membrane bound organelles such as nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplasts. Larger in size 13. what are the three types of cyanobacteria and what are the distinct functions, structures and morphologies of each? Anabaena- (rope of circles)- heterocyst for nitrogen fixation in order to be used by plants, akinete- a nonmobile asexual spore fused ot the parent cell Merismopedia- (Square made of circles)-Succinate structure made of coccusOscillatoria- (slim ladder shape)-

14. What are the phylogeny of the protists listed in the lab? Supergroup name : representative organism Excavata : Euglena, Trypanosoma, Giardia Archaeplastida: Chlamydomonas, Spirogyra, Volvox, Ulva Alveolata: dinoflagellates, Stentor, Paramecium Stramenopila: diatoms, brown algae, Actinosphaerium Amoebozoa :Amoeba Rhizaria :Radiolarians, Foraminifera Primary endosymbiosis involves the engulfment of a bacterium by another free living organism.........Secondary endosymbiosis occurs when the product of primary endosymbiosis is itself engulfed and retained by another free living eukaryote. Supergroup excavata- named for the feeding groove excavated from the cell surface. Heterotrophic, many can photosynthesize. Aquire plastids through secondary endosymbiosis with green algae. Can be saprophytic or undergo phagocytosis.

TrypanosomaSupergoup Archaeplatida

No kinoplast, lack photosynthetic plastids. - ancient splastid

Obtained via primary endosymbiosis from prokaryotic cyanobacteria Can be unicellular, filamentous, colonial, or multicellular

Chlamydomonas

unicellular, with flagella

Spirogyra (filamentous)

Volvox(colonial)

ulva(multicellular)

Supergroup AlveolataNamed for sac like vesicles that lie under plasma membrane Cellulose plates that act as armor

Dinoflagellates-

ecological roles, secondary endosymbiosis

StentorSupergroup Stramenopila-

Paramecium-

Named for straw like hairs that line their flagella.

Diatoms- unicellular algae, cell walls made of silicon dioxide (glass)

Supergroup amoebazoa

Have pseudopodia for locomotion Obtain nutrients by phagocytosis ( ingest food particles)

Amoeba-

15. Know everything about plants. a. Plants evolved from a group of green algae called carophyceans b. land plant adaptations- developed roots(rhizoids), cuticle(waxy covering), gametangium(prevents embryo drying out), stomata(gas exchange), and some have vascular tissue(xylem and phloem). c. Plant overviewSeedless Non-vascular plants (Bryophytes). Dominant gametophyte generation. Lack roots, stems and leaves, but have rhizoids Need water for fertilization to occur. 1. Phylum hepatophyta- liverwort. MARCANTIA

Antheridia- sperm prod Have gemmae cups.

archegonia egg prod

2. Phylum anthocerophyta- hornworts 3. Phylum bryophyte- mosses

moss itself is gametophyte, capsule is sporophyte

Seedless vascular plants. Dominant generation is sporophyte Have vascular tissue Xylem- transports water and minerals Phloem- transports nutrients from photosynthesis Have roots with stomata, stems, and roots. Live on dry land.

1.

Phylum pteridophyta- Ferns, whisk ferns, horse tails

Fern fronds with rachis(midrib). Sori produce spores. Ferns have fiddleheads

Whisk fern-

horse tails2. Phylum lycophyta- club mosses

Horse tail strobilus

Seeded vascular Plants 2 major groups- Angiosperms(flowers) and gymnosperms(cones) 1. Gymnosperms- Woody trees and shrubs with naked seeds a. Wind pollinated, exposed seeds, long life cycles, woody lignin rich tissues b. Heterosporous- produce male microspores and female megaspores c. Phylum coniferophyta- conifers, pines, cypress, junipers. i. Monnoecious- plant produces both male and female cones

d.

Male Female Phylum ginkophyta- broad fan shaped leaves

e. Phylum cycadophyta- Palm like, but not true palms i. Dioecious- have separate male and female plants

2.

Angiosperms- Phylum anthophyta a. Flowering plants. Food source. Can self pollinate via biotic/abiotic vectors. Short life cycles. Seeds mature into

fruit.

Four whorls: -Perianth (Sepal) -Perianth (Petals) -Stamen (anther and filament) -Carpel (stigma, style and ovary)

b.

Female part are ovary, style and stigma

c. Male parts- filament and anther d. Monocots- herbaceous, narrow leaves, parallel venations i. Multiples of 3 flowers, leave veins parallel ii. Male and female parts on same plant

iii. seeds e. Dicots- woody, broad leaves, reticulate venations i. Multiples of 4 or 5, net pattern veins on leaves ii. Male and female parts on separate plants iii. seed

Fertilization- the union of male and female gametic nuclei Pollination- transfer of pollen form the anther to the stigma