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Again, a typical IC amplier is likely to have eight connectors, four along each side of the body as shown in Fig. 23.9. Of these, two would be used to provide the supply voltage, two would be available for the input signals, one would be available for the output signal while a sixth would be used to earth the IC. The remaining connectors can be used for frequency compensation, but this use is optional. The fact that there are two input connectors or terminals and there are also two connectors which need not be used highlights a signicant difference between IC arrangements and the individual component networks we have previously considered. Because the complexity of the IC can be varied to a considerable extent without affecting the cost, many ICs are manufactured with optionable facilities; thus a number of functions can be performed by the one IC. It might appear strange that there are two input terminals, but the versatility is such that the choice of terminal permits the output signal to be either inverted or non-inverted, i.e. out of phase or in phase with the input signal. Further, many ICs can accept two signals at these terminals and operate on the difference between them. This will be discussed in section 23.5. The component ampliers which make up a typical integrated-circuit amplier are directly coupled, rather than having a system within the semiconductor slice of introducing active capacitor components to be used for coupling. It follows that ICs can be used for amplifying direct signals as well as alternating signals. Although integrated circuits have been discussed in the context of ampliers, it should be noted that an integrated circuit is a form of construction rather than a device performing a specic function or range of functions. In Chapter 26, we shall look at logic systems, which also are generally manufactured in the form of integrated circuits. However, this chapter is limited to amplier operation for which the basic integrated circuit usually takes the form of an operational amplier, often abbreviated to op-amp.

23.3

Operational ampliers

The common IC operational amplier is one which has a very high gain and nds widespread use in many areas of electronics. Its applications are not limited to linear amplication systems, but include digital logic systems as well. There are certain properties common to all operational ampliers as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. An inverting input. A non-inverting input. A high input impedance (usually assumed innite) at both inputs. A low output impedance. A large voltage gain when operating without feedback (typically 105). The voltage gain remains constant over a wide frequency range. Relatively free of drift due to ambient temperature change, hence the direct voltage output is zero when there is no input signal. 8. Good stability, being free of parasitic oscillation. The basic form of operational amplier is shown in Fig. 23.10. It will be noted that the input terminals are marked + and . These are not polarity

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Fig. 23.10 The basic operational amplier

signs; rather the indicates the inverting input terminal whereas the + indicates the non-inverting input terminal. This basic unit performs in a variety of ways according to the manner of the surrounding circuitry. A number of general applications are now considered.

23.4

The inverting operational amplier

The circuit of an inverting operational amplier is shown in Fig. 23.11.

Fig. 23.11 Inverting operational amplier

The open-loop gain of the op-amp is A, thus the output voltage vo = Av; R2 may be assumed negligible, hence vi v = ii R1 If the input impedance to the amplier is very high then i ii = if but and if = ii = vo v Rf vi v R1 0, hence

vi v v v v vo = o = R1 Rf Rf

If the output signal is exactly out of phase with the input voltage, the operational amplier being in its inverting mode, then

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vo = Av and vo A v v vi + o o vo A A = R1 Rf v= vi + vo v R R = o 1 vo 1 A A Rf Rf

hence and

Generally, R1 and Rf are of approximately the same range of resistance, e.g. R1 = 100 k and Rf = 1 M, and A is very large, e.g. A = 105, hence vo A and vo R1 A Rf

can be neglected, vi vo R1 Rf [23.1]

It follows that the overall gain is given approximately by Av = Rf R1 [23.2]

From this relationship it is seen that the gain of the amplier depends on the resistances of R1 and Rf, and that the inherent gain of the op-amp, provided it is large, does not affect the overall gain. Usually, in practice, the non-inverting input is earthed through R2, thus minimizing the worst effects of the offset voltage and thermal drift. The offset voltage is the voltage difference between the op-amp input terminals required to bring the output voltage to zero. Finally, the output often includes a resistance of about 50200 in order to give protection in the event of the load being short-circuited. Example 23.4 Design an inverting amplier with a gain of 20 based on an operational amplier. We start with the circuit shown in Fig. 23.11. The gain for this circuit is Av = Rf R1

Since it is the ratio of the resistors that determines the gain we may choose suitable values. Here if R1 is 1 k then we need to have Rf = 20 k

23.5

The summing amplier

This is a development of the inverting operational amplier. Consider the arrangement shown in Fig. 23.12. For the three input signals vA, vB and vC, the currents in the resistors RA, RB and RC are as follows:

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Fig. 23.12

Summing amplier

iA = hence Again ii = if =

vA v RA

iB =

vB v RB

and iC =

vC v RC [23.3]

vA v vB v vC v + + RA RB RC vo v Rf 0

and since i

v vo vA v vB v vC v = + + Rf RA RB RC

[23.4]

In a summing amplier, usually v is very small compared with the other voltages, hence If then or vo v v v = A + B + C Rf RA RB RC R f = RA = RB = RC vo = vA + vB + vC vo = (vA + vB + vC)

It can now be seen that, apart from the phase reversal, the output voltage is the sum of the input voltages. From this comes the title summing amplier or summer. It is this form of operation which leads to the general term operational amplier. The operation referred to is a mathematical operation and the basic op-amp can be made not only to add but to subtract, integrate, etc. The summation can be illustrated by the following simple instance. If vA = 2 V, vB = 4 V and vC = 6 V then vo = (2 4 + 6) = 4 V Since instantaneous values have been chosen, it may be inferred that the operation works for alternating voltages as well as for steady voltages. Example 23.5 Two voltages, + 0.6 V and 1.4 V, are applied to the two input resistors of a summation amplier. The respective input resistors are 400 k and 100 k, and the feedback resistor is 200 k. Determine the output voltage.

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v vo v = A + B Rf RA RB 0.6 1.4 + vo = 200 100 400 = 2.5 V 23.6

from [23.4]

The noninverting amplier

Non-inverting

The circuit of a non-inverting amplier is shown in Fig. 23.13. It is shown in two common forms which are identical electrically, but the conversion from one diagram layout to the other can give many readers difculty.

Fig. 23.13

amplier

Owing to the very high input resistance, the input current is negligible, hence the voltage drop across R2 is negligible and vi = v Especially using form (b) of Fig. 23.13, it can be seen that v= vi = R1 vo R1 + Rf R1 vo R1 + Rf vo R =1+ f vi R1 [23.5]

Av =

Again we see that the gain of the amplier is independent of the gain of the op-amp. Example 23.6 Design a non-inverting amplier with a gain of 16 based on an operational amplier. We start with the circuit shown in Fig. 23.13(b). The gain for this circuit is Av = 1 + Rf R1

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Since it is the ratio of the resistors that determines the gain we may choose suitable values. Here, if R1 is 1 k then we need to have Rf = 15 k

23.7

Differential ampliers

The differential amplier is the general case of the op-amp, which has been taken only in specic situations so far. The function of the differential amplier is to amplify the difference between two signals. Being a linear amplier, the output is proportional to the difference in signal between the two input terminals. If we apply the same sine wave signal to both inputs, there will be no difference and hence no output signal, as shown in Fig. 23.14. If one of the signals were inverted, the difference between the signals would be twice one of the signals and hence there would be a considerable output signal.

Fig. 23.14 Differential amplication

This at rst sight appears to be a complicated method of achieving amplication. Differential amplication has two advantages: 1. The use of balanced input signals reduces the effect of interference as illustrated in Fig. 23.15. Here a balanced signal is transmitted by two signals which are identical other than being out of phase. Interference at
Fig. 23.15

Effect of

interference

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Fig. 23.16

Simple differential

a lower frequency has distorted each signal, but since the distortion effects are in phase, the amplier output of the interference signals is zero. It follows that the amplied signal is devoid of interference. 2. The differential amplier can be used with positive or negative feedback. In an idealized differential amplier, as shown in Fig. 23.16, vo = Av (v1 v2) [23.6]

amplier

In a practical differential amplier, the relationship is more complicated because the output depends not only on the difference vd = v1 v2 but also upon the average signal the common-mode signal vcom where vcom = v1 + v2 2 [23.7]

Nevertheless, the gain is still given by Av = vo v1 v2 [23.8]

Example 23.7

A differential amplier has an open-circuit voltage gain of 100. The input signals are 3.25 and 3.15 V. Determine the output voltage. vo = Av(v1 v2) = 100(3.25 3.15) = 10 V The 10 V output is therefore the amplied difference between the input signals. The mean input signal is vcom = v1 + v2 3.25 + 3.15 = = 3.20 V 2 2

It follows that the net input signal v1 = 3.25 3.20 = 0.05 V and v2 = 3.15 3.20 = 0.05 V. Using the net signals vo = Av(v1 v2) = 100[0.05 (0.05)] = 10 V thus showing that the mean signal is not amplied. The mean signal is termed the common-mode signal.

23.8

Common-mode rejection ratio

This is a gure of merit for a differential amplier, the name usually being abbreviated as CMRR. It is dened as CMRR = differential gain A = v common-mode gain Acom

The CMRR should be large so that output errors are minimized. For instance, using the gures in Example 23.7, consider the output if the two input signals had both been 3.20 V. In this case

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vo = Av(v1 v2) = 100(3.20 3.20) = 0 Such a gure is idealistic because, in practice, the circuit components have manufacturing tolerances and it would almost certainly result in there being a very small output. As a result we dene the common-mode gain as Acom = Example 23.8 vo vcom [23.9]

The differential amplier used in Example 23.7 has a common input signal of 3.20 V to both terminals. This results in an output signal of 26 mV. Determine the common-mode gain and the CMRR. Acom = CMRR = 26 10 3 = 0.0081 3.20 Av 100 = = 12 300 Acom 0.0081

20 log 12 300 = 81.8 dB

Summary of important formulae

For an inverting operational amplier, Av = Rf R1 Rf R1 [23.2]

For a non-inverting operational amplier, Av = 1 + [23.5]

For a differential amplier, Av = vo v1 v2 [23.8]

Terms and concepts

It is quite usual that a single amplier cannot provide the gain which we desire. We therefore use two or more cascaded ampliers. It does not matter whether the ampliers incorporate junction transistors or FETs both can be cascaded. Ampliers are often manufactured as integrated circuits in which all the components are encapsulated. A common integrated circuit takes the form of an operational amplier (op-amp) which provides degrees of choice in its applications, e.g. the input can be either inverting or non-inverting. Operational ampliers can be used as summing ampliers in which the output voltage is the sum of the input voltages. Similarly, operational ampliers can be used as differential ampliers in which the output signal is proportional to the difference of two input signals.