Tectonophysics,

184 (1990) 219-296 B.V., Amsterdam

279

Elsevier Science Publishers

Alpine tectonics and rotation pole evolution of Iberia

Koen de Jong
Instrtute for Earth Sciences, Free Unruersity, P.O. Box 7161, 1007 MC Amsterdam (Received April 20,1989; revised version accepted January (The Netherlands) 26. 1990)

ABSTRACT De Jong, K., 1990. Alpine tectonics and rotation pole evolution of Iberia. In: G. Boillot and J.M. Fontbote Evolution of Iberia and its Continental Margins. Tectonophysics, 184: 279-296. (Editors), Alpine

The geological evolution of the Betic Cordilleras and Pyrenees reflects the Cretaceous and Tertiary rotation pole and kinematic evolution of the Iberian and African plates. New constraints on the Alpine tectonic evolution of the Iberian plate are provided by P-T-t data and regionally consistent stretching lineations from the metamorphic parts of the Betic Cordilleras. High-pressure low-temperature metamorphism in the Betic Cordilleras resulted from continent-continent collision which caused subduction to a maximum depth of 37 km. A preliminary 116 + 10 Ma radiometric age for this event corresponds to the initiation of seafloor spreading to the west of Iberia which lasted until about 80 Ma. Intracontinental thrusting in the Betics between 99 Ma and 83 Ma took place after subduction ended. E-W to ESE-WNW trending stretching lineations indicate the direction of thrusting, which resulted in extensional strains of 200-600%. The timing of thrusting in the Betics coincides with a 95-80 Ma tectonic phase in northern Africa, during which E-W stretching lineations were formed. The stretching Iineations are coincident with the 110-80 Ma motion vector of Africa-Iberia with respect to Eurasia. Thrusting in the Betics and deformation in northern Africa was driven by convergence of Africa-Iberia and Eurasia. Cretaceous deformation is further recorded by terrigeneous sedimentation in the Mauritanian Flysch and by the tectosedimentary evolution of the Malaguide Complex. Crustal thinning, magmatism and metamorphism in the Pyrenees during the 110-85 Ma period is governed by a left-lateral strike-slip of Africa-Iberia with respect to Eurasia around the same rotation pole as thrusting in the Betics. During the 80-54 Ma period the rotation pole was situated west of Gibraltar, near the previous active collision zone. This inhibited large-scale overthrusting and related penetrative deformation in northern Africa and the Betic Cordilleras. Deformation was instead transferred to the northern boundary of Iberia, now acting as an African promontory. From the Campanian on wards, oblique convergence took place around the combined Gibraltar rotation pole. Deformation culminated in the late Eocene, corresponding to spreading in the Norwegian-Greenland Sea at 55 Ma which induced an additional compression in western Eurasia. During the Pyrenean collision, high-pressure metamorphic rocks in the Betic Cordilleras were exhumed and they cooled substantially. The cooling trend was disturbed by Oligocene extensional deformation and introduction of a transient heat source, which correlates with the mantle being uplifted during extension. Heating culminated at the Oligocene-Miocene boundary in the Betic Cordilleras and in northern Africa. This evolution agrees with the development of a plate boundary between Iberia and Africa at 30 Ma, after completion of the Pyrenean collision. The new plate boundary was connected to the western European rift system. Renewal of compression and overthrusting in the Betic Zone took place after 20 Ma. Overthrusting is succeeded by two phases of wrenching, juxtaposing crustal segments with different Moho depths inherited from the late Oligocene to Early Miocene extension.

Introduction The Iberian peninsula (Fig. 1) is bordered by two Alpine foldbelts, the Pyrenees to the north and the Betic Cordilleras to the south. These belts separate the Iberian plate from, respectively, the Eurasian plate and the African plate. The Cretaceous to Tertiary tectonic evolution of the Pyrenees
0040-1951/90/$03.50 0 1990 - Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

has been well documented (Mattauer and Henry, 1974; Puigdefabregas and Souquet, 1986; Soula et al., 1986). Until now the Betic Cordilleras has most often been regarded as a Tertiary orogen, mainly on the basis of important Tertiary deformation in the non-metamorphic parts (Rondeel and Simon, 1974; De Smet, 1984). A Mesozoic age for the early deformation has, however, been sug-

280

K. DE JONG

gested by Kampschuur and Rondeel(l975) owing to the Mesozoic age of the flysch deposits in the western Betics. New data discussed in this paper also suggest important Cretaceous tectonics in the metamorphic Internal Zone of the Betic Cordilleras. Ceochronological studies in the Alpine collision belt of northern Africa (Monie et al., 1984a; 1988) show a tectonic evolution which is comparable to that of the Betics-Cretaceous metamo~~c ages and an important Tertiary resetting. This paper aims at tying the new tectonic model for the Betic Zone and the thermotectonic evolution of the northern African belt to the wellconstrained tectonic evolution of the Pyrenees. The tectonic evolution of the erogenic belts bordering the Iberian plate will be shown to be consistent with the Cretaceous and Tertiary rotation pole and kinematic evolution of the Iberian and African plates discussed by Savostin et al.

(1986) Srivastava and Tapscott (1986) and Klitgord and Schouten (1986). Regionally consistent stretching lineations which were formed during early Alpine thrusting at lower crustal levels are a salient feature of the tectonic evolution of the Internal Zone. They coincide with the mid-Cretaceous motion vector of Savostin et al. (1986) of the African plate (including Iberia at that time) with respect to Eurasia. Because stretching lineations appro~mate the movement direction in shear zones (Esscher and Watterson, 1974) they probably also trace plate motion directions. A relationship between the direction of thrusting and plate motion has been suggested for an number of orogens (Shackleton and Ries, 1984), including the Alps (Baird and Dewey, 1986; Choukroune et al., 1986). During the later stages of the tectonic evolution of the arcuate western Alps, radial thrusting occurred

IBERIAN

MESETA

GULF DE LION

Infernal Zones of the Betlc Cordilleras and Rlf IAbne metamorphic rocks)

D ;:

Fig. 1. Sketch map of the westernmost provinces.

Mediterranean The eastern

area (modified Betic Cordilleras

after Ricou of southern

et al., 1986) showing Spain are delineated.

the major

Alpine

structural

ALPINE

TECTONICS

AND

ROTATION

POLE

EVOLUTION

OF IBERIA

281

(Choukroune this plate disturb lineations an arcuate orientation usually finite thrusting motion the

et al., 1986) at higher clearly vectors. original formed form, bearing Relatively during pattern at deeper and

crustal

levels, to dis-

In the External algal platform boundary Jurassic An

Zone broke

of the Betic Cordilleras up at the Middle (Hermes,

an

no relationship large finite

to Late in strong 1978). by turbi1978) into

(Geel, 1979) resulting differentiation tectonic regime

placements

and rotations

such a stage will stretching eastern reThe

palaeogeographical extensional pillow basalt dite deposits lithoclasts indicate

of older levels.

is indicated hiatuses,

intrusions

in the Sub-Betic

(Hermes,

part of the Betic Cordilleras of older structures analyses is in general (successive) vectors in Iberia foreland

does not demonstrate no pervasive is to be expected. do not as of reorientation,

1978; De Smet,

1984). Important

therefore

and the occurrence vertical Basaltic Hebeda

of Middle Jurassic continuing

in Albian-Aptian important

marls (Hermes, motions intrusion 1980;

Palaeostress strain

in stable forelands

suffer the disadvantage

the Cretaceous. Rb/Sr age,

in the Internal age (146 + 3 Ma, 200 f 5 Ma, the

small. A clear relationpalaeostress is therefore 1986; directions recorded in Bergerat, palaeos-

Zone of the Betics is of Jurassic et al., K/Ar At future curred

ship between the Alpine

and plate motion 1987). However,

(Letouzey,

biotite age, Besems and Simon, 1982). the northern boundary of Iberia, in Pyrenees, carbonate in the Early

the Mesozoic

tress directions do not mimic the plate vector very accurately (Malod, 1989). This is partly the result of reorientation pre-existing sistent stretching and heterogeneities induced by conZone faults. Therefore, lineations the regionally in the Internal

platform breakup octo Middle Jurassic

(Puigdefabregas western margin possibly occurred;

and Souquet, 1986). At the northof Iberia, Late Jurassic rifting important rifting started in the

are considered as an important constraint in the early kinematic evolution of the Iberian plate. Motions around different rotation pole positions during orogeny will, due to overprinting by successive Shifting lineations. and regenerain of rotation orientation, not be recorded

Berriasian to earliest Valanginian (144-140 Ma, Boillot et al., 1989). The end of emplacement of ultramafic rocks by ductile normal faulting has been dated at 122 f 0.6 Ma (Feraud et al., 1988). Final emplacement by brittle deformation occurred seafloor before the late Aptian (Boillot breakup unconforthe onset of 1988; Boilof the Bay mity (around 115 Ma), which marks and Malod, 1989). Opening

tions of stretching

poles has, however, a marked effect on tectonics metamorphic belts, as will be discussed later. Evolution of the tectonic zones bordering Iberia The Alpine collision belts bordering Iberia

spreading

lot et al., 1989; Malod,

of Biscay occurred between the Aptian and Campanian and induced several hundred kilometres of strike-slip on the North Pyrenean Fault are exde(Le Pichon tauer, et al., 1971; Choukroune and Matand 1978; Savostin et al., 1986; Srivastava

characterized by Jurassic to Early Cretaceous tensional deformation and related strike-slip formation. A Middle to Late Jurassic

strike-slip

Tapscott, 1986; Klitgord and Schouten, 1986; Boillot and Malod, 1988; Malod, 1989). Deformation coincided with a general change in the sedimentation pattern in Aptian times (Souquet et al., 1985) and Pyrenean magmatism and metamorphism between 110 and 85 Ma (Albarede and Michard-Vitrac, 1978; Montigny et al., 1986). During this period the North Pyrenean Fault zone was characterized by high heat flow in response to crustal thinning related to strike-slip tectonics (Choukroune and Mattauer, 1978; Vielzeuf and Kornprobst, 1984; Golberg et al., 1986). Early Cretaceous metamorphic ages are also well recorded by the 4oAr-39Ar stepwise heating method

fault between Iberia-Africa is indicated by plate reconstructions (Savostin et al., 1986; Klitgord and Schouten, 1986). The occurrence of a fragment of an ophiolite sequence of Late Jurassic age in northern Africa (Bouillin et al., 1977) accords with these reconstructions. Continuing motion into the Cretaceous is indicated by flysch deposits culminating in Aptian-Albian times in the Flysch Domain (Bouillin et al., 1986). The non-metamorphic External Zones of Iberia and northern Africa are palaeogeographically unrelated (Bouillin et al., 1986) this also indicating their initial separation.

2x2

K. DE JDNG

of samples Pyrenees Maluski

from (110-100

mylonite Ma and

zones

in the eastern Costa at and the basins

Raising

of geotherms factor Tertiary Zone

during in the

extension localization

caused of

efin-

90 Ma,

fective weakening a si~ificant tracontinental et al., 1990). The records Pyrenean External only collision

of the lithosphere, compression of the small Betic

which is also (Zoetemeijer Cordilleras of the

1988)

and

in strike-slip

northwestern

termination

of the Iberic

Cordillera changed (Vielzeuf and thrusts zones

(100 Ma, Golberg The extensional to compression and started Souquet, during were Kornprobst, in the the 1986). middle

et al., 1988). regime in the Pyrenees in the latest 1984); Campanian Strike-slip Eocene, parallel Cretaceous oblique ceased when to the

relatively

increments

convergence dr~atically major mylonite

(De Ruig, this issue). This colli-

(PuigdefBbregas

sion resulted in differential block movements during the Paleocene and Eocene (Kenter et al., 1990). The main compression occurred at the Middle to Late Miocene boundary northward thin-skinned (Simon, tectonics 1987) during with intermit-

developed

(Soula et al., 1986). The northern Spanish passive margin was converted into an active margin in the Paleocene-Eocene convergence convergence, Miller, (Boillot Variscan (Soula interval and as a result Malod, 1988). of plate During faults and ages in

tant strike-slip deformation (De Ruig et al., 1987). Compression also began in the Middle Miocene in the Tell and External In the following important of the Betic and Campanian.
Tectonic evolution of the Internal Zone of the

Rif of northern I present

Africa. of an Zone

and Early Cretaceous et al., 1986; McCaig 1988). Radiometric

indications in the Internal

were reactivated

phase of tectonism Cordilleras

1986; Majoor,

between

the Barremian

mylonite zones indicate a latest middle Eocene age for reactivation Miller, 1988). 1986; Costa Compressional and Maluski, deformation

Cretaceous to (McCaig and 1988;Majoor, in the non-

Betic Cordilleras

metamo~hi~ zones cul~nated in the Eocene (Mattauer and Henry, 1974; Puigdefabregas and Souquet, southern (Williams, 1986). Piggy-back thrusting in the central Pyrenees migrated southward with time 1985), concomitant with the progressive

Regionaf scale structure The Internal External Zone, Iberia Zone occurs to the south of the which constitutes the margin of by Mesozoic rifting (Hermes, by separated

southward development of molasse basins (Mattauer and Henry, 1974) and their incorporation in subsequently and Souquet, formed thrust units (Puigdef~bregas 1986). Flexure modelling ildb shown

characterized

1978). These two zones are presently

a strike-slip fault of Miocene age (Hermes, 1978; Le Blanc and Olivier, 1984; De Smet. 1984). The Triassic stratigraphy of the overthrust units in the Internal Zone bears no resemblance to the Triassic stratigraphy of the External Zone (Simon, 1987). The Internal Zone can thus be considered hthonous to Iberia. (Very) low grade metarno~~c rocks of the Almagride occur in windows below the Alpujarride as allocTriassic Complex Complex

that the Ebro foreland basin formed as a result of the Pyrenees, Catalan Coastal Range and Iberic Cordillera loads (Zoetemeijer et al., 1990). It contains Paleocene and thick Eocene-Oligocene deposits, recording erosion of rising mountain chains (Mattauer and Henry, 1974; Weerd, 1985). The southward Nagtegaal and De propagating defor-

mation front reached the Ebro Basin after deposition of the Oligocene molasse (Williams, 1985). The interiors of the Iberian plate also experienced extensional phases during the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous period, which accord well with phases of spreading in the North Atlantic (Malod, 1989). Late Eocene to late Oligocene northward compression reactivated Variscan and Mesozoic faults (GuimerB, 1984; Viallard, 1985).

of the Internal Zone (Fig. 2); they show striking similarities with Triassic rocks of the eastern SubBetic (Besems and Simon, 1982; Simon, 1987). This indicates an original overthrust contact between the Internal Zone and rocks that were probably separated from the External Zone during Mesozoic rifting. The Miocene strike-slip fault between the Betic Zone and the External Zone can not therefore be interpreted as a plate boundary,

EXTERML ZONE

SdA Sdi.F= S.N 10 50 0 I1OOkm

= Sterra S.&i E z Sierra Sierrc = S,erra

ck de

Almogro cfe OS lo5 Esroncias Fi/sbres Nl??VCJCiCl

PY

t _l__l._

_--_

.._._D, the

Fig. 2. Tectonic sketch map of the eastern

stretchng

Imeations

indicate Betic Cordilleras showing the distribution of major tectonic complexes (after Bakker et al., 1989). I.ower hemisphere projectlons lineatiuns. mainly from a 5.5 km gneiss body. Location (f) Indicates L, from on Hal-lying main foliation, except (e) which indicates D, , stretching Almanzora Unit; spreading resultsin the Sierra de ias Fatancias (h and i) by subsequent modcrate deformation.

284

K. DE JONG

but as a later structure of relatively minor impor. tance. The Internal Zone consists of four stacked crustal segments. The lowest segment, the Veleta Complex, is characterized by low-pressure, lowtemperature (LP/LT) metamorphism (Puga and Diaz de Federico; 1978), for which recently a pre-Alpine age has been suggested (GomezPugnaire and Franz, 1989). This complex has been overthrust by the Mulhacen Complex, which bears evidence of early Alpine high-pressure, low-temperature (HP/LT) metamorphism partially overprinted by medium-grade metamorphism (Gomez -Pugnaire and Femandez-Soler, 1987; Bakker et al., 1989). The Alpujarride Complex occurs on top of the Mulhacen Complex and is also characterized by early H P/LT met~o~~srn (Bakker et al., 1989; GoffC et al., 1989). In the western Betics the Alpujarride Complex experienced hightemperature metamo~~sm at high to low pressure related to emplacement of ultramafic rocks (Westerhof, 1977) of Early Miocene age (Priem et al.. 1979; Zindler et al., 1983). The uppermost tectonic unit, the Malaguide (Ghoma~de in northern Africa) Complex, is almost entirely non-metamorphic (Egeler and Simon, 1969). Condensed, but continuous, Mesozoic and Paleogene stratigraphy (Roep, 1980) indicates that this crustal domain has always retained near the crustal surface. The Dot-sale calcaire and Pre-dorsalian Zone represent the margin of this Malaguide/Ghomaride domain with dominant Triassic and Jurassic shelf and slope sedimentation (Bouillin et al., 1986).

3,

10

09

08

IGFQ,

-F Oi
06

05

04

1 j
and ages Bakker
300
4cxJ

03

02

01

500 T(C)

600

Fig. 3. P-T-r for D, phases inferred (after and

paths D,_t

of the Mulhacen Ages

Complex Tourmahne (Ma)

(light stipple) K/Ar.ages by circles, (Newton (Maresch, 1963); (5) of deformation

and the Almanzora

Unit (dark stipple). are indicated. Boxes exhumation

used to constrain

are indicated indicate + quartz stability

by diamonds. 1968); (2)

P-T conditions

et al., 1989). (I ) albite-jadeite glaucophane (Newton (Hoschek,

Kennedy,

1977); (3) staurolite-in Al-silicate

1969); (4) anorthite+HzO and Kennedy, 1971).

= kyanite f zoisite + quartz

triple point (Holdaway,

Tectonometamorphic evolution

The pressure temperature (P-T) and tectonic evolution of the Mulhacen Complex and the Almanzora Unit of the Alpujarride Complex has been reconstructed by Bakker et al. (1989) by relating deformation and metamorphism and P-T determinations by microprobe analyses. Both complexes are characterized by initial HP/LT metamorphism, indicating the disturbance of the pre-existing pattern of isotherms by subduction. The maximum metamorphic pres-

sures in the Mulhacen Complex (1 GPa) (Fig. 3) occur in the western Sierra Nevada to the eastern Sierra de 10s Filabres (Velilla and Fen011 Hach-Ali, 1986; Gomez-Pugnaire and Fernandez-Soler, 1987; Bakker et al., 1989). The Almanzora Unit experienced a pressure of 0.7 GPa (Bakker et al., 1989), which agrees with the maximum pressure in the other Alpujarride units (GoffC et al., 1989). Subsequent isobaric heating in both units indicates the starting relaxation of the disturbed pattern of isotherms and cessation of further underthrusting of cooler crustal segments (England and Thompson, 1984). At the end of the isobaric heating trajectory the first phase of penetrative deformation (D,_,) took place. The most penetrative deformation (D,) occurred at peak temperature conditions of about

ALPINE

TECTONICS

AND

ROTATION

POLE

EVOLUTION

OF IBERIA

285

570 C in the Mulhacen the Almanzora D, effectively the and Almanzora crossite

Complex

and 450 o C in et al., 1989). fabrics. In fabrics Complex only

formed similar tween fabric

during strain

plane

strain, Vissers

the shear strain (1989) arrived the contact post-blastesis

indtat a beD,

Unit (Fig. 3) (Bakker transposed Unit crystals. D,_, all earlier

cates 250% extension. estimate. the internal

Because fabric during estimate. with Complex

deformation fabrics

garnet

and the external

were only left as internal penetrative locally D,._, fabrics bodies

in glaucophane

is lost most often and garnets is a minimum in quartzites

In the Mulhacen

deformation this amount on pebbles fabric

have been boundinaged, Strain analyses D, 300indicate a penetrative

were left unaffected

in glaucophane

schist facies amphibolites, and in the core of a 5.5 by E-W to lineations analyses (Fig. 2) on con-

local conglomerate ESE-WNW on flat-lying trending

in the Alpujarride fabrics directions Strain

km3 gneiss body. D, _ 1 is characterized stretching Strain foliations.

600% extension deformation with history. stretching comparable

(Fig. 4C). Similarity in both amounts indicate in the and

of main phase combined of is tectonic directions Complex

complexes a similar

glomerate pebbles indicates extensional strains of lOO-300% (Fig. 4A). Borradaile (1976) inferred ESE-WNW by asymmetric extensional strains in excess of 150% shear is indicated of K-feldswas Comin the gneisses. Top-to-the-west Ductile within

Alpujarride

much more heterogeneously developed, the core of the conglomerate body indicating maximum extension of 125% (Fig. 4C). of Davy and Gillet Compath of the Alpujarride On the basis of the models (1986) the P-T-t

tails at the extremities

par porphyroclasts.

D,_ 1 deformation the Mulhacen

the result of thrusting

plex (Bakker et al., 1989). D, is also characterized by important regionally consistent E-W to ESEWNW stretching (Fig. 2) paralleling axes of locally pronounced sheath-like porphyroclasts in amphibolites strains of 200-600% (Fig. might contain an unknown folds. record Plagioclase extensional

plex is explicable by a screening effect of the underlying Mulhacen Complex and heating together with loading by overlying crustal segments during D,. In the last stages of D, the Mulhacen Complex overthrust the Veleta Complex (Fig. 5B), the latter never having experienced very deep tectonic burial. The contact zone is characterized by mylonites with E-W tions (Fig. 2). Preferred axes indicate prep.). Large-scale trending stretching lineaorientations of quartz-cshear (De Jong, in occurred in a crust

4B) which, however, D,_, component. A

minimum D, stretching amount is provided by the rotation of syn-D, garnets. Rotation angles of 90-110 indicate a shear strain Rosenfeld (1970) equation. If of 3.5 using this rotation the is

top-to-the-west imbrication

Fig. 4. Log-strain quartz pebbles, in amphibolites, indicated square displays

diagram Mulhacen Mulhacen

(Wood, Complex,

1974) presenting location location

strain

analyses

from the Internal

Zone;

averages

indicated

by triangles.

(A) D,_ area

(c) in Fig. 2, central

Sierra de 10s Filabres. location

(B) D, elongated (C) D, quartz

plagioclase pebbles,

porphyroclasts high strain the single

Complex,

(d) in Fig. 2, eastern Complex,

Sierra de 10s Filabres. (8).

by crosses,

low strain

area by dots, Alpujarride from the Almanzora

(i) in Fig. 2, central

Sierra de las Estancias;

one determination

Unit near location

2X6

K.
AU MC

DE JONG

A LD,

CONFIGURATION

i-

T--r

80-85

Ma

Lb+, CONFIGURATION

c i

T--r

33 Ma

Fig. 5. (A) Crustal arc P-T-f (MC) paths). D, during

configuration (B) Oligocene

+ ,

during

the 85-80

Ma phase of crustal

scale imbrication

a peak thermal Unit (AU)

conditions

during

D, (insets Complex

extension

of the crustal

wedge. juxtaposing

the Almanzora

and the Mulhacen

that had already been largely thermally equilibrated after initial thermal disturbance by subduction. The Almagride Complex is also characterized by ESE-WNW trending stretching lineations (Fig. 2) in carbonate mylonites, which record top-to-the-west shearing by asymmetric pull-apart structures. After D,, decompression and cooling dominates the thermal evolution, in the absence of any penetrative deformation. The form of the P-T-t trajectory precludes rapid exhumation of the Internal Zone. Continued thermal equilibration towards a new steady-state isotherm generates an increasing apparent geothermal gradient, which reaches about 35O/km. Erosional unroofing presumably played an important role during this trajectory.

The Almanzora

Unit

was placed

on top of the

Mulhacen Complex along a low-angle ductile normal shear zone during D,, ,, which represents a phase of heterogeneous crustal thinning and extension (Bakker et al., 1989). The latter authors estimated the excision of a 6 km thick crustal section along a single shear zone during eastward slip of the hangingwall. Thermal consequences of extension were retarded; temperature increase during the started during Dx+* and culminated D X+3 second thermal peak at 525 o C (Bakker et al., 1989). Retardation of heating at a particular crustal level with respect to the timing of extension is also shown by thermomechanical models of crustal extension (Crough and Thompson, 1976; Thompson, 1981; Moretti and Froideveaux, 1986). Crustal thickening by large-scale S-verging D, +Z

ALPINE

TECTONICS

AND

ROTATION

POLE

EVOLUTION

OF IBERIA

287

folding

and

associated thermal

thrusting

enhanced

this.

curred.

This suggests

an age of 83 Ma for D,. For as this has a widespread to disprove.

The second

peak may indicate (Thompson,

the effect

the 116 Ma age, excess Ar might be put forward an explanation occurrence as this component which (Hebeda et al., 1980); in addition, is difficult

of magma addition tion of magmatic heating, duction Zone; about

1981) or introducand Thompson, of the introand Betand

fluids (England

1984) at higher crustal of a transient mantle

levels. The large amount heat source

is an explanation Alternatively, metamorphism. age is actually P-T-t

100 o C (Fig. 3) indicates

this age can reflect pre-D, ~, or D, _., It will be shown in accordance that the 116 Ma Complex path of with the time scale relevant.

in the Internal of crustal in em-

this was the consequence extension of ultramafic 1987; Bakker

lithospheric placement its (Platt,

and resulted

for the establishment A point which

of the Mulhacen constrains the P-T-t

rocks in the western et al., 1989; Doblas

path, and can be geologically

Oyarzun, 1989) in the Early Miocene (22 + 4 Ma, Priem et al., 1979; 21.5 + 1.8 Ma, Zindler et al., 1983). The timing similar is coincident with intrusions of rocks in the Rif in Morocco (Ben Othman

the Mulhacen Complex is D,, which occurs at a depth of 31 km with an inferred age of 83 Ma. Another two P-T-t point is D, + 3, with an inferred 7.5 km depth. points provides Combination an exhumation age of 22 of these of 23.5 Ma at about

et al., 1984). The Dx+3 thermal peak in the eastern Internal Zone is consequently an Early Miocene feature. The regional importance of this event is indicated by widespread resetting systems at the Oligocene-Miocene the Kabylian Massifs in northern External of radioisotope boundary in Algeria and the

km in 61 Ma; which is an exhumation km/Ma. As the depths of the other

rate of 0.39 deformation

phases are known (Fig. 3) their age can be estimated by using a first-order approach of uniform exhumation with time. As the Mulhacen Complex experienced tion related five phases to translations, of penetrative this reasoning deformais cer-

Rif (MoniC et al., 1984a, b, 1988).

Timing of tectonic events in the Mulhacen plex

Com-

tainly a simplification: it should only be used as an initial guide. D, + 1 and Dx+Z have an inferred age of 33 Ma and 26 Ma respectively. The age of D x-1 is approximated at 99 Ma, using the post-D, exhumation rate for the D,-D,-, trajectory too. The 119 Ma age for initial HP/LT metamorphism is obtained by adding 20 Ma to the age of D x_,r which is consistent with estimates for isobaric heating of HP/LT metamorphics from modelling by Richardson England and Thompson diametric mal evolution of. HP/LT (1984). and England (1979) and The 116 Ma rawith the thercrustal metamorphic

In order to constrain the tectonic evolution of the Betic Zone we need to know the ages of the various tectonometamorphic only very limited radiometric phases. However, data on metamor-

phic minerals are available. For the Mulhacen Complex an average muscovite Rb/Sr age of 13.8 Ma has been calculated from data reported by Priem et al. (1966) and Andriessen et al. (1989). The latter authors also report a 12.8 Ma biotite Rb/Sr age. In addition, in the context of a feasibility study of K/Ar dating of tourmalines three ages of 80-85 jI 8 Ma and one age of 116 f 10 Ma have been reported (Andriessen et al., 1989). The suggested blocking temperature for tourmaline of above 600 C (Andriessen et al., 1989) well exceeds the maximum metamorphic temperature in the Mulhacen Complex. These ages can therefore be interpreted as metamorphic crystallization ages. The 80-85 Ma ages (averaging 83 Ma) are obtained from gneisses with a D, mylonite fabric, in which synkinematic growth of tourmaline has oc-

age is thus in accordance

segments. An alternative correlation of the 116 Ma age with D,-, would result in a very slow uplift of 0.2 km/Ma between a slow uplift certainly would D, and D,- ,. Such have erased all evi-

dence of HP/LT metamorphism due to long-term recrystallization near the thermal peak D,; this does not accord with the observed partial overprinting. Another consequence of the uniform exhumation approach is a period of about 50 Ma without penetrative deformation between D, and D, + , This is the consequence of the rotation pole evolution, which will be discussed in the next section.

288

K DE JONG

The tentative ern 95-80 northern acterized Internal Ma

99 and 83 Ma ages for the first deformation with for ages E-W in the eastin charet furMa with at mica theraccord this well-established deformation is also experiments at 28-25 (Monie

phism tiated oceanic

in the Betics in this model by collision spreading (Boillot of Africa-Iberia fragment.

would

be iniof is

two phases of penetrative Zone 40Ar-39Ar

with another initiation 1989) at about

continental 115 Ma Iberia.

In both models 1989;

to the west of Iberia, et al., Malod, and subduction of collision features indicative

Africa;

deformation heating

by important

stretching event

coeval with collision This timing ber of geological of Aptian northern

to the east of of tectonism sedimentation flysch turbidites unit in with a

al., 1984a, b). Stepwise ther record heating

agrees with a num-

a thermotectonic

(MoniC et al., 1984a, b, 1988), which accords in the Betics after 26 Ma, culminating 12.8 Ma Rb/Sr cooling after the Early Miocene 22 Ma. The 13.8 Ma and ages indicate mal peak.

at this time, and heavy terrigeneous age in the Mauritanian Africa, which comprises

northern provenance accords with collision Widespread erosion Aptian (Roep, to late Albian 1980).

(Dercourt et al., 1986) to the north in the Betics. and faulting characterizes the in the Malaguide Complex

Rotation pole evolution and tectonics in the westernmost Mediterranean Collision in the Internal Early Cretaceous occurred independent Zone and rotation of Iberia

Intracontinental

thrusting

in the Internal

Zone

rifting

of the motion

of Africa and

D x_ 1 and D, structures were tentatively formed at 99 Ma and 83 Ma respectively, during post-subduction various (Fig. intracontinental metamorphic 5a). Regionally thrusting grade and consistent of segments burial D,_, and of D, histories

North America (Savostin et al., 1986). Coincidence of the Iberian and African rotation poles in the late Aptian has been explained by the collision of these two plates (Savostin et al., 1986). The timing closely coincides with the proposed 116 + 10 Ma age for initial HP/LT metamorphism and subduction in the Internal Zone. Data from Klitgord and Schouten directly (1986) that from and Srivastava formed rifting and part from Tapscott of Africa North (1986) indicate America, Iberia

ESE-WNW trending stretching lineations are coincident with the 110-80 Ma motion vector in the Betics around the combined African-Iberian rotation pole of Savostin et al. (1986) (Figs. 2 and 6). Coincidence of the plate motion vector and the movement scale lower and stretching stack depths direction that in a crustal thrusting at by plate imbricate crustal
5

the initial

suggests is directly
OO

after 123 Ma. HP/LT

metamor-

driven

motion

vector

,P.
Fig. 6. The 110-80 southeastern of rotation Ma position of the combined A/= Afica) rotation trending pole position of Africa and Iberia,

1 loo.
motion vector around this pole for Positions indicated.

Spain indicated

by the ESE-WNW

bar, which coincides

with similarly

trending

stretching

lineations.

poles (Ib = Iberia;

and continents

at 80 Ma after Savostin

et al. (1986), Apulia

schematically

ALPINE

TEC-TONICS

AND ROTATION

POLE

EVOLUTION

OF IBERIA

289

convergence. motion vector appro~mately

The length (Savostin

of the 110-80 et al., 1986)

Ma plate indicates of

segment

of Eurasia;

strong

differential and motion Zones of

motion Iberia. the

has

taken place between a Kabylian second Internal Cordilleras to the south model and

this upper

plate, presumably In the the Betic et between

600 km of motion

at the latitude

type of segment, the differential External

southern Spain. If motion has been steady through time this suggests 400 km of convergence between 99 and amount 83 Ma. which of overthrusting constrains a minimum the maximum Zone. The over the lineaof D, overthrustin the Internal Complex

is much more limited. of the Kabylian

Flysch

deposits

Massifs

(Bouillin

map (Fig. 2) indicates Veleta D,_, Complex thrusting

ing of 150 km of the Mulhacen parallel within tion. To this estimate

al., 1986) indicate important motion between these massifs and Africa. The Kabylian Massifs experience E-W stretching and shearing during the 9580 Ma period (Mom& et al., 1984a, 1988). This

to the stretching the Mulhacen

a few tens of kilometres

Complex

(Bakker et al., 1989) must be added. Total overthrusting is about 200 km. The amount of overthrusting relationship the underlying of the Alpujarride considered. between Mulhacen Complex However, Complex must be and by simultaneously the original Complex is disturbed

direction fits the plate motion vector in the area at this time, indicating that the Kabylian segment was involved in the Cretaceous collision. Submarine faulting in late Turonian to early Senonian times and widespread to early Turonian in (Roep, 1980) occur thrusting at depth. The 110-85 erosion the in the Cenomanian Malaguide Complex with

the Alpujar~de

contemporaneously

a low-angle ductile normal shear zone of Oligocene age (Fig. 5B). This makes it impossible to establish the amount of Cretaceous overthrusting. Furthermore, part of the overthrusting of the Alpujarride Complex accomplished during approach is certainly might already have been subduction. The balancing a simplification, as it does

Ma tectonic

regime at the northern

boundary of Iberia (the Galicia Margin and the future Pyrenees) resulted from left-lateral motion of Africa-Iberia with respect to Eurasia (Savostin et al., 1986; Srivastava and Tapscott, 1986; Klitgord and Schouten, 1986; Malod, 1989). The North Pyrenean Fault can be approximated by a small circle around the movement in the Internal the same rotation pole as that for direction of the collisional tectonics Zone, indicating a coupling be-

not include the possible role of Cretaceous strikeslip motions between the Internal and External Zones of the Betic Cordilleras and in northern Africa. It does indicate, however, the importance and magnitude of westward directed overthrusting modriven by plate convergence. As the motion vector defines tion between Africa-Iberia one of the crustal segments was attached be envisaged.

tween both motions. Pyrenean Internal collision Zone and tectonic quiescence in the

the relative

and stable Eurasia, involved in thrusting

to stable Eurasia. Two models can In the first model the entire Internal

A new position of the combined AfricanIberian rotation pole after 80 Ma near the Straits of Gibraltar (Savostin et al., 1986) (Fig. 7a) resulted in a dramatic change in the tectonic regime in the Pyrenees and in the Betics. The formerly thinned, heated and consequently weakened Pyrenean domain was thickened in compression. Flexure modelling of the Ebro Basin at the southern boundary of the Pyrenees confirmed that collision was intracontinental in nature (Zoetemeijer et al., 1990). Oblique convergence started in the Campanian (Puigdefabregas and Souquet, 1986) mimicking the rotation pole evolution very accurately. Deformation culminated in the Eocene

Zone belongs to Eurasia and the External Zone to Iberia. In a second mode1 the Internal Zone also belongs to Iberia (and thus to Africa). In both models the Eurasian promontory is connected via the Sardinia-Corsica crust with main Eurasia. The first model predicts strong differential motions between the allochthonous Internal Zone and External Zone. ESE-WNW trending stretching lineations in the Almagride Complex indicate involvement of a rifted part of the External Zone in Cretaceous thrustingIn the second model the Internal Zone was subducted and overthrust by a

290

K. DE JONG

Fig. 7. Positions of the African ( Af )-Iberian (16) combined rotation pole after Savostin et al. (1986). (a) Quadrangles indicate the 80-65 Ma and circles the 65-54 Ma position close to the previous collision zone: Apulia schemetically indicated. (b) Positions of the separated African and Iberian poles for the 54-35 Ma period. Iberia is part of the Eurasian continent at 35 Ma.

(Mattauer

and Henry,

1974;

Puigdefabregas

and

Souquet, 1986), during continuing convergence between Africa and Eurasia around the Gibraltar pole. around shortening Savostin this et al. (1986) indicate pole resulted in about that motion of with the 100 km

During the Pyrenean collision the Internal Zone was tectonically relatively quiet, as is evident from the absence agreement of penetrative deformation for about evolution of 50 Ma, between 83 Ma and 33 Ma. This is in close

with the geochronological

in the Pyrenees;

this accords

analysis of the ECORS profile (Rome et al., 1989). Thermal disturbances at 60-55 Ma in the Pyrenean shear zones {Costa and Malt&i, 1988) and at the northwestern termination of the Iberic Cordillera (Golberg et al., 1988) coincide with initiation of spreading in the Norwegian-Greenland Sea (Srivastava Schouten, and 1986; Tapscott, Savostin 1986; Klitgord component and inin et al., 1986). This

the Kabylian Massifs in northern Algeria. The location of the African-Iberian rotation pole near the Cretaceous Betic collision zone (Fig. 7a) inbibited large-scale motions in this zone after 80 Ma. Minor tectonics is documented in the External Zone of the Betics in the form of relative uplift between 68 Ma and 60 Ma; this probably resulted from compression caused by African-Eurasian convergence (Kenter et al., 1990). After 54 Ma the African rotation pole was separated from the Iberian pole and shifted northward (Savostin et al., 1986) (Fig. 7b). Shifting might be partly explained by the Pyrenean collision, forcing the African plate to pivot around a different position tion pole. The effect of this new rotation is the starting of limited differential Africa and Iberia, resulting pole moin the

duced an additional western Eurasia. Because Iberia

compressional was attached

to Africa

it acted

as an African promontory during collison with Eurasia in the Pyrenees. It suffered relatively intense deformation by reactivation of Variscan and Mesozoic faults (Guimera, 1984; Viallard, 1985) in a weakened lithosphere by Cretaceous extension (Zoetemeijer et al., 1990). Convergence resulted in limited riot-later~ motion of main Iberia with respect to the Iberic Cordillera and the Ebro Basin (Malod, 1982) and left-lateral motion in the Catalan Coastal Range (Guimera, 1984). A subhorizontal NW-directed main compression direction u1 in the Catalan Coastal Range (Guimera, 1984) coincides with the motion direction around the Gibraltar poie.

between

tectonism which has been well documented in the Betic Cordilleras. The External Zone records a second period of uplift at about 50 Ma (Kenter et al., 1990). The Malaguide Complex shows an erosional contact between the Maastrichtian and the Early Eocene (Roep, 1980). Because the metamorphic zones of southern Spain and northern Africa do not record penetrative deformation and metamorphism, this tectonic activity is probably of

ALPINE

TECTONICS

AND

ROTATION

POLE

EVOLUTION

OF IBERIA

291

minor

importance. Coastal

Northerly is detected Range

to north-northeastin the late Eocene (Guimera, 1986; this issue) direction and in in 1984) and Bergerat, is coinciMa

Gulf of Lion and the Balearic in Oligocene 1974; area Rehault spread to Aquitanian southward 1989). thinning with

Basin, which opened times (Alvarez time (Mauffret resulted 1987). Spain et al., in this and toin proStrong

erly compression the Catalan the External other areas

et al., 1984). Deformation Extension Basin

Betics (De Ruig, in Spain (Letouzey, compression pole

Gennesseaux, gressive crustal wards crustal thinning

1987). The main African rotation

in northeastern (Banda,

dent with the motion

vector around of Savostin during

the 54-35

the Balearic

et al. (1986) Africa this episode presumaThe collision.

in the eastern

part of the Internal thinning and exof

(Fig. 7b). The mountain also experienced (Letouzey, bly connected

ranges of northern et al., 1986)

Zone (Banda tension.

and Ansorge,

1980) is also attributed crustal to the east

compression with

to this Oligo-Aquitanian Extensional

1986; Dercourt

deformation

the Pyrenean

Pyrenean collision ended at about 35 Ma, after which no independent lberian rotation pole may be detected (Savostin et al., 1986). Klitgord and Schouten (1986) concluded that the final amalgamation about 30 Ma. tectonics of Iberia with Eurasia occurred at

Iberia links the African-Eurasian plate boundary with the western European rift system (BresseRhine graben) which experienced (Bergerat, extension up to well and this and the latest Oligocene the African rotation 1987). The shift of

pole at 35 Ma accords

with renewal of deformation in the Betics northern Africa. However, the motion around pole (Savostin et al., 1986) generates compression hence cannot The between Africa and Eurasia explain the observed extension. position in cessation of the African (Savostin relative of extensional of Portugal

northwesterly

Extensional

Savostin et al. (1986) demonstrate a dramatic shift of the African rotation pole to a new position in the South Atlantic at 35 Ma as a consequence of 40% decrease in spreading rate between the African and North American plates; no change occurred in Eurasia-North America spreading. This kinematic pattern is, however, not supported by the central Atlantic magnetic anomaly pattern (Klitgord and Schouten, 1986) or by North Atlantic and Arctic data (Srivastava and Tapscott, 1986). Klitgord and Schouten (1986) indicate a shift of the African-Eurasian plate boundary from the northern side of Iberia to the southern side of it, separating Gibraltar Iberia from Africa by the Azoresfracture zone after 30 Ma. The establish-

20 Ma

rotation et al., motion deforma-

pole to the northwest 1986) resulted tion and induced

a northeasterly

of Africa with respect to Eurasia, resulting in NE-SW directed compression (Letouzey, 1986; Bergerat, 1987). Compression caused thickening of the previously thinned and weakened crustal domain to the south of Iberia, this being demonstrated by NNE-directed thrusting in the Mulhaten Complex (Bakker et al., 1989) and reactivation of the original contact between the Alpujarride and Mulhacen Complexes. The Alpujarride Complex has moved northwards on a shear zone with Complex (Platt respect to the underlying Mulhacen

ment of a new plate boundary between Iberia and Africa accords with timing of extensional deformation and heating in the Internal Zone and northern Africa. Regionally erly slip of the hangingwall consistent towards southeastultramafic

et al., 1983) which already contains the imprints of the 22 Ma Dx+3 thermal peak. Behrmann (1984) concluded on the basis of palaeostress and strain rate estimates that ductile deformation in this shear zone lasted 4 Ma. Consequently, ductile thrusting stopped during the Burdigalian. This accords with the superposition of the Malaguide Complex onto the already quite well developed Alpujarride Complex around the AquitanianBurdigalian boundary (Makel, 1981) and with sealing of thrusts in the Malaguide Complex by Burdigalian sediments (MacGillavry et al., 1963;

rocks in the western Betics (Tubia and Cuevas, 1986) and the Rif (Saddiqi et al., 1988) suggests a SE-NW extensional component on the plate boundary. Extension is further attested by an Early Miocene basaltic dike-swarm (Torres-Roldan et al., 1986). The timing of extension and magmatism accords well with the tectonic evolution of the

292

K DE JONG

Torres-Roldan tation in a tectonically early left-lateral

et al., 1986). Burdigalian quiet environment direction motion strike-slip Miocene faults strike-slip

sedimen-

which crustal rection

were levels,

formed

during

thrusting

at

lower diZone of the

in large parts of the Internal

Zone occurred (Volk, 1967). to NEthe Betic has been rotaof the

are coincident

with the motion in the Internal Strike-slip to Eurasia motion along

of Africa-Iberia

with respect

to Eurasia.

The compression SW trending Zone. Middle described tion pole

after 20 Ma enables crossing motion

At least 200 km of thrusting was driven with North rotation tion pole respect Pyrenean Africa-Iberia to Eurasia. respect Fault

on ENE-WSW

by the convergence with

of Africa-Iberia

by Sanz de Galdeano position (Savostin of et Africa, al.,

et al. (1985) and to the west

took place around in the Betics. of the African-Iberian near

the same rota-

by Bon et al. (1989). The 10 Ma to present Gibraltar northwesterly by Montenat 1986) enables

pole as thrusting to a position

At 80 Ma, shifting

the Betic collision

to northerly compression

compression

detected

et al. (1987) in the Betics. The posiaxes in the obtuse trendThe et al., 1987) points fault system. close to the and NNE-SSW

zone resulted in cessation of penetrative deformation in the Internal Zone and northern Africa. Collision promontory near of Africa-Iberia by motion Pyrenean with Eurasia Iberia around was transpole at ferred to the Pyrenees. Gibraltar. acted as an African the rotation culminated

tion of the main ing strike-slip position

angle of a set of NE-SW to a reactivation

faults (Montenat of an earlier

collision

of the rotation

pole relatively

strike-slip fault system only allows limited displacements. About 20 km of left-lateral slip has been argued by Veeken (1983) for the NNEtrending Palomares Fault. Both phases of strikeslip motion juxtapose ent Moho depths, and Oligocene compression and southern Conclusions The tectonic evolution of the Alpine collision belts bordering Iberia is in accordance with kinematics of the Iberian and African plates and their rotation pole evolution. Subduction and HP/LT metamorphism in the Betics at 116 + 10 Ma coincide with initiation of seafloor spreading at the northwestern margin of Iberia and the Bay of Biscay. This phase also coincides with heavy terrigeneous sedimentation in the Mauritanian the tectosedimentary flysch in northern Africa and evolution of the Malaguide crustal the latter intraplate segments inherited seismicity with differfrom (Udias Alboran late et Sea Present-day

60-55 Ma by an additional compression generated by seafloor spreading in the Norwegian-Greenland Sea. After completion of the Pyrenean collision at 35-30 Ma, penetrative deformation and heating again took place in the Internal Zone and northern Africa by establishment system. European of The the Azoreswith the new plate rift sysGibraltar Cretaceous boundary fracture zone, which interacted via the Balearic

to Aquitanian

extension.

collision was connected

al., 1976) is localized Spain.

in the thinned

tem with the western

rift. Deformation

was initiated by late Oligocene crustal and lithospheric mantle extension, resulting in Early Miocene emplacement of ultramafic rocks with associated heating. after 20 Ma was initiated by moCompression

tion around a rotation pole to the west of Iberia. Crustal thickening was localized in the previously extended and heated and consequently weakened Internal Zone. This process resulted in overthrusting in the Internal Zone, which was completed before the end of the Burdigalian. Middle and Late Miocene strike-slip motion was initiated during continuing convergence and juxtaposed crustal segments of differing Moho depths, the latter having been inherited from late Oligocene to Early Miocene extension. Acknowledgements I thank Sierd Cloetingh for constructive criticism on the manuscript and Henk Helmers for

Complex. A period of intracontinental thrusting between 99 Ma and 83 Ma in the Internal Zone of the Betics occurred during continuing spreading to the west of Iberia and progressive opening of the Bay of Biscay. Regionally consistent ESE-WNW trending stretching lineations in the Internal Zone,

ALPINE

TECTONKS

AND

ROTATION

POLE

EVOLUTION

OF IBERIA

293

placing clasts

the strain at my

data

on plagioclase Jacques technical Zoetemeier

porphyroPaul for of

Boillot,

G., Girardeau,

J. and Komprobst, Continental A strain margin: study

J.. 1989. Rifting a review.

of

disposal. The

Malod, are thanked assistance

the West Galicia Borradaile, gneiss G.J., transition

Bull. Sot.

Andriessen providing

and Reini preprints.

Geol. Fr., 8: 393-400. 1976. and of a granite-granite schistosity formation accompanying

Fred Kievits during the preparation of the figures is aiso acknowledged. Part of the field work was financed by a grant from the Stichting Molengraaff-fonds. References
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