Sensors and Transducers

Subramanya R Prabhu B

Introduction
To be useful, systems must interact with their environment. To do this they use sensors and actuators A sensor is a device that converts a physical phenomenon into an electrical signal. Sensors represent part of the interface between the physical world and the world of electrical devices, such as computers.

The other part of this interface is represented by actuators,

which convert electrical signals into physical phenomena

Sensor Performance Characteristics

Transfer Function
The transfer function shows the functional relationship between physical input signal and electrical output signal. Usually, this relationship is represented as a graph showing the relationship between the input and output signal, and the details of this relationship may constitute a complete description of the sensor characteristics.

Sensitivity
The sensitivity is defined in terms of the relationship between input physical signal and output electrical signal. It is generally the ratio between a small change in electrical signal to a small change in physical signal. As such, it may be expressed as the derivative of the transfer function with respect to physical signal.

Span or Dynamic Range

The range of input physical signals that may be converted to electrical signals by the sensor is the dynamic range or span.

Signals outside of this range are expected to cause unacceptably large

inaccuracy. Typical units are kelvin, Pascal, newton, etc.

Accuracy or Uncertainty
Uncertainty is generally defined as the largest expected error between actual and measured output signals. Quoted as a fraction of the full-scale output or a fraction of the reading.

For example, a thermometer might be guaranteed accurate to within

5% of FSO (Full Scale Output). Accuracy is generally considered by metrologists to be a qualitative term, while uncertainty is quantitative. For example one sensor might have better accuracy than another if

its uncertainty is 1% compared to the other with an uncertainty of 3%.

Nonlinearity (often called Linearity)

The maximum deviation from a linear transfer function over the specified dynamic range.

There are several measures of this error. The most common compares
the actual transfer function with the best straight line, which lies midway between the two parallel lines that encompass the entire transfer

function over the specified dynamic range of the device.

Resolution
When the input varies continuously over the range , the output signals for some sensors may change in small steps

The smallest increment in the measured value that can be detected.

Also known as degree of fineness with which measurements can be made.

Stability

Dead Band/Time

Output Impedance

Repeatability/Reproducibility

Hysteresis error

Sensor Classification
Based on Signal Characteristics: Analog Digital

Based On power Supply:

Active Passive Based on Subject of measurement: Acoustic,

Biological, Chemical, Electric, Mechanical, Optical,

Radiation, Thermal, etc..

Analog Sensors: Typically have an output that is proportional to the variable being measured.

The output changes in a continuous way

Digital sensors: Outputs are digital in nature. i.e. a sequence of essentially on/off signals which spell out a number whose value is related to the size of the variable being measured.

Known for accuracy, precision and do not require any converters

when interfaced with a computer monitoring system

Active sensors:

Requires an external source of excitation.

Resistor-based sensors such as thermistors, RTDs (Resistance Temperature Detectors), and strain gages are examples of active

sensors, because a current must be passed through them and the

corresponding voltage measured in order to determine the resistance value. Passive Sensors: Generate their own electrical output signal without requiring external voltages or currents. Examples of passive sensors are thermocouples and photodiodes which generate thermoelectric voltages and photocurrents,

respectively, which are independent of external circuits.

PROPERTY

SENSOR

ACTIVE/PASSIVE
Passive
Active

OUTPUT
Voltage
Voltage/Current

Temperature Thermocouple
Silicon

RTD Thermistor
Force/Pressure Strain Gage Piezoelectric Acceleration Accelerometer

Active Active
Active Passive Active

Resistance Resistance
Resistance Voltage Capacitance

Position

LVDT

Active
Passive

AC Voltage
Current

Light Intensity Photodiode

Typical sensors and their outputs

Position sensors
Position sensors are concerned with the determination of the

position of some object with reference to some reference point.

While selecting consideration to be given:

Size of the displacement

Linear or angular Resolution, accuracy, Cost.. Material of the measuring object.

Potentiometer
Consists of a resistance element with a sliding contact which can be moved over the length of the element Used for linear or rotary displacements, by converting displacement into potential difference

 The rotary potentiometer consists of a circular wire wound track or a film of conductive plastic over which a rotatable sliding contact can be rotated. With a constant input voltage between terminal 1 and 3 the output voltage between terminal 2 and 3 is a fraction of the input voltage, the

fraction depending on the ratio of the resistance between terminal 2

and 3 compared with total resistance between 1 and 3

 With a wire wound track the slider in moving from one

turn to other will change the voltage output in steps, each

step being a movement of one turn If the potentiometer has N turn then the resolution as the percentage is 100/N

Optical Encoder
Encoder is a device that provides a digital output as a result of a linear or angular displacement.

Optical Encoders Use light & photo-sensors to produce digital code. Can be linear or rotary

Optical Encoder Components

 An opaque disc with perforations or transparent windows at

regular interval is mounted on the shaft whose Displacement or Speed is to be measured. A LED source is aligned on one side of the disc in such a way that its light can pass through the transparent windows of the disc.

As the disc rotates the light will alternately passed through the
transparent windows and blocked by the opaque sections. A photo-detector fixed on the other side of the disc detects the variation of light and the output of the detector after signal conditioning would be a square wave whose frequency is decided by the speed and the number of holes (transparent windows) on the disc.

Types of Optical Encoders

2 types of Optical Encoders: 1. Incremental Measure displacement relative to a reference point.

2. Absolute
Measure absolute position. Advantages A missed reading does not affect the next reading. Only needs power on when taking a reading. Disadvantages More expensive/complex. Cost/complexity

proportional to resolution/accuracy.

Incremental Encoder
Consists 3 concentric tracks with 3 sensor pairs Inner track has just one hole and is used to locate the home

position of the disc

The other two tracks have a series of equally spaced holes that go completely round the disc But with the holes in the middle track offset from the holes in the outer track by one half the width of a hole

This offset enables the direction of rotation to be determined.

The resolution is determined by the number of slots on the disc.

By counting the number of pulses and knowing the resolution of the disk, the angular motion can be measured. The A and B channels are used to determine the direction of rotation by assessing which channels "leads" the other. The signals from the two channels are a 1/4 cycle out of phase with each other and are known as quadrature signals.

Often a third output channel, called INDEX, yields one pulse per revolution, which is useful in counting full revolutions. It is also useful as a reference to define a home base or zero position

Absolute Encoder
Gives an output in the form of a binary number of several digits, each such number representing a particular angular position.

The rotating disc has three concentric circles of slots and three
sensors to detect the light pulses. The slots are arranged in such a way that the sequential output from the sensors is a number in the binary code.

Rushi Vyas

Standard Binary Encoding

Angle 0-45 45-90 90-135 135-180 Binary 000 001 010 011 Decimal 0 1 2 3

180-225 225-270
270-315 315-360

100 101
110 111

4 5
6 7

Ryder Winck

Problem with Binary Code

Angle Binary 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111 Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

One angle shift results in multiple bit changes. Example: 1 => 2

001 000 010 (start at 1) (turn off bit 0) (turn on bit 1)

0-45 45-90 90-135 135-180 180-225 225-270 270-315 315-360

Ryder Winck

Problem with Binary Code

Angle Binary 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111 Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

One degree shift results in multiple bit changes. Example: 1 => 2

001 000 010 (start at 1) (turn off bit 0) (turn on bit 1)

0-45 45-90 90-135 135-180 180-225 225-270 270-315 315-360

It looks like we went from 1 => 0 => 2

The normal form of binary code is generally not used because

changing from one binary number to the next can result in more than one bit changing and if, through some mis alignment, one of the bits

changes fractionally before the others then an intermediate binary

number is momentarily indicated and so can lead to false counting

Gray code is similar to binary code, it has the same possible combinations but it is arranged in a different order.

The main reason to use gray code instead of regular binary code is to reduce the size of the largest possible error in reading the shaft

position to the value of the LSB. If the disk used straight binary code,
the largest possible error would be the value of the MSB.

Absolute Disks

Binary

Gray Code

Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Binary 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111

Gray Code 0000 0001 0011 0010 0110 0111 0101 0100 1100 1101 1111 1110 1010 1011 1001 1000

Absolute Disk Codes

Angle Binary Decimal

Bit 0 Bit 1

0-45
45-90 90-135 135-180

000
001 010 011 100 101 110 111

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Bit 2
Bit 0 Bit 1 Bit 2

180-225 225-270 270-315 315-360

Gray Code
One bit change per angle change.

Angle

Binary 000 001 011 010 110

Decimal 0 1 2 3 4

Bit 0 Bit 1 Bit 2 Bit 0 Bit 1 Bit 2

0-45 45-90 90-135 135-180 180-225

225-270
270-315 315-360

111
101 100

5
6 7

Converting from Gray Code to Binary Code

1. 2. 3. Copy MSB. If MSB is 1, write 1s until next 1 is met. If MSB is 0, write 0s until next 1 is met. When 1 is met, logically switch what you are writing (1=>0 or 0=>1). Continue writing the same logical until next 1 is met. Loop back to step 3.

4. 5.

Example: Convert 0010 to Binary Code

Copy MSB: 0_ _ _ Write 0s until next 1 is met: 00_ _ Switch to writing 1s: 001_ Write 1s: 0011

Example: Convert 1110 to Binary Code

Copy MSB: 1_ _ _ Write 1s until next 1 is met: 1_ _ _ Switch to writing 0s until next 1 is met: 10_ _ Switch to writing 1s until next 1 is met: 1011