Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Contents
Introduction ......................................................................................................2
About This Series ...........................................................................................2
About This Book .............................................................................................2
Supporting Material ........................................................................................2
FEA – What It Is … And What It Isn’t..................................................................4
Typical Usage.................................................................................................4
Limitations .....................................................................................................5
Learning FEA..................................................................................................8
The Importance Of Computing Power..............................................................9
Mechanics, Mathematics, And Other Theory ...................................................... 10
Solid Mechanics............................................................................................ 11
Thermal Analysis .......................................................................................... 23
Fatigue And Fracture .................................................................................... 26
Mathematics ................................................................................................ 28
Essential FEA Theory ....................................................................................... 38
From The Differential Equation To A Matrix Equation...................................... 38
Nodes, Elements And Shape Functions .......................................................... 43
Some Common Elements Used In Stress Analysis ........................................... 45
Matrix Solvers .............................................................................................. 47
Some Important Properties Of The FE Solution .............................................. 50
Putting It Together – OptiStruct/Analysis .......................................................... 52
Capabilities .................................................................................................. 52
Setting Up An “Analysis” ............................................................................... 57
Nomenclature and Data Organization ............................................................ 61
Verification And Validation................................................................................ 65
Product Liability Laws ................................................................................... 66
The Seductive Appeal Of Graphics ................................................................. 66
Quick and Basic Checks ................................................................................ 67
Special Topics ................................................................................................. 70
Advanced Materials ...................................................................................... 70
Advanced Dynamics ..................................................................................... 72
Glossary And References.................................................................................. 74
References................................................................................................... 77
Common Material Properties ......................................................................... 77
Useful Data For Heat Transfer....................................................................... 79
Consistent Units ........................................................................................... 81
Lumped Mass Models In Vehicle-Crash Simulation .......................................... 81
Measures Of Element Quality ........................................................................ 82
1
Introduction A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
Introduction
About This Series
To make the most of this series you should be an engineering student, in
your third or final year of Mechanical Engineering. You should have access
to licenses of HyperWorks, to the Altair website, and to an instructor who
can guide you through your chosen projects or assignments.
Design is addressed in the other volumes of this series. This book focuses
wholly on Analysis. However the presentation is from a design perspective:
FEA is presented with a minimum of mathematics, and with a strong focus
on applications.
The various references cited in the book will probably be most useful after
you have worked through your project and are interpreting the results.
Supporting Material
Your instructor will have the Student Projects and Student Projects
Summaries that accompany these volumes – they should certainly be made
2
A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Introduction
use of. Further reading and references are indicated both in this book and in
the Projects themselves.
If you find the material interesting, you should also look up the HyperWorks
On-line Help System. The Altair website, www.altair.com, is also likely to be
of interest to you, both for an insight into the evolving technology and to
help you present your project better.
Roger Penrose
3
FEA – What It Is … And What It Isn’t A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
For an engineering tool that dates back to at least 1960 when Clough chose
the term “Finite Elements”2, the Finite Element Method has had more than
its fair share of misinterpretations. Part of this, of course, is simply because
of its success.
A good place to start the study of this fascinating blend of mathematics and
engineering-design is by reviewing some typical applications.
Typical Usage
Most design involves one or more of form, function, and fit. The various
tasks of an Engineering Analyst revolve around the investigation of the
function. Industrial designers usually address form, while CAD modelers
address fit.
Stress Analysis is easily the most widely known of these. Given a component
or an assembly, the analyst assesses the likelihood that the stress in the
material will fall within permissible limits. The difficulty lies in the shapes of
the parts to be analyzed, the properties of the materials used, and the
various sources of loads. In most popular usage, stress analysis is taken to
apply only to solids – that is, to the study of Solid Mechanics.
1
“The Mathematical Foundation of Structural Mechanics”, Friedel Hartmann
2
And probably even further back to 1943 when Courant introduced the linear
triangular element.
4
A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis FEA – What It Is … And What It Isn’t
Thermal engineering involves the study of the flow of heat, often covered in
undergraduate courses on Heat Transfer. The analyst’s
job is to predict the temperature distribution in the
areas of interest.
A new entrant to the field can be excused for believing that FEA is the
engineering equivalent of a miracle-drug, a cure for every disease known
and unknown.
Limitations
As we will see later, FEA can be used to investigate the behavior of any
process that can be described by a differential equation. However, it’s one of
many methods that can be, and have been, used to solve differential
equations.
Mechanisms
One of the first topics a student of mechanical engineering encounters is the
difference between structures and mechanisms. Plainly put, a mechanism is
5
FEA – What It Is … And What It Isn’t A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
a body that is capable of rigid movement. Under the action of a force, the
mechanism gains kinetic energy. This is in contrast to structures, which gain
strain energy under the action of a force.
Fluid Flow
The Navier-Stokes equations have long troubled engineers. Sir Horace Lamb
is said to have observed “I am an old man now, and when I die and go to
Heaven there are two matters on which I hope for enlightenment. One is
quantum electrodynamics and the other is the turbulent motion of fluids.
And about the former I am rather more optimistic4.”
3
See CAE For Rigid Body Mechanics
4
Quoted in Computational Fluid Mechanics and Heat Transfer, by Anderson,
Tannehill, and Pletcher, 1984.
6
A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis FEA – What It Is … And What It Isn’t
Some forms of fluid flow have been simulated using FEA, but this is more
the exception than the rule.
The reasons for this are many, and beyond the scope of this book. We will
only note that if FEA is used to analyze fluid flows, great care should be
exercised both in modeling and interpreting the results.
Acoustics
Vibration is an essential part of engineering design. Not only does it cause
stress and strain, it causes discomfort and generates noise. All noise, of
course, is sound. And all sound is a form of vibration. However the reverse is
not true.
Engineers, particularly in fields related to vehicle design, use the term NVH
(for Noise, Vibration and Harshness) to segregate vibrations based on the
frequency of the vibration.
NVH Characteristics
FEA has been employed very successfully at the
lower end of the frequency-spectrum, typically
5 – 25 Hz: Shake
for excitations that are lower than about 10,000
rpm. There is nothing sacrosanct about that
number, of course – FEA has also been used for 25 – 100 Hz: Harshness, Boom
higher frequency vibrations. But the use of
alternative numerical methods (BEM or Boundary
Element Methods are quite popular) is more 100 – 150 Hz: Moan
common in the investigation of the generation
and transmission of sound or noise.
150 – 300 Hz: Noise
Some FE solvers, including OptiStruct, provide
acoustic analysis capabilities too.
Time Integration
Quantum Mechanicians like to theorize about time travel. But for most
engineers, the spatial and temporal domains are firmly separated. The first
involves the familiar spatial coordinates – x / y / z in Cartesian coordinates, r
/ θ / z in Polar coordinates and r / θ / ϕ in Spherical coordinates – and is
amenable to the mathematics of Finite Elements. Problems that involve a
7
FEA – What It Is … And What It Isn’t A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
variation of the parameters of interest in the spatial domain are called
Boundary Value Problems.
Learning FEA
Traditionally, authors tended to choose one of
two approaches to introduce FEA.
Fortunately, over the years, the method has matured. Mathematical rigor
has been added to most engineering discoveries. Examples of usage and
relevance illustrate almost every mathematical proof.
Like most powerful tools, FEA in the hands of a novice can wreak havoc. For
effective use, an understanding of the mechanics is essential. A grasp of the
mathematics can help enormously, particularly to diagnose errors, if they
should occur.
8
A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis FEA – What It Is … And What It Isn’t
The assignment problems that accompany this book are completely realistic,
drawn from actual engineering applications. However they are restricted to
linear analysis only. The other volumes in this series address more advanced
applications of FEA: optimization, reliability, multi-disciplinary analyses, and
manufacturing simulation.
It was absolutely marvelous working for Pauli. You could ask him anything.
There was no worry that he would think a particular question was stupid,
since he thought all questions were stupid.
Frederick Weisskopf
5
The table is from the American Iron And Steel Institute’s Vehicle Crashworthiness
And Occupant Safety
6
See CAE And Design Optimization - Advanced
9
Mechanics, Mathematics, And Other Theory A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
We remember very well the time when almost every author dealing with a
non-trivial elasticity problem considered it very nearly a matter of his
honour to reduce it by all means to a Fredholm equation of the second
kind. After this, he was prone at least to think that his investigation was
completed theoretically without concerning himself with the
implementation of the solution. (People wonder at it now).
For a long time, the search for solutions to differential equations was an art
by itself.
7
From Integral Equations in Elasticity, V.Z.Parton and P.I.Perlin, 1977
10
A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Mechanics, Mathematics, And Other Theory
Solid Mechanics
As outlined in the earlier chapter, FEA is not the preferred method for
problems involving fluid flow. The sections below, therefore, address the
mechanics of solids only.
Engineering Mechanics
It is not always easy to determine whether it is better to use difference or
differential equations. A first semester course on engineering mechanics
usually adopts the former approach.
In this approach, we first define a link as a rigid body that possesses at least
two joints, and a joint as a point of attachment between links. A binary link
has 2 joints, a ternary link has 3 and a quaternary link has 4.
∑F = ∑F = ∑F = ∑M
x y z x = ∑My = ∑Mz = 0
If the externally applied forces are independent of time, the problem is one
of Statics. If, however, the externally applied forces are time dependent, we
are faced with a problem in Dynamics.
11
Mechanics, Mathematics, And Other Theory A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
F = M ⋅a
F
σ=
a
The strain is defined by
∆L
ε=
L
σ = Eε
where E is the Modulus of Elasticity of the Young’s Modulus. Hooke’s Law is
sometimes referred to as the constitutive equation, since it involves the
material properties, which in turn depend on the constitution of the material.
Continuum Mechanics
The difference-equation approach is valid as long as it is reasonable to treat
the link as a rigid body. That is, if it is reasonable to assume that there is no
variation of stress or deformation within the link itself. In engineering
design, these assumptions are relevant if the links are more or less uni-
dimensional – long and thin – and if the links are joined with pins. The study
of such assemblies usually centers around “trusses”. Electric-transmission
towers are an excellent example.
The first step is to define the deformation vector. Recall that a body in 3-
dimensional space has 6 degrees of freedom – translations and rotations
about 3 coordinate axes. Remember also that we need to differentiate
between rigid movements and flexible deformations. A rigid movement is
relevant to a mechanism, while a structure must deform under the action of
external forces. By definition, the structure cannot move as a rigid body.
The displacement vector has six components. These are decomposed into a
deformation vector and a rotation vector. The deformation vector is usually
denoted by u.
u x
u = u y
u
z
du
ε=
dx
8
Strictly speaking, a tensor is a group of functions that satisfy some conditions.
Matrices are a convenient way to represent tensors, but not every matrix is a tensor.
9
And restricting attention to small strains. That is, we assume (du/dx)2 and higher
powers are much less than du/dx and can be ignored.
13
Mechanics, Mathematics, And Other Theory A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
∂u x
∂x
ε xx ∂u x
ε ∂y
xy ∂u
ε xz x ∂z
ε = = ∂u
ε yy y ∂y
ε xz
∂u y
ε zz ∂z
∂
z
u
∂z
ε xx ε xy ε xz
ε = ε yx ε yy ε yz
ε zx ε zy ε zz
Note that the strain tensor is symmetric. That is, εij = εji. Accordingly, there
are 6 components for the strain: 3 normal strains and 3 shear strains.
σ xx σ xy σ xz
σ = σ yx σ yy σ yz
σ zx σ zy σ zz
The force per unit area is called the traction. When resolved on a particular
face, we get the stress component.
14
A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Mechanics, Mathematics, And Other Theory
The drawback of the stress and strain tensors is that they are coordinate
dependent. In other words, a change of coordinates can change the stresses
and strains. This reduces the utility of the mathematical definitions of the
stress and the strain. Physically, we expect the stresses and strains to give
us an indication as to the state of the body. Obviously a change in axes
cannot change the physical state of the body!
The invariants use principal values: the principal stresses and the principal
strains.
σ xx − λ σ xy σ xz
σ yx σ yy − λ σ yx = 0
σ zx σ zy σ zz − λ
for λ. From linear algebra we recall that for the above equation gives us a
cubic equation that has 3 roots – these are the 3 principal stresses for that
state of stress. Mohr’s Circle is another way to calculate the principal
stresses, σ1, σ2 and σ3.
The main use of the principal stresses and strains is to calculate a value that
can be used in a failure theory. Various failure theories have been proposed
based on empirical observations. For ductile materials like steel, for instance,
the Von Mises criterion is often used:
(σ 1 − σ 2 )2 + (σ − σ 3 ) + (σ 3 − σ 1 )
2 2
σe =
2
As per this theory, a material will yield when the equivalent stress crosses
the yield stress.
15
Mechanics, Mathematics, And Other Theory A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
The yield stress or the yield point is most familiar when considered for a uni-
dimensional experimental specimen:
Not all materials have a clearly defined yield point. For these, a proof stress
or offset yield stress is sometimes used. This is obtained by drawing the line
as shown, at a strain of 0.002. This strain is called the 0.2% proof strain.
For tri-axial states of stress, designers often use the principal stresses as
axes. In this depiction, the yield surface marks the limit of the elastic region.
Stress and strain are related by the 3-dimensional version of Hooke’s Law.
Since the stress and strain each have 6 components, the material properties
are often represented by a constitutive matrix.
16
A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Mechanics, Mathematics, And Other Theory
∂σ xx ∂σ yx ∂σ zx
+ + + Bx = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂σ xy ∂σ yy ∂σ zy
+ + + By = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂σ xz ∂σ yz ∂σ zz
+ + + Bz = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
where Bx, By and Bz are the body forces in the respective directions x, y and
z.
A body force is distinct from a boundary force. The former is distributed all
through the body – for instance the magnetic attraction an iron bar
experiences, the force due to gravity, etc. The latter can be a point, line
force, or an area force. Point loads are also called concentrated loads.
It is important to remember that point loads and line loads are idealizations
– they can never be achieved in practice.
where k is the stress concentration factor. Design codes use historical data
to suggest factors of safety for different applications.
In closing, two important aspects of stress analysis are worth noting: stress
concentration factors and St.Venant’s Principle.
17
Mechanics, Mathematics, And Other Theory A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
If a geometry is complicated, the nominal stress is calculated over a simpler
geometry, and then factored up using a stress-concentration factor.
Handbooks10 present factors for various configurations.
Dynamics - Theory
If variables of interest change with time, the differential equations need to
be modified to include time derivatives. Conventionally, different symbols
are used for spatial-derivatives and time derivatives: a prime for the former
and a dot for the latter:
du d 2u
= u ′, 2 = u ′′
dx du
du d 2u
= u&, 2 = u&&
dt dt
Note that that the first and second time derivatives of deformation (u) give
the velocity (v) and the acceleration (a) respectively.
ma + cv + ku = p
The mass and stiffness are relatively easy to measure, but the
damping is often difficult to obtain. In the equation above, we
assume that the dashpot is a viscous damper. That is, the
resisting force depends on the velocity of motion. Viscous
10
See, for instance, “Stress Concentration Factors” by R.E.Peterson
18
A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Mechanics, Mathematics, And Other Theory
damping is not always a good model, however. Various alternatives are
available, including hysteretic damping, sliding friction, Coulomb damping,
etc. Unfortunately damping, like friction, is hard to characterize.
X (ω )
H (ω ) =
F (ω )
An FRF is a transfer function that relates the excitation at one point with the
response at a point of interest. Note that an FRF is a function of the
frequency of excitation, ω12.
If there are multiple points of excitation / interest, the FRFs are best treated
as a matrix, with
X i (ω )
H ij (ω ) =
F j (ω )
σ
ζ =
σ + ω2
2
Recall that we earlier wrote the equilibrium equation in terms of the stress
components and the body forces. Dynamics involves accelerations and
velocities. These are derived from the deformation vector by taking the time
derivative. We can rewrite the equation in terms of the deformation using
the stress-strain and strain-deformation equations. One familiar form of this
equation is the wave equation. In its simplest form, for example the
vibration of a string, the equation is:
∂2 y 2 ∂ y
2
= a
∂t 2 ∂x 2
20
A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Mechanics, Mathematics, And Other Theory
number of degrees of freedom is a good representation. If, however, the
structure is like a casting or is made from sheet-metal, a continuum
representation is more appropriate. In this case, the structure has infinite
degrees of freedom.
Regardless of which approach is taken, the reality is that most models have
more than one degree of freedom.
u ( x, y, z , t ) = uo ( x, y, z ) sin(ωt )
we then have
and
− w 2 [M ]{u0 } + [K ]{u0 } = 0
13
The Sturm-Liouville equation is usually treated as the basis for all such
investigations for partial-differential equations.
14
Only for brevity. Damping need not be excluded.
21
Mechanics, Mathematics, And Other Theory A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
[A]{u0 } = 0
where
[A] = −w2 [M ] + [K ]
If we assume that
λ {uo }
[A − λI ]{u0 } = 0
This equation will have non-trivial solutions (i.e. solutions where u0 is not
identically zero) if the matrix is singular. That is, if the determinant is zero.
The equation
A − λI = 0
The order of the polynomial equation depends on the size of the matrix A.
An nxn matrix gives us an nth order polynomial, which will have n roots. For
each of these values of λ, we can find a corresponding {u}. These λ and {u}
pairs are called eigen-solutions. λ is called the natural-frequency or eigen-
value and {u} is the corresponding mode shape or eigen-vector.
If we include the damping factors, [C], the characteristic equation may have
imaginary roots. These imaginary roots can be interpreted physically15: the
15
Interested readers should review de Moivre’s theorem, the Argand diagram,
Nyquist and Bode plots
22
A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Mechanics, Mathematics, And Other Theory
imaginary terms are the equivalent of a phase lag. That is, due to the
presence of damping, response lags behind excitation.
In the absence of damping, the eigen-values are all real: physically, this
means the response and excitation are always in phase. In this case, the
eigen-solutions are called normal modes. Complex Modes are what we get if
damping is included. Normal modes have stationary nodal lines – that is,
they are standing waves. Complex modes are traveling waves.
Thermal Analysis
The study of heat, Thermodynamics, is notoriously difficult:
16
Supposed to have been said by Arnold Sommerfeld, when asked why he had not
written a book on the subject.
23
Mechanics, Mathematics, And Other Theory A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
Temperature itself, however, is much easier to deal with than stress, mainly
because it’s a scalar quantity. The difficulties in design lie in the estimation
of physical quantities required for a reliable analysis. This section briefly
reviews the essentials of thermal analysis and thermo-mechanical analysis.
The three modes of heat transfer are conduction, convection and radiation.
The first is important principally in solids. The second is significant in fluids
(liquids and gases). The third, radiation, is significant only at high
temperatures or if other modes of transfer are negligible, as in outer space.
The heat flux, which is proportional to the gradient of temperature,
represents the flow of thermal energy. In a solid it depends on the
conductivity, and in a fluid on the convection coefficient. At a steady-state
(i.e. when thermal equilibrium has been reached) in one-dimension we have
dT
q = − kA
dx
and
q = hA(T − T∞ )
24
A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Mechanics, Mathematics, And Other Theory
∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂T
k + k + k + q& = ρ .c.
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z zx ∂t
where ρ is the density of the solid, c is the specific heat capacity, and q& is
the energy generated per unit volume. If the temperature is dependent on
time, this called transient heat transfer. For a steady-state problem the time-
derivative is zero.
k
α=
ρc
For most materials, the thermal field is independent of the deformation field.
This means the temperature in the body can be solved for without worrying
about the stress distribution in the body. Once the temperature field (that is
the distribution of temperature in the body) has been obtained, it can be
used to calculate the stresses in the body.
25
Mechanics, Mathematics, And Other Theory A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
What is also clear is that metals fail from fatigue if the load is “reversed” or
“alternating19”. Given a load that changes magnitude and / or direction,
engineers use the stress analysis methods described earlier to calculate:
17
Metal Fatigue by N.E.Frost, K.J.Marsh, L.P.Pook
18
The American Society of Metals’ Atlas of Fatigue Curves, edited by H.E.Boyer
19
Some materials fail if the load is held steady but is held for a long time. This can
be due to creep or viscoelasticity. Several plastics creep at room temperature while
metals tend to creep only at elevated temperature.
26
A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Mechanics, Mathematics, And Other Theory
It’s important to remember that these are all theories, not yet accepted as
laws. To emphasize the fact that Fatigue and its adjunct, Fracture, are not
well understood, we will close our brief discussion of fatigue just as we
started it: with an extract from two books on the subject.
First20, describing the investigation into the failure of a tank in 1919, which
was part of a law-suit, the court appointed auditor wrote
“In 1988 the roof of the forward cabin of a 737 tore away during
flight, killing a flight attendant and injuring many passengers. The
cause was multiple fatigue cracks linking upto form a large,
catastrophic crack. The multitude of cycles accumulated on this
aircraft, corrosion and maintenance problems all played a role in
this accident. Furthermore, the accident challenged the notion that
fracture was well understood and under control in modern
structures. “
20
Fracture and Fatigue Control in Structures, Applications of Fracture Mechanics, by
S.T.Rolfe and J.M.Barsom.
21
Lecture Notes On Fracture Mechanics, Alan T.Zehnder, Department of Theoretical
and Applied Mechanics, Cornell University
27
Mechanics, Mathematics, And Other Theory A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
Mathematics
Mathematics is usually easier to deal with than mechanics, if only for the
reason that most statements can be accepted as complete and true. There is
little room for a subjective interpretation.
It is this requirement for tractability that will lead us onto our next chapter,
where we will study the theory of the Finite Element Method.
28
A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Mechanics, Mathematics, And Other Theory
in a non-circular bar is governed by the same equation that describes the
deflection of a thin membrane under the action of a pressure. The
immediate application of this insight was to allow experimenters to use the
easier membrane-inflation experiments to measure torsional stresses!
Investigations into 2nd order PDEs led to the comparison of these equations
with the general second order analytic curve, the general conic section.
Recall that if we write the conic section in its canonical form,
In a similar fashion, a general 2nd order PDE can be written in canonical form
and classified as elliptic, parabolic or hyperbolic, depending on the
discriminant.
Boundary and Initial conditions should be prescribed with care, since they
should both mimic the physical world and be consistent with the statement
22
Boundary conditions are often classified as Neumann, Dirichlet and Mixed
29
Mechanics, Mathematics, And Other Theory A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
of the differential equation. Problems that are thus defined are said to be
well-posed. The opposite, of course, is an ill-posed problem.
Next, the mathematician can prove that the solution that exists is unique.
This is even better, since it tells us that regardless of what method we use
to find the solution, once we have found it it’s the only one.
A PDE is linear if
23
The Fractal Geometry of Nature, B.Mandelbrot
30
A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Mechanics, Mathematics, And Other Theory
Not only does this mean that the equation you are going to investigate may
have no solution, it also means that it may have multiple solutions.
How do you know whether you should choose a linear model or a non-linear
model?
Bessel’s functions will be familiar to any one who has studied the analytical
solution to the problem of the cooling of a fin. It was the investigation of
heat transfer that also gave rise to the only series that we will review – the
Fourier series. No study of mechanical vibrations can be undertaken without
this.
In its simplest form, the Fourier Series tells us that almost any periodic
function can be expanded as a series of sin and cosine functions.
a0 ∞
f ( x) = + ∑ (an cos(nx) + bn sin(nx) )
2 n=1
The “almost” contains some important conditions. For example, one of the
conditions is that function should have a finite number of finite
discontinuities within the range of interest. This means, for example, that
the familiar trigonometric function tangent cannot be expanded as a Fourier
Series over any interval that includes π/2 or 3π/2, since the function is
infinite at those points.
The significance of the coefficients of the series is not always apparent. But
if the function being investigated is time dependent, as in mechanical
vibrations, a simple transformation can inject life into the coefficients of the
series!
∞
1 −iωt
F (ω ) = ∫ x(t )e dt
2π −∞
24
See, for example, Fourier Series and Boundary Value Problems, R.V.Churchill and
J.W.Brown
32
A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Mechanics, Mathematics, And Other Theory
We say that the transform has taken us from the time domain to the
frequency domain. The inverse transform takes us back from the frequency
to the time domain.
Of the several properties that the Fourier Transform has, one in particular is
interesting: the Fourier Transform of f’(t) is given by iωF(ω). This means
differential equations can be transformed into algebraic equations25. The
transform has a host of other interesting properties, covering areas like time
shifting, modulation, etc. which are very useful in signal processing.
25
Recall Laplace transforms – they serve a similar purpose.
26
These figures are from The Fundamentals Of Modal Testing, Application Note 243-
3, Agilent Technologies
33
Mechanics, Mathematics, And Other Theory A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
Our design goal is to control the response of the system. That is, given any
source of excitation, we want to first predict, then alter, the response. The
first step in this is to understand how the modes of vibration contribute to
the response. Since the modes depend on k and m, we can tune the
response by making appropriate changes to the structure.
The time-response, shown below, doesn’t provide much insight. It does tell
us how the response changes with time, but tells us nothing of the relative
importance of the 3 modes.
But now let’s look at the Fourier Transform – the frequency domain plot.
34
A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Mechanics, Mathematics, And Other Theory
Note that the peaks in the plot correspond to ω1, ω2 and ω3, the natural
frequencies of the system. The contribution of ω1 is more than that of ω2, so
we’ll probably be better off tuning the structure to change ω1.
In fact, as the figure below shows, the frequency domain plot can be
obtained as the superposition of the plots for each individual mode!
Remember this, since we will discuss the Modal Superposition Method later
on in our study.
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Mechanics, Mathematics, And Other Theory A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
While the “actual” beam, being a continuous body, has infinite degrees of
freedom, our physical measurement is “reducing” it to a 3-degree of
freedom body if we measure just the first 3 modes. The plot along the
“frequency axis” is the frequency-domain plot we’ve seen above. Obviously
the plot will change depending on the measurement point, just as the time
response changes at each measurement point – recall the FRF we saw
earlier.
Figuring out where to measure (i.e. the choice of the measurement points)
is one of the many challenges test-engineers face, and is one reason why
the FE method goes so well with testing in the design of vibrating
equipment. FE is often used to suggest measurement points.
27
Refer the Nyquist Criterion, taught in most undergraduate courses on Control
Systems.
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A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Mechanics, Mathematics, And Other Theory
DFT, implemented in hardware or software gives us the FFT – the Fast
Fourier Transform.
There are several different algorithms that implement the FFT. Common to
all of them is that they can generate the frequency domain form of a signal
even as the signal is being sampled.
A detailed discussion of the FFT and the FRF is beyond the scope of this
book.
Ed Wilson
describing frequency domain analysis
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Essential FEA Theory A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
This is the approach we will follow in this brief theoretical introduction to the
method. The next chapter will put this mathematical approach in the context
of specific applications of mechanics.
28
In a paper published in 1915. The method is also called the Bubnov-Galerkin
method, and is similar to the Rayleigh-Ritz method.
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A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Essential FEA Theory
problem of simultaneous linear equations that can be solved using matrix
methods that any high-school student is familiar with.
For the sake of simplicity, we will illustrate the method for a simple second
order elliptic differential equation with constant coefficients.
We start with the statement of the problem: that is, the differential
equation,:
d 2u du
k 2
+c + au = f
dx dx
the domain,
for o ≤ x ≤ l
and the boundary conditions29
subject to
u x =0 = u 0
u x=l = ul
Note that the boundary conditions could, in general, specify either the
dependent variable u, or it’s first derivative u’, or a combination of these.
For stress analysis, the dependent variable is the deformation while the first
derivative represents the strain or the stress on the boundary. Combinations
of the dependent-variable and its first derivative are less common, but can
represent spring-supported boundaries.
29
The FE method treats boundary conditions with great elegance, though we do not
cover the mathematics here.
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Essential FEA Theory A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
Higher order differential equations are encountered in mechanics. For
instance the beam differential equation can be written as a 2nd order
equation
d2y M
2
=−
dx EI
but it is usually more convenient to work with the 4th order form
d4y w
4
=−
dx EI
Our problem is to find a function u(x) that satisfies the differential equation
everywhere in the domain (i.e. for o ≤ x ≤ l ) and also satisfies the
boundary conditions.
For brevity, and with no loss of generality, we will simplify our second-order
equation further, restricting our attention to just two terms:
d 2u
k. = f
dx 2
Rather than integrate the differential equation, we will assume the form of
the solution, then search for conditions that the parameters in this assumed
form must satisfy for the assumed equation to be a solution.
We will call our assumed solution u , but before searching for the solution,
we will recast the equation in its weak form. Remember that if u is to be a
solution of the differential equation, it must have a second derivative. This is
obvious: the assumed form will not fit into the differential equation unless it
has a second derivative.
But also remember that our modeling approach does lead to situations
where the solution itself cannot have a second derivative: it may at best
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A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Essential FEA Theory
have a first derivative. For example, consider a weight hanging from a cable
that is supported at both ends. In actual reality the cable is continuous –
that is, its shape changes smoothly all through. The slope of the string may
change more rapidly in the vicinity of the weight than at other points, but it
is still continuous.
Why should we demand that our candidate solution u , which we will call
the trial function since we will want to try it out as a possible solution, have
a second derivative, when the mathematical model has an exact solution
that does not have second derivatives? This is the reason we recast the
problem in the weak form.
To do this, we say that to qualify as the solution, our trial function will be
accepted if it satisfies the equation
l l
d 2u
∫0 dx 2 dx = ∫0 vf ( x)dx
v.
The use of v(x) in the above equation compensates for this. If we require
that the integral equation be satisfied for all possible functions v(x), we can
satisfy ourselves that the integral equation is as demanding as the original
differential equation. This approach, called the method of weighted
residuals, uses v(x) as a test function.
From now on, it’s just a matter of basic calculus and algebra.
30
Such point-functions are defined using the Dirac-delta function. They are not
physically realizable, but are used commonly.
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Essential FEA Theory A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
x =l l l
du dv du
v' −∫ . dx = ∫ vf ( x)dx
dx x =0 0
dx dx 0
This equation is now symmetric. That is, it requires that both the trial
function and the test function have the same order of continuity. Since the
equation only involves the first derivatives of these two functions, they do
not need to have second derivatives at all31.
We now assume a series form for both the test and the trial functions, with
the constant coefficients a and b:
∞
u ( x) = ∑ ai .φi ( x)
i =1
and
∞
v( x) = ∑ b j .ψ j ( x)
j =1
As with any other infinite series, we will choose to terminate the series at
our convenience. That is, we choose to calculate only a finite sum. How
many terms should we include? That depends on how much error we are
willing to tolerate. Since this is a critical decision in design, we will return to
this aspect in the chapter on Verification and Validation!
You may find it useful to carry out the exercise yourself (for a small N) to
show that after substituting the series in the integral equation and
rearranging terms and ignoring the boundary terms, we get the matrix
equation
31
A C0 function is one whose zero’th derivative (i.e. the function itself) is continuous.
A C1 function has a continuous first derivative, a C2 function has a continuous second
derivative, and so on. By continuous, we mean the left-limit = the right-limit = the
value of the function at the point.
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A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Essential FEA Theory
Since we can cancel the row vector {b} from the equation as it occurs on
both sides, we get the matrix equation
l ' ' l
l
∫ φ1ψ 1 ∫φ ψ ∫ fψ 1
' '
1 2 . . .
0 0 a1 0
l ' ' l
a l
∫ φ2ψ 1 ∫φ ψ ∫ fψ 2
' '
. . . 2
2 2
{b1 b2 . . bN } 0 0 . = {b1 b2 . . bN } 0
. . . . . .
. .
. . . . .
l a N l
. φ ψ '
ψ
∫0 N N ∫0
'
. . . f
N
[K ]{u} = { f }
Given the similarity to the equation of spring-deflection, it is customary to
call the matrix [K] the Stiffness Matrix. Obviously, it may represent other
physical quantities too, such as the heat capacity in a thermal problem, but
the name is used regardless.
While we have not shown how the boundary terms are included, we will only
state that they can be very elegantly included in the matrix equation itself.
The choice of these functions determines the shape of the trial function,
which is nothing but our assumed solution. We therefore call these functions
shape functions. It is by no means easy to construct shape functions for all
differential equations. Despite long years of research, it continues to be an
active area of research! The choice of shape functions depends on the
differential equation being solved, and on the order of accuracy required.
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Essential FEA Theory A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
The bj, of course, are irrelevant to us since we have cancelled them from the
equation – we never actually evaluate them. What of the ai?
We can make a choice that is very intuitive and that turns out to be very
useful. We ask that the constants ai be the values of the function u at
selected locations in the domain. We call these locations the nodes or grids,
and since we are constructing the series, it is upto us to decide where to
locate these nodes. Without explaining the mathematical basis, we will just
state that the nodes should be closely spaced wherever we expect the
solution to vary rapidly, while they can be spaced farther apart in areas
where the solution is not expected to change rapidly.
Again, note that we are making our decision based on our judgment, not on
knowledge. We can guess where the solution will vary rapidly, but we
cannot know this till we have solved the problem! The chapter on
Verification And Validation addresses this seeming paradox.
Now remember that each term in the stiffness matrix is an integral. Since we
are using computers, we evaluate these integrals numerically. This step,
often called quadrature, usually uses the Gauss integration rule.
What then is an element? It’s a part of the domain defined by nodes, over
which everything (the shape functions, the material constants, the forcing
function, etc.) is continuous. Putting a lot of elements together gives us the
complete domain.
In other words, the Finite Element method not only gives us a way to solve
differential equations, it also helps us model complicated bodies by piecing
together various differential equations in a consistent fashion!
Truss Elements:
• 3 dof / node (ux, uy, uz)
• Data required: Cross-section Area
• Appropriate for pin-jointed members
Beam Elements:
• 6 dof / node (ux, uy, uz, rx, ry, rz)
• Data required: Cross-section Area, Moments of Inertia
• Appropriate for slender (uni-dimensional) members that support
bending moments
• Linear Beams have 2 nodes per element
• 2nd order beams can be curved – they have 3 nodes per element
Plate Elements:
• 6 dof / node (ux, uy, uz, rx, ry, rz)
• Data required: Thickness
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Essential FEA Theory A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
• Use for thin (two-dimensional) members
• Linear Quadrilateral Plates have 4 nodes per element
• Linear Triangular Plates have 3 nodes per element
• 2nd order (quadratic) Quadrilateral Plates have 8 nodes per element (some
packages allow 9 nodes per element, with the 9th at the centroid of the
element)
• 2nd order (quadratic) Triangular Plates have 6 nodes per element (some
packages allow 7 nodes per element, with the 7th at the centroid of the
element)
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A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Essential FEA Theory
Plane stress, plane strain and axi-symmetric behavior are good
approximations in specific situations. Elements that offer this type of
behavior are very efficient if used in the right situations, but with the drop in
the price of computing power, they have largely fallen out of favor.
One element that is not an element at all (in that it doesn’t represent any
differential-equation) is a “rigid link”. It is just an equation that tells the
software that two dofs must be matched – they should have the same
values. From an engineering perspective, this is as if the two dofs have been
joined by an infinitely rigid link, hence the name for the element.
Finally, you will see from the summary above that not all elements have the
same number of dofs / node. Beams and plates have 6 dof / node while
trusses and solids have 3. Joining a plate element to a beam is consistent:
equilibrium can be maintained since both the elements have the same dofs.
But what if you want to connect a beam to a solid, or a plate to a solid? Is it
sensible?
That depends on the physical situation. If, in the physical problem, there is a
hinge at the connection then your mathematical model will be accurate. If,
however, your physical problem has a slender member welded to a block,
then it is tempting to model the block with solid elements and the slender
member with beam elements. But it is important to remember that the
physical model is now different from the real model since moments are not
transmitted!
Building models that mix elements that have different dofs / node should be
done with care. It is often resorted to in practice, and works well if
safeguards are followed.
Matrix Solvers
Understanding how matrix equations are solved is really not important for a
designer. If the model is created right, the computer program should take
care of solving the matrix equation.
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Essential FEA Theory A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
We will briefly review methods of solution, though, for two reasons. First,
simply because it is interesting! Second, because if things go wrong (as they
inevitably will!) familiarity with the inner workings helps diagnose what went
wrong.
For solid mechanics, where we are guaranteed that the matrix will be
symmetric, pivots should never be zero. (In linear algebra, we say the
stiffness matrix is Symmetric Positive Definite). If a pivot is zero, it’s
probably because you have made a mistake in modeling. The most common
mistake is in the application of restraints (which are one type of boundary
condition).
Given a plate with a force applied at each end, what “boundary conditions”
can we apply?
32
Iterative solvers, which are useful for very large problems, use variations on the
Gauss-Seidel method.
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A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Essential FEA Theory
The data does not tell us anything about the prescribed deformation, so we
can be forgiven for building a finite element model shown below.
Symmetry is often used to introduce restraints (and can also help cut the
computational time since it reduces the size of the model!). For the plate,
applying symmetry, the model would be
For the translational degrees of freedom, you should restrain all translations
perpendicular to the plane of symmetry for all nodes that lie on the plane.
33
Our discussion is restricted to static analysis. Also, a review of Inertia Relief,
described later on, will help you.
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Essential FEA Theory A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
Rotational degrees of freedom, if they exist, should be set to the inverse of
the corresponding translational dof.
For instance, for a plate symmetric about the x-axis, we would set ux = 0 for
all nodes on the x-axis, and leave uy and uz free. Since plate elements have
6 dofs / node, we would set ry and rz = 0 for these nodes, and leave rx free,
applying the “inverse” rule of the previous paragraph.
We will conclude our discussion of matrix solvers for FEM by noting that in
general, stiffness matrices tend to be sparse. That is, the number of entries
that are 0 is usually pretty high. Various schemes are used to take
advantage of this behavior – band-solvers, column- or skyline-solvers and
frontal-solvers are some popular methods.
There are several different norms that can be used to estimate error, but
the error in strain energy is favored since it is consistent with the
mathematics of FE.
As with any other infinite series, truncating the series is a source of error.
Adding more terms reduces the error, but this behavior is asymptotic – the
law of diminishing returns applies here too, so after a while the increased
cost of including additional terms does not provide an adequate increase in
accuracy.
The key to efficient usage of FE is to stop increasing terms when the rate of
improvement levels off. Increasing terms, of course, means increasing the
number of nodes, which can be done in two ways: either by using more
(and therefore smaller) elements or by using higher order shape functions.
The former is referred to as h-refinement while the latter is called p
refinement. If both methods are used simultaneously, we call it h-p
refinement.
Regardless of how fine the mesh is, the use of the weak form means that
the derivative of the dependent variable can never be continuous. In other
words, in a stress analysis solution, the deformation will be continuous but
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A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Essential FEA Theory
the strain will not be. This behavior is sometimes used to judge whether the
solution is adequately accurate or not.
Finally, we saw that Galerkin’s method applies to BVPs only (Boundary Value
Problems). Remember that we integrated-by-parts. This resulted in the term
x =l
du
v'
dx x =0
Stephen Hawking
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Putting It Together – OptiStruct/Analysis A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
Strictly speaking the setting-up and review tasks (often referred to as pre-
processing and post-processing) are done using HyperMesh and HyperView.
As the assignments illustrate, this distinction is immaterial to the designer,
with all tasks carried out under the same interface!
In this chapter we
Capabilities
Remember that a model is an idealization of a physical phenomenon. Any
results you get are only as good as the model you choose. At the same time,
the model should not be so complicated that it cannot be solved in the
required time or with available resources.
Linear, Static
This model is used when the response of the body is linear, and there’s no
variation with time. In stress analysis, this model is appropriate when
operating within the elastic region (i.e. the stress-strain curve is linear) and
when the deformations are small and when the loads do not vary with time.
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This model is used widely since it’s quick to solve and relatively easy to
interpret the results. Very often, even if a non-linear model is more realistic,
a linear model is used to investigate likely behavior. Once the options have
been narrowed, a full non-linear analysis is resorted to.
[K ]{u} = { f }
where K, u and f are functions of x, y and z only – they are independent of
t.
Normal Modes
Sometimes our design problem is not just to calculate stresses or
deformations. We may be interested in identifying the resonance frequencies
of the system. In vehicle design, avoidance of resonance enhances ride
comfort by cutting out unwanted rattles. When designing a loudspeaker or a
megaphone, on the other hand, you may want resonance to occur.
In cases like these, we need to solve the “eigenvalue” problem and evaluate
the natural frequencies of the body.
[M ] ∂ u2
2
+ [K ]{u} = {0}
∂t
Linear, Transient
In stress analysis, this model is appropriate when operating within the
elastic region (i.e. the stress-strain curve is linear) and when the
deformations are small but when the external conditions do vary with time.
Either the loads or the restraints or both could be time-dependent.
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Putting It Together – OptiStruct/Analysis A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
Random Response
In some situations, we cannot specify the exact value of the loads as a
function of time, but can specify the total energy in these loads. An example
would be the forces experienced by a plane when its engines are firing. We
know the total energy being transferred from the jet engines to the frame,
but cannot claim that we know the loads precisely as functions of time.
The several ways to evaluate these responses is beyond the scope of this
book.
Inertia Relief
Setting up a Finite Element model for static analysis requires that the
structure be supported adequately.
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the SUPORTs at. Think of the SUPORT points as reference points with
respect to which the deformation is calculated.
Frequency Response
In many designs where vibration is important and correlation with test-
results is essential, designers have to characterize the response of the
structure as a function of frequency-of-excitation instead of as a function of
time. In these cases a Fourier Transform converts the equilibrium equation
from the “time domain” to the “frequency domain”.
Linear Buckling
Designers sometimes have to take into account the fact that even if stresses
are less than permissible values, the structure may fail if it buckles – like a
tall column in compression. That is, the deflection continues to increase
even if the load is removed. This is sometimes called instability.
[K ]{u} = λB [K G ]{u}
is similar to that of Normal Modes, but the results are interpreted as a
“buckling load factor”. KG is called the incremental stiffness.
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Putting It Together – OptiStruct/Analysis A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
Buckling load factors are often important in the design of aerospace
structures, where the quest for a minimal weight and the use of advanced
materials leads to the frequent use of thin-walled designs.
Clearly, if a gap closes or opens, the stiffness of the body changes. Since the
gap opens or closes depending on the deformation, this means the stiffness
depends on the deformation. In other words, since the stiffness and
boundary forces depend on the deformation, the equation is non-linear.
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Setting Up An “Analysis”
When we reviewed the theory of the Finite Element Method, we saw that a
problem consists of
Some solution methods require additional data – for instance how we want
to solve a direct integration problem, how many modes we want to include
in a modal-superposition, etc.
Also, the results of the analysis can be presented in a variety of ways. Since
we don’t want to be overwhelmed with data, we usually also specify the
nature of output we want. If we specify this, HyperView allows us to present
the same data in a variety of different ways.
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It is very rare to run an analysis only once. It’s much more likely that you
will want to modify some data and run the analysis again to perform what-if
studies34. In general, your flow of work is:
7. Apply restraints
8. Solve
9. Review results
Geometry Preparation
While it is possible to build a model directly using elements and nodes, this
is not often done today. The geometry that defines the area to be analyzed
(also called the “domain”) is usually created first using a CAD program, and
elements are created to encompass that boundary or represent the volume.
CAD designers create models for manufacture. As many details are included
as possible. For a numerical analysis, we often choose to ignore aspects that
we think will not significantly affect the solution. For instance, a single hole
of 1 mm radius in a plate that is 2 meters wide can probably be ignored
safely when calculating the deformation of the plate. It reduces computation
time dramatically with no significant loss of accuracy. A finer model of only
34
A structured method to conduct what-if analyses is DOE – short for Design Of
Experiments. This is covered in another volume of this series.
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the region around the hole can be used subsequently if the hole is an area
of high interest. This approach is called sub-modeling.
Therefore the first task that most analysts are faced with is that of preparing
the geometry for analysis. This involves tasks like removal of features,
extraction of mid-surfaces, extrapolation of surfaces, etc.
Further, the CAD world has an abundance of data exchange formats, since
most CAD applications use proprietary data storage formats. A transfer of
data from the CAD package to the FE preprocessor sometimes results in a
loss of accuracy – gaps are introduced during the import process, for
example. Also, CAD assembly models are sometimes made up of parts that
were created in different CAD applications.
If your product has a region that is long and thin, you can probably model it
using beam elements. If this region is connected to the rest of the structure
by pin-joints, then you should use truss elements. Regions that are like
plates are best modeled using shell elements. Any areas that don’t fall in the
earlier categories should be modeled using solid elements.
If you have different element types in your model, there are rules that
govern the assemblage. For several models, we choose to use just one
element type to avoid these complications.
Mesh Creation
Once the geometry is more or less ready for discretization, you then start to
subdivide the geometry into elements or grid points. The collection of
elements is usually referred to as a mesh. Meshes that consist of triangular
or quadrilateral elements can often be generated automatically, while
tetrahedral or hexahedral meshes usually require considerable manual
intervention.
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Mesh Editing
Once a mesh has been created, the analyst checks if it meets the
specifications – several measures of quality are checked, depending on the
analysis requirements. Usually, some editing of the mesh is required.
Depending on the complexity of the mesh, this can be done either semi-
automatically or manually.
Acceptable values for the various element quality indicators, which are
summarized in the glossary, are very problem dependent, and are
sometimes solver-dependent.
Once this is done, the data is turned over to the solution program for the
next phase – solving. Data is often written out in the form of a text file,
which is referred to as a deck. Each line of text in the deck is commonly
referred to as a card. A card image is the format followed by the analysis
program to interpret the text on the line.
Solving
The model created in the earlier steps is now taken up for solution – the
computer program reads the data, calculates matrix entries, solves the
matrix equations and writes data out for interpretation.
This task is CPU-intensive, and is often called processing35. Most of the time,
very little interaction from the user is required. In some cases, the analyst
periodically monitors results to check that they are indeed on the right track.
If the solution seems to be evolving in an unexpected direction, the analyst
can stop the solver and modify the model, thereby saving valuable time.
35
Hence the term pre-processing for the preceding steps, and post-processing for
the subsequent steps.
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Post-Processing
After the program has evaluated the results, the analyst examines and
interprets the data – looking for errors or improvements in design.
As with pre-processing, this calls for substantial interaction from the analyst.
Most of these aspects will become clear to you after you work on one or
more of the assignment problems. The summary presented here is useful as
a quick-reference when you’re working on the software. More detailed
descriptions are available in the on-line documentation.
Files
modelname.hm The model you create using HyperMesh. This is
a binary file containing the geometry, analysis
model and optimization model.
modelname.fem This is an intermediate file. It contains the
analysis and optimization models only, without
any geometry. It is created by HyperMesh and
read by OptiStruct. It’s a text file and can be
interpreted using the format-definitions listed in
the OptiStruct On-line Help.
modelname.out This is a text file created by OptiStruct. The
contents depend on the instructions you specify
in HyperMesh when creating the model.
modelname.spcf This file is created only if you explicitly tell
OptiStruct to record all reactions. It is a useful
check to ensure that you have applied loads
correctly.
modelname.stat This is a text file created by OptiStruct,
containing statistics on CPU usage.
modelname.h3d People who don’t have access to HyperWorks
licenses but want to view results of analyses
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use HyperView Player, freely downloadable
from www.altair.com. The Player reads this
binary file that is created by OptiStruct.
modelname.html This is a quick summary of analysis and
optimization results. Viewable using any web-
browser.
modelname.mvw This is a text file, intended for use by
HyperView. You will use this file to view
stresses, displacements, density, convergence
history, constraint violation, etc.
modelname.res This is a binary file containing the results of the
analysis and optimization. It’s readable only by
HyperMesh and HyperView.
There are several other files36, most of which you can ignore in the normal
course of events.
Terminology
Collector A way to group related items together. For instance
all elements that have the same thickness would be
in the same collector.
Load External forces acting on the boundary. Includes
concentrated forces, moments, pressures, gravity,
etc.
SPC Short for Single Point Constraint. Refers to restraints
applied to the analysis model at locations where the
body is supported37.
Subcase Combination of SPCs and Loads. These are treated
separately in an FE model, since they represent
values on the boundary, often clubbed together as
Boundary Conditions
Card Some data in the analysis model, such as the
material properties, cannot be displayed graphically.
Such data is entered as a card image by typing in
36
Detailed in the on-line help documentation
37
Do not confuse these with design constraints, which are applicable to the
optimization model.
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text or numerical values.
Data is often written out in the form of a text file, which is referred to as a
deck. Each line of text in the deck is commonly referred to as a card.
A card image is the format followed by the analysis program to interpret the
text on the line. Some data can be represented graphically – nodes and
pressures, for example. Other data, like the Modulus of Elasticity, is easier
viewed as text. Such data is defined using the card editor.
The table below lists the names of some of the data types
OptiStruct/Analysis and HyperMesh use, along with the relations between
them. Use this as a guideline to remember when you need to specify which
data.
Normally, you would proceed down the table: first the mat collector, then
the component collector, then elements (grids or nodes are implicit), and
then the load collector. While load collectors can contain both loads and
restraints, it’s a good practice to keep them in separate load-collectors so
that you can organize them into sub-cases.
Notes:
& A Mat needs a card image. Use Mat1 for linear isotropic, Mat8 for
orthotropic shells, Mat9 for linear anisotropic.
# Data depends on the element type. For a solid, there’s nothing. For a
shell, there’s the thickness. For a composite, thickness is derived from the
PCOMP or PCOMPG data.
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@ Forces and Moments need no card image. Loads such as gravity, which
cannot be depicted graphically, require card images.
! Restraints normally will not require a card image. Remember that non-
zero displacements may be specified, in which case you will need to enter
values. Restraints on non-existent dofs are ignored (for instance,
specifying restraints on all the rotational dofs of a solid element).
Anyone who has never made a mistake has never tried anything new.
Albert Einstein
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A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Verification And Validation
Validation consists of asking whether the right equations have been solved.
38
Vehicle Crashworthiness And Occupant Protection, American Iron and Steel
Institute
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Verification And Validation A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
Both are an integral part of the engineer’s responsibility, not least because
of statutory requirements.
Designers should ideally use FEM only as a part of the design process. It is
often risky to base the entire design only on an FEM analysis. A NAFEMs39
publication warns against the GIGO approach: Garbage In, Gospel Out.
Consider the stress in a plate that’s fixed at one end, has a tensile load at
the other end, and has a hole.
The picture looks convincing – high stress areas, colored red, are around the
hole as we’d expect.
39
National Agency for Finite Element Methods and Standards
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A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Verification And Validation
But remember our earlier discussion on the characteristic of the FE solution.
We said that the calculated stress is always discontinuous over element
boundaries. Why is this not apparent in the image above?
Not only is the discontinuity in stresses brought out starkly, we must now
doubt our solution itself! While the highest stress still seems to be around
the hole, what is the value of this stress? Should we pick the value denoted
by red, or by green? There is a “jump” in the stress at the edge shared by
two elements, and we cannot decide which is correct.
Refining the mesh and running the analysis again quickly brings home one
error: the FE mesh was too coarse.
With the refined mesh, the difference between the smoothed contours and
the unaveraged contours has reduced considerably.
One rule of thumb is to distrust the model until the “jumps” in stress are
within an acceptable value. What value is acceptable is a question of
judgment, of course, but this can be a very good indicator of whether or not
your mesh is fine enough.
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Verification And Validation A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
Since not all problems can be found in handbooks, comparison with results
reported by other investigators is a good idea. Several excellent scientific
journals carry articles reporting the results of analyses, and most commercial
software providers host annual conferences where users present papers
discussing their experiences.
With this background, there are levels at which checks should be performed:
at the Pre-processing stage and at the Post-Processing stage. HyperView,
the post-processor that comes with HyperMesh, is particularly good at the
latter. Checks include
• Vector-arrow plots
• Load contours
40
Roark’s Formulas for Stress and Strain is an excellent reference.
41
“If anything can go wrong, it will.”
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A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Verification And Validation
• Comparison of applied forces with reactions-at-supports
Several of these are covered in the assignments that accompany this book.
Physics is very muddled again at the moment; it is much too hard for me
anyway, and I wish I were a movie comedian or something like that and had
never heard anything about physics!
Wolfgang Pauli
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Special Topics A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
Special Topics
Just how much FE-theory do you need to know? To answer that question,
it’s interesting to look at commonly used CAD-modelers. In the early days of
CAD modeling, users had to know the internal details of splines etc. to
effectively model surfaces. Today, the software, the technology and user
interfaces are robust enough that the internal functions are invisible to the
designer. The designer needs to delve into the inner workings only if things
go wrong.
The same is true of almost any technology. In the early 1900s car drivers
had to be efficient mechanics, but today you could own a car for a decade
without ever opening the hood!
Use the summary below as an indicator only. If your problem involves any of
the characteristics described, then you will certainly need more than the
material covered in this book. The references listed at the end of this book
are a good place to start advanced research.
Advanced Materials
As weight, appearance and cost become increasingly important, engineers
are forced to choose from a wide array of materials, not all of which are as
easy to characterize as metals.
Of the various materials used in engineering design, steel is easily the most
researched and most widely documented. Like most metals, it is isotropic,
and has long been used to bear load. Much of engineering design is
restricted to the linear, elastic range of the stress-strain diagram. Plastic
deformation has received considerable attention over the recent past, as for
instance in the design of formed components.
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A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Special Topics
For designers, plastics are a formidable challenge. As cheap, easy-to-
manufacture materials, they are widely adopted. Unfortunately, an
understanding of linear-elastic analysis techniques limits the designer to
initial investigations only. To make things more difficult, the properties of
plastics are not just a function of the composition. They also depend
strongly on the processing conditions.
E
K=
3(1 − 2ν )
this makes them very difficult to deal with numerically (if ν= 0.5, K is
indeterminate). Even small round-off errors can make enormous differences
in the results of the analysis.
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Special Topics A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
Advanced Dynamics
Transient analysis generates a vast amount of information, so post-
processing results is quite challenging. Stress contours and deformation-
plots are used to present the results of both static analysis and dynamic
analysis. For dynamics, however, animations of deformation and time-
history plots are also used.
du ∆u ut + ∆t − ut
v= = =
dt ∆t ∆t
v0 .∆t + u0 = ut + ∆t
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A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Special Topics
In other words, given the values of v and u at t=0 (the “initial conditions”)
we have just “stepped-forward” in time to calculate ut + ∆t .
Together with the equilibrium equation, recurrence formulae of this type are
used to calculate the time-dependent response. Several variations of time-
stepping methods are used: Central Difference Methods, Backward
Difference Methods, Runge-Kutta Methods, etc. The source of error in direct
integration is the time-step size, ∆t.
Time stepping methods are classified based on whether they are explicit or
implicit, as well as on the order of the method.
In some conditions, we cannot state with any confidence how the forces
themselves vary with time. What we can say with confidence is how the
energy supplied to the structure varies with time. As an excellent example,
consider the forces experienced by a rocket at launch. The combustion
pattern is quite random, but the total energy released by the fuels is
reasonably clear.
Oliver Heaviside
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Glossary And References A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
Anisotropic Material whose properties vary with direction, but not necessarily
along orthogonal directions. Several fused or sintered materials are
anisotropic. 21 elasticity constants are required to fully specify the
material for stress analysis. In OptiStruct, these materials are of type
MAT2 for shell elements.
Bandwidth The stiffness matrix of a typical FE model has zeroes in most entries
except for a band about the diagonal. The bandwidth measures this
“spread” of non-zeroes in the matrix. A smaller bandwidth means
faster computation.
Consistent Mass This is one way to calculate the Mass Matrix (M) in FEA. The
alternative is the lumped mass matrix.
Matrix
measured − value
N = 20 ⋅ log10
reference − value
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A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Glossary And References
Discretization Difference between the actual domain of a problem and the domain
defined by the FE model.
Error
Lanczos Method A way to calculate the normal modes of a structure. Very efficient and
stable.
Large Mass A method to apply support-excitations. Uses the principle that a force
applied to a large mass attached to a model is equivalent to applying
Method
an acceleration to the model. Given an acceleration you want to apply,
Newton’s Second Law is used to calculate the equivalent force that
should be applied for a mass you choose.
Lumped Mass This is one way to calculate the Mass Matrix (M) in FEA. The
alternative is the consistent mass matrix. Computationally more
Matrix
efficient, it is often preferred.
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Glossary And References A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
MPC Multi-point Constraint. Used to specify that different dofs are linked in
a particular fashion.
Rigid Body Modes Unrestrained structures can vibrate as a rigid body. A body can have
upto 6 rigid-body modes.
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A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Glossary And References
Integration points.
Support In many cases, such as a vehicle rolling over a rough road, the source
of excitation is not a force: it is the prescribed deflection, which varies
Excitation
with time. While this can be treated mathematically as an “inverse” of
a force-excitation problem, different techniques are employed to solve
such problems.
References
Finite Element Procedures, K.J.Bathe
Other Resources
www.altair-india.com/edu, which is periodically updated, contains case
studies of actual usage. It also carries tips on software usage.
Also remember to check the units in your model – they must be consistent!
E1 181 GPa
E2 10.3 GPa
G12 7.17 GPa
ν12 0.28
Density 1.60 gm/cm3
For an isotropic material, any two properties are enough – the others can be
calculated from these. We usually specify the Elasticity Modulus (E) and the
Poisson’s Ration (ν). Other material constants such as the Shear Modulus
(G) and the Bulk Modulus (K) can be derived from E and ν using equations
such as :
E (1 + ν )
G=
2
42
In compression
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A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Glossary And References
E
K=
3(1 − 2ν )
Plastics are a little less easy to analyze. The heat conduction coefficient must
be measured by a test on a sample, or must be supplied by the
manufacturer of the plastic. Also, several plastics are more sensitive to
temperature than metals.
For example, given the flow velocity, the density and the viscosity of the
fluid, we estimate the Reynold’s number (Re).
Next, given the viscosity of the fluid, the specific heat capacity and the
conduction coefficient of the solid, we estimate the Prandtl number (Pr).
We then look for an empirical equation that relates Pr, Re and the Nusselt
number (Nu).
For instance for flow in a pipe, Dittus and Boelter43 suggest that
Nu d = 0.023 Re 0d.8 Pr n
43
See Heat Transfer, J.P.Holman, 7th Edition, Page 284
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Glossary And References A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
Remember that we want to solve for the temperature distribution. For this
we need h. To get h we need the Reynold’s number. The Reynold’s number
needs the viscosity. The viscosity is temperature dependent. So we need the
temperature to get the viscosity. But we don’t know the temperature!
This is why problems in heat transfer are often harder to solve than
problems in stress analysis. Iterative methods are often used to arrive at the
solution – estimate the numbers, solve for the temperature, use this
temperature to re-estimate the numbers, solve again, etc. until there is no
change.
Nusselt Number (Nu) Ratio of internal heat transfer through convection to internal
heat transfer through conduction
Peclet Number (Pe) Ratio of rate of advection (i.e. diffusion and convection of
mass) to rate of thermal diffusion.
Stanton Number (St) Ratio of heat transferred into a fluid to heat capacity of fluid.
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A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Glossary And References
ρ density
µ dynamic viscosity
ν kinematic viscosity
β volume coefficient of thermal expansion
cp specific heat (at constant pressure)
u velocity of flow
k coefficient of heat conduction
Consistent Units
Mixing up units is one of the most common errors. It’s also the least
forgivable if committed by an engineer who is allowed to use the SI
system of units. While FPS can be challenging, the SI system is very
straightforward. The table below lists some common properties of Steel in
consistent units.
For a dynamic analysis, OptiStruct lists both the natural frequency and the
eigen-value. The former is in cycles / unit time, or Hz if SI units are used.
The latter, which represents the square of the angular frequency ω, is
related to the former by the equation
eigen-value = (2*p*frequency)2
“In 1970, Kamal [1] developed a relatively simple, but powerful model for simulating the
crashworthiness response of a vehicle in frontal impact. This model, known as the Lumped
Mass-Spring (LMS) model, became widely used by crash engineers because of its simplicity and
relative accuracy. This model is shown in Figure 2.2.2.1. The vehicle is approximated by a one-
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Glossary And References A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
dimensional lumped mass-spring system, an over simplification that is quite acceptable for
modeling the basic crash features in frontal impact. Because of its simplistic representation of
the crash event, an LMS model requires a user with extensive knowledge and understanding of
structural crashworthiness, and considerable experience in deriving the model parameters and
translating the output into design data. The crush characteristics (spring parameters) were
determined experimentally in a static crusher, as shown in Figure 2.2.2.2.
The configuration of the model is arrived at from the study of an actual barrier test, which
identifies pertinent masses and “springs” and their mode of collapse. The model is “tuned” by
adjusting the load-deflection characteristics of the “springs” to achieve the best agreement with
test results in the timing of the crash events. Figure 2.2.2.4 compares the simulated
acceleration histories with those obtained from the test, and it shows that very good agreement
can be achieved.
LMS models proved to be very useful in developing vehicle structures for crash, enabling the
designer to develop generically similar crash energy management systems, that is, development
of vehicle derivatives or structural upgrading for crash. Also, LMS models provide an easy
method to study vehicle/powertrain kinematics, and give directional guidance to the designer by
establishing component objectives.
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A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis Glossary And References
Remember that an ideal element is rarely encountered. The ideal elements
are:
Aspect Ratio
Applicable to all elements, this is the ratio of the longest edge to the
smallest edge. The ideal value is 1, while an aspect beyond 5 is not
recommended.
Interior Angle
Applicable to quadrilateral and triangular elements, the ideal value is 90° for
a quadrilateral and 60° for a triangle. The angle should never reach 0° or
180° in any case.
Jacobian
Applicable to all elements, this is a measure of the distortion of the element
as compared to the ideal element. A Jacobian of 0 or less is not permitted.
The closer the value is to 1, the better.
Length
There is no absolute measure for the acceptable element length. The smaller
the elements, the more elements you require to span your geometry, and
the more CPU time required. That apart, using very small elements and very
large elements in the same mesh can give rise to round-off error.
Skew
Applicable to all quadrilateral and triangular elements, an ideal element has
a skew of 0°.
Taper
Applicable only to quadrilaterals, a taper of 0 is ideal.
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Glossary And References A Designer’s Guide To Finite Element Analysis
Warpage
Applicable only to quadrilateral elements, warpage is 0 if all 4 nodes lie in
the same plane. Upto 5° is considered good.
Collapse
Applicable to tetrahedral elements, the perfect value is 1. The value should
never reach 0.
Volume Skew
Applicable only to tetrahedral elements, 0 is the ideal value. The value
should never reach 1.
84