INFRARED RAYS: Infrared (IR) light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength longer than that of visible light, measured

from the nominal edge of visible red light at 0.7 micrometres, and extending conventionally to 300 micrometres These wavelengths correspond to a frequency range of approximately 430 to 1 THz. They have thermal energies in them. Near infrared" light is closest in wavelength to visible light and "far infrared" is closer to the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The longer, far infrared wavelengths are about the size of a pin head and the shorter, near infrared ones are the size of cells, or are microscopic. the primary source of infrared radiation is heat or thermal radiation, any object which has a temperature radiates in the infrared. Shorter near wavelength in used in the remote controls. INFRARED PAIR: TRANSMITER: Remote Control A remote control is a component of an electronics device, used for operating the device wirelessly from a short line-of-sight distance. Most remote controls for electronic appliances use a near infrared diode to emit a beam of light that reaches the device. A 940 nm wavelength LED is typical. Since infrared (IR) remote controls use light, they require line of sight to operate the destination device. The signal can, however, be reflected by mirrors, just like any other light source. If operation is required where no line of sight is possible, for instance when controlling equipment in another room or installed in a cabinet, many brands of IR extenders are available for this on the market. Most of these have an IR receiver, picking up the IR signal and relaying it via radio waves to the remote part, which has an IR transmitter mimicking the original IR control. Infrared receivers also tend to have a more or less limited operating angle, which mainly depends on the optical characteristics of the phototransistor. However, its easy to increase the operating angle using a matte transparent object in front of the receiver. {increasing operating angle}

RECEIVER: TS0P1738

RELAYS: A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal.

The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations.

A relay is a switch which is operated by electricity. It is usually electromagnetic device which has coil. When this coil is supplied with power, a magnetic field created and will operate mechanical switch. There are solid state relays which do not have moving parts but are very expensive compared to small mechanical relays. Pictures in this page shows typical small electro mechanical relay. Relay is used when we need to handle high voltages and currents through microcontroller operated system. Relay coil's current requirement is usually more than 100mA (for small relay about 100mA) and microcontroller cant supply this much of current to relay by it self. So as shown in following schematic diagram, we have to use transistor to handle this current requirement. Base pin of NPN transistor used here is connected to ground pin via resistor to make sure that relay will stay off when microcontroller does not output +5V to transistors base. This will make sure only logic 1 on microcontroller pin will activate relay. It is better to use Darlington transistor to handle current requirement for relay, because darlington transistor can handle more current than single transistor. It is essential to connect a diode across relay coil in reverse bias to protect transistor form back EMF created when relay is released from energized or ON state. If this diode is not used, transistor and/or microcontroller which is driving relay may be damaged upon releasing energized relay. The diode will short out the back EMF produced by coil when it turned OFF from ON state.
Applications
Relays are used to and for: Control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of modems or

audio amplifiers, Control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter solenoid of

an automobile, Detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and

closing circuit breakers (protection relays), Isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are at different potentials, for example when controlling a mains-powered device from a low-voltage switch. The latter is often applied to control office lighting as the low voltage wires are easily installed in partitions, which may be often moved as needs change. They may also be controlled by room occupancy detectors in an effort to conserve energy,

Logic functions. For example, the boolean AND function is realised by connecting

normally open relay contacts in series, the OR function by connecting normally open contacts in parallel. The change-over or Form C contacts perform the XOR (exclusive or) function. Similar functions for NAND and NOR are accomplished using normally closed contacts. Early computing. Before vacuum tubes and transistors, relays were used as

logical elements in digital computers. Safety-critical logic. Because relays are much more resistant than

semiconductors to nuclear radiation, they are widely used in safety-critical logic, such as the control panels of radioactive waste-handling machinery.

Time delay functions. Relays can be modified to delay opening or delay closing a set of

contacts. A very short (a fraction of a second) delay would use a copper disk between the armature and moving blade assembly. Current flowing in the disk maintains magnetic field for a short time, lengthening release time. For a slightly longer (up to a minute) delay, a dashpot is used. A dashpot is a piston filled with fluid that is allowed to escape slowly. The time period can be varied by increasing or decreasing the flow rate. For longer time periods, a mechanical clockwork timer is installed.

CRSTAL: Good Frequency Accuracy and Good Stability Over Temperature. The majority of clock sources for microcontrollers can be grouped into two types: those based on mechanical resonant devices, such as crystals and ceramic resonators, and those based on electrical phaseshift circuits such as RC (resistor, capacitor) oscillators. Crystal and ceramic resonator-based oscillators (mechanical) typically provide very high initial accuracy and a moderately low temperature coefficient. Power consumption is another important consideration of oscillator selection. The power consumption of discrete component crystal-oscillator circuits is primarily determined by the feedback-amplifier supply

current and by the in-circuit capacitance values used. The power consumption of amplifiers fabricated in CMOS is largely proportional to the operating frequency and can be expressed as a powerdissipation capacitance value. Ceramic resonator circuits typically specify larger load capacitance values than crystal circuits, and draw still more current than the crystal circuit using the same amplifier.

You can use other frequencies such as 12 MHz, but according to the referenced site, 11.0592MHz is used because: "it can be divided to give you exact clock rates for most of the common baud rates for the UART, especially for the higher speeds (9600, 19200). Despite the "oddball" value, these crystals are readily available and commonly used." When Timer 1 is used as the baud rate generator, the baud rates in Modes 1 and 3 are determined by the Timer 1 overflow rate and the value of SMOD (PCON.7 - double speed baud rates) as follows: smod Baud rate = 2 -----32 x (Timer 1 overflow rate)

Most typically, the timer is configured in the auto-reload mode (mode 2, high nibble of TMOD = 0100B). In this case, the baud rate is given as: smod 2 ------32 Oscillator frequency x -------------------12 x (256 - TH1)

Baud rate =

Some typical baud rates for an 11.0592 crystal:

DIODES: n electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts electric current in only one direction. Diodes Incorporated and its subsidiaries reserve the right to make modifications, enhancements, improvements, corrections or other changes

without further notice to any product herein. Diodes Incorporated does not assume any liability arising out of the application or use of any product described herein; neither does it convey any license under its patent rights, nor the rights of others. The user of products in such applications shall assume all risks of such use and will agree to hold Diodes Incorporated and all the companies whose products are represented on our website, harmless against all damages. LIFE SUPPORT Diodes Incorporated products are not authorized for use as critical components in life support devices or systems without the expressed written approval of the President of Diodes Incorporated. Features Diffused Junction High Current Capability and Low Forward Voltage Drop Surge Overload Rating to 30A Peak Low Reverse Leakage Current Lead Free Finish, RoHS Compliant (Note 3)

Applications:

Power conversion
Rectifiers are constructed from diodes, where they are used to convert alternating current (AC) electricity into direct current (DC). Automotive alternators are a common example, where the diode, which rectifies the AC into DC, provides better performance than the commutator of earlier dynamo. Similarly, diodes are also used in CockcroftWalton voltage multipliersto convert AC into higher DC voltages.

Over-voltage protection
Diodes are frequently used to conduct damaging high voltages away from sensitive electronic devices. They are usually reverse-biased (non-conducting) under normal circumstances. When the voltage rises above the normal range, the diodes become forward-biased (conducting). For example, diodes are used in (stepper motor and H-bridge) motor controller and relaycircuits to

de-energize coils rapidly without the damaging voltage spikes that would otherwise occur. (Any diode used in such an application is called a flyback diode). Many integrated circuits also incorporate diodes on the connection pins to prevent external voltages from damaging their sensitive transistors. Specialized diodes are used to protect from over-voltages at higher power

PCB: printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically connect electronic components using conductive pathways, tracks or signal traces etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. It is also referred to as printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board. A PCB populated with electronic components is a printed circuit assembly (PCA), also known as a printed circuit board assembly (PCBA). Printed circuit boards are used in virtually all but the simplest commercially-produced electronic devices. PCBs are inexpensive, and can be highly reliable. They require much more layout effort and higher initial cost than either wire wrap or point-to-point construction, but are much cheaper and faster for high-volume production; the production and soldering of PCBs can be done by totally automated equipment. Much of the electronics industry's PCB design, assembly, and quality control needs are set by standards that are published by the IPC organization.

Surface-mount technology Surface-mount technology emerged in the 1960s, gained momentum in the early 1980s and became widely used by the mid 1990s. Components were mechanically redesigned to have small metal tabs or end caps that could be soldered directly on to the PCB surface. Components became much smaller and component placement on both sides of the board became more common than with through-hole mounting, allowing much higher circuit densities. Surface mounting lends itself well to a high degree of automation, reducing labour costs and greatly increasing production and quality rates. Carrier Tapes provide a stable and protective environment for Surface mount devices (SMDs) which can be one-quarter to one-tenth of the size and weight, and passive components can be one-half to one-quarter of the cost of corresponding through-hole parts. However, integrated circuits are often priced the same regardless of the package type, because the chip itself is the most expensive part. As of 2006, some wire-ended components,

such as small-signal switch diodes, e.g. 1N4148, are actually significantly cheaper than corresponding SMD versions.