Design of Air Side Area Airside facilities exist primarily for aircraft take-off and landing operations.

The most important physical element is the runway. Taxiways, holding pad, and apron gate are all developed in association with runways to permit the aircraft to move efficiently while on the ground. As air traffic demand for airside facilities grows, an immediate remedy may be to increase airport capacity by an expansion of the existing airside facilities. The decision would imply modifying the present runway and taxiway configuration in a manner, which would increase airport capacity; the FAA has published numerous guides to aid airport planners in determining the best upgrading procedures for air side facilities. 1 Runway Configuration 1.1. TYPES There are four basic runway configurations: 1. Single runways, 2. Parallel runways, 3. Intersecting runways, and 4. Open-V runways, Many airports around the world combine aspects of these basic configurations. 1. SINGLE RUNWAY The simplest configuration is the. Only one landing or take-off can occur at any one time, therefore, the capacity of such a runway is very limited.

2.PARALLEL RUNWAYS Many times, if a single runway will not suffice, a second parallel runway may be added, usually a "close," "intermediate," or "far" parallel runway. Close parallel runways are spaced at a minimum of 700 ft (213.36 m) and can be as wide apart as 3,500 ft (1,066.80 m). A spacing of 700 ft is possible only under VFR conditions, and one runway is used for landings and the other for take-offs If IFRs prevail, the spacing must be a minimum of 3,500 ft (1,066.80 m) for one runway to be used for arrivals and the others for departures

simultaneously. If the runways are staggered, the separation can be increased or decreased by 100 ft (30.48 m) for every 500 ft (152.40 m) of stagger/Intermediate parallel runways are those spaced between 3,500 and 5,000 ft (1,066.80 m and 1,542.00 m) apart. Under IFR conditions this type is considered independent if one runway is used for take-offs and the other for landings. Far parallel runways are spaced over 4,300 (1310.64 m) apart. Under any conditions this spacing allows runways to be used simultaneously for both arrivals and departures. As airport travel demand increases, it may be desirable to add more parallel runways. Some airports have as many as four parallel runways.

3.INTERSECTING RUNWAYS Are used when there is a likelihood of strong winds in more than one direction. Under windy conditions only one of these runways can be used, but if winds are light, both runways can be used simultaneously. 4.OPEN-V RUNWAYS Are runways that do not intersect and are not parallel to each other. These runways are subject to the same restrictions as for intersecting runways in windy conditions. 1.2.Factors The configuration of runways used and their orientation depends on many factors, including Wind, Neighboring airports and airways, Obstructions, Topography, Restricted areas, Bird hazards,

Control tower visibility, Jet blast and wing tip vortices, Runway length, and Environmental factors.

All of these factors are briefly described below Wind Orientation of a runway depends greatly on wind direction. The most desirable orientation avoids crosswinds all together. The FAA specifies that runways should be oriented so that 95% of the time landing of aircraft is possible with crosswind components not exceeding 15 mph (24.14 kmph). Large air carrier aircraft can land with crosswinds greater than this, but since most airports also allow smaller aircraft to land on the same runway, this specification should prevail wherever possible. If this wind standard cannot be met, the normal practice is to construct intersecting runways in the direction of heavy winds. A single runway will suffice only if winds come predominantly from one direction.) WIND ROSE A good way to determine the best orientation of a runway with regard to wind is with the aid of a wind rose, To be able to use a wind rose, wind data for a ten-year period describing wind directions and speeds must first be collected .' the wind directions are split into 36 categories, each covering a 10 span. The wind speed and direction data are converted into percentages of the total observations and entered into the appropriate segment of the wind rose. The wind categories are denoted by the radial lines, and wind speed categories are shown by the concentric circles, the slowest speed being in the center.

Obstructions To avoid future problems from obstructions, land adjacent to the airport should be zoned to allow only development below the obstruction level heights. Obstructions are determined to exist if they fall above levels of certain imaginary surfaces defined by the FAA. The imaginary surfaces are defined in the following manner: 1. Primary Surface. A surface longitudinally centered on a runway. When the runway is paved, the primary surface extends 200 ft (60.96 m) beyond each end of the runway. 2. Horizontal Surface. A horizontal plane 150 ft (45.72 m) above the established airport elevation, the perimeter of which is constructed by swinging arcs of specified radii from the center of each end of the primary surface of each runway and connecting the adjacent arcs of lines tangent to those arcs. 3. Conical Surface. A surface extending outward and upward from the periphery of the horizontal surface at a slope of 20 to 1 for a horizontal distance of 4,000 ft (1219.20m). 4. Approach Surface. A surface longitudinally centered on the extended runway centerline and extending outward and upward from each end of the primary surface. 5. Transitional Surfaces. Surfaces that extend outward and upward at right angles to the runway centerline plus the runway centerline extended at a slope of 7 to 1 from the sides of the primary surface and approach surfaces. The ICAO establishes the international regulations which are generally similar.

Runway Geometry
The runway is made up of various components. These components are shown in Fig. and are described as follows:

1. Structural Pavement. This is the part of the runway where the planes actually take off and land. The runway is normally used in both directions so that it is actually two separate runways. The runway pavement is most typically 150 ft (45.72 m) wide. However, some 200-ft (60.96-m) runways are now being designed to facilitate the modern larger aircraft.

2. Shoulder. The shoulder is most typically a stabilized strip of earth adjacent to both sides of the runway pavement. The width varies anywhere from 25 to 50 ft (7.62 to 15.24 m), depending on the size of the airport. Most larger airports have about 50 ft (15.24 m) of shoulder on either side. The purpose of the shoulder is to accommodate maintenance and emergency vehicles. Also, the shoulder area is built to resist jet blast erosion. 3. Blast Pad, The blast pad serves basically the same purpose as the shoulder, but is located at the end of the runway. The blast pad is built as wide as the shoulder extends and is usually at least 200 ft (60.96 m) long. 4. Safety Area. The safety area contains the pavement, shoulders, blast pad, and an area on the side of the shoulder which is cleared, drained, and graded. The side area is usually turfed. It should be designed for an occasional aircraft to pass over without any major damage. Maintenance and emergency vehicles should be able to drive over this area also. The safety area should be at least 500 ft (152.40m) wide. 5. Extended Safety Area. .Occasionally, an aircraft will overshoot or under run the runway. Most of the time this type of accident will occur within 1,000 ft (304.8 m) of the end of the runway. For this reason it is recommended that runways have an extended safety area. As in the safety areas, this area must be cleared, drained, and graded. It should be able to support an occasional airplane and emergency and maintenance vehicles. This area starts at the end of the blasting pad and extends about 800 ft (243.86 m) beyond the pad. The extended safety area is built to be as wide as the safety area.

Taxiway Layout
Taxiways should be arranged to result in the shortest practicable distances from the terminal area to the ends of runways used for takeoff. at busy airports they should be located at various strategic points along runways, so that landing aircraft can leave the runways as quickly as possible to clear them for use by other aircraft. Whenever possible, taxiways should be routed so as to avoid crossing of active runways. There are three basic types of taxiways: a)entrance, b) exit, and c) bypass taxiways. A )Entrance Taxiway. The entrance taxiway is used for entering the runway from the terminal. It can be designed so that delay can be decreased by allowing aircraft to accelerate while entering the runway. Higher speeds can be attained if turning radius is increased. Speeds as high as 60 mph (96.56 kph) can be safely reached if the curve radius is 1,800 ft (548.64 m). An important consideration for a highspeed entrance taxiway is available land.. An entrance taxiway allowing 60-mph (96.56-kph) speeds needs about 3,200 ft (975.36 m) more space between taxiway and runway than a 20-mph (32.19-kph) speed allowance.

B) Exit Taxiway. It is desirable, especially at busy airports, to have aircraft vacate the runway as quickly as possible. There are two basic types of exits: the right angle exit and the high-speed exit. The right angle exit, shown in Fig. 20.9 is used mainly at lowtraffic airports to save on construction costs. At smaller airports this type of exit will be found at each end of the runway and at the center. However, this is not the most efficient

method of getting aircraft off the runway. The high-speed exit, which is generally built at a 30 angle to the runway, is considered to be much more efficient. Speeds up to 65 mph (104.60 kph) can be safely maintained without any adverse effects on passenger comfort. It is normally desirable to have an exit that starts with a large radius curve and then goes to a smaller radius. The transition radius is provided to reduce excessive tire wear on the aircraft. C) Bypass Taxiways . Bypass taxiways are sometimes constructed at busy airports, that is, where there are at least 20 total operations per normal peak hour or 50,000 air carrier operations annually. The purposes of bypass taxiways is to allow aircraft ready for take-off to bypass preceding aircraft that are not yet ready to take off and are blocking the entrance taxiway. These bypass taxiways are located near, and are similar in design to, the entrance taxiway 1.5. Holding Aprons Holding aprons are located at or near the runway entrance. The apron is constructed to allow aircraft to make a final check before take-off and to allow planes to bypass any other aircraft not ready to take off. This helps to reduce delays. Aprons are usually built large enough so that about four aircraft can be located there at one time. To determine the amount of space needed for each aircraft, multiply the wingspan by a factor from 1.35 to 1.60 for aircraft with dual wheel undercarriages and by a factor from 1.60 to 1.75 for aircraft with dual tandem landing gears.

Markings Runway Marking. Runway markings are important for the safety of aircraft, primarily during daylight hours, when these markings can most readily be seen. Markings are also helpful during times of poor visibility to create regularity and efficiency in airport operations. Runway markings can be classified as follows: 1. Basic Runway Marking. This includes markings needed for runways where only direct visual identification is made from the aircraft. 2. Non precision Instrument Runway Marking. This includes markings needed for straight-in landings for which only the aid of the signals from a very high-frequency omnirange station (VOR) are used to guide the aircraft. 3. Precision Instrument Runway Marking. Runways that are equipped with electronic aids such as the instrument landing system (ILS). When two runways intersect, the higher-ranking runway markings will be used. For example, a precision runway would have precedence over a non precision runway, and a non precision runway would rank higher than a basic runway.

Basic Runway Marking all runway markings are normally white to differentiate them from yellow taxiways and apron markings. The basic runway markings include centerline strips, threshold markers, and runway designation number and letters. Numbers and letters are approximately 20 ft (6.10 m) wide and 60 ft (18.29 m) tall. The runway is marked by the whole number nearest to one tenth of the magnetic azimuth of the runway centerline measured clockwise from magnetic north. For example, a runway centerline bearing of North 160 East would be numbered 16 on the south end and 32 on the north end.

Letters are added if there are two or more parallel runways. For example, if three runways are parallel, they would be lettered L (left), C (center), R (right), from left to right.

Non precision Instrument Runway Marking A nonprecision instrument runway uses the same marking as a basic runway, but elements of the precision instrument runway may be added. The precision instrument runway provides the basic runway markings plus touchdown zone markers and side stripes.

Taxiway Marking, The centerlines of taxiways are marked with a solid yellow line that is at least 6 in. (15.24 cm) wide. At intersections with runways, the stripe is continued until it meets the centerline of the runway, except at the end of the runway, where this line terminates at the runway edge. When two taxiways intersect, the lines are continuous. When the edge of the taxiway pavement is not easily identifiable, it is also necessary to provide edge markings. This consists of two parallel yellow lines, each 6 in. (15.24 cm) wide, separated by a 6in. (15.24 cm) space. Where taxiways enter the runway, it is also necessary to provide a taxiway holding line. At large airports this line is 150 ft (45.72 m) from the edge of the taxiway.

Taxiway Guidance Signing Signs are placed along taxiways and aprons to help pilots around busy airport. These signs also aid them in complying with instructions from ground controller. There are two types of taxiways guidance signs: 1. Destination Signs. These signs indicate paths to be taken by incoming outgoing aircraft.

2. Intersection Signs. These designate the location of intersecting routes or indicate category II ILS critical areas. The following are some typical examples of taxiway guidance signs and their meaning: RAMP. general parking, servicing and loading areas; MIL. area for military aircraft; HGR. hangar area; CRGO. freight and cargo handling area. Today, guidance signs are made of a retroreflective material, so that they are easy to see and less expensive to make than the old signs using yellow letters a black background. The maximum height of these signs is 30 in. (76.20 cm) above finished grade, and they are at a minimum distance of 10 ft (3.05 m) from apron J and taxiway edges.