Food, Fermentation and Micro-organisms Charles W.

Bamforth Copyright 2005 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Chapter 13

Meat

The curing of meat pre-dates the Romans as an exercise in enhancing meat quality and preserving it. It comprises lactic fermentation of mixtures of meat, fat, salt, curing agents (either nitrate or nitrite), reducing agents, spices and sugar. Frequently the meat is encased in a tubular form as sausage.

The role of components of the curing mixture

Salt solubilises the proteins of the muscle as well as increasing the osmotic pressure such that spoilage by bacteria is suppressed. Naturally it enhances avour. Levels may range from 2% to 3% to as high as 6% to 8%. The key component is sodium nitrite, which promotes the typical colour of preserved meats through the formation of nitric oxide compounds by reaction with the haem of myoglobin (Fig. 13.1). Furthermore, it contributes to avour as well as inhibiting the development of pathogens such as Clostridium botulinum. The downside is the production of the potentially carcinogenic nitrosamines and so there are legal limits on how much may be used (e.g. 120 ppm for US bacon). Meat typically has a pH of between 5.5 and 6 after rigor mortis is complete. At this pH, nitrite is converted to N2 O, which also features in curing. Nitrate may replace nitrite, in which case it is converted to nitrite through the action of bacteria. Sodium phosphate increases the water-binding capacity of the protein, leading to a stabilisation of the myobrils. It also binds heavy metals and thus helps protect against the microbes that need those metals. Sugar is added to counter the salt avour-wise and is also the carbon and energy source for any microbes necessary for fermentation, for example, those organisms involved in the reduction of nitrate. This sugar will react during any heating stages in Maillard reaction to impact colour and avour. Reducing agents, notably ascorbate, reduce nitrite to the nitric oxide that reacts with myoglobin and also helps to suppress the development of nitrosamines. Binding agents and emulsiers may be used to improve stability. They may include soy (or hydrolysed soy) starches and carrageenan. Finally, antioxidants such as BHT and propyl gallate may be added to counter the development of rancidity through lipid oxidation.

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COO CH2 CH2 C Globin binds H3C C C HC C H2C C H C C CH3 N C C H C N Fe N C C C H C C N C

COO CH2 CH2 C C CH3

Remaining chelation site

CH

CH3

C H CH2

Fig. 13.1 The interaction of nitrite with haem. The sixth binding site, occupied by nitrite, is the one otherwise occupied by oxygen, carbon monoxide, cyanide, etc.

Table 13.1 Classications of fermented sausage. Surface mould growth Yes Yes No Yes No

Type Dry Dry Dry Semi-dry Semi-dry

Aw <0.9 <0.9 <0.9 0.90.95 0.90.95

Fermentation time (weeks) >4 >4 >4 <4 1.53

Smoked/ not smoked No Yes Either No Usually

Example Salami Salami Dauerwurst Various Most fermented sausages

Origin Italy Hungary Germany France, Spain Germany, Holland, Scandinavia, USA Spain

Undried

0.90.95

<2

No

Either

Sobrasada

Adapted from Lcke (2003).

Meat fermentation
The meats are usually classied as either dry or semi-dry (Table 13.1). Dry sausages have an Aw of less than 0.9, tend not to be smoked or heat processed and are generally eaten without cooking. Semi-dry products have an Aw of 0.90.95 and are customarily heated at 6068 C during smoking. The fermentation temperature is normally below 22 C for dry and mouldripened sausages, but 2226 C for semi-dry sausages. If a starter is used, then the pH reached is in the range of 44.5. Starter cultures are primarily the lactic acid bacteria lactobacilli and pediococci, such as Lactobacillus sakei, Pediococcus pentosaceus, Lactobacillus curvatus, Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus pentosus. Also of importance, especially when nitrate replaces nitrite, are the non-pathogenic catalase positive cocci Streptococcus carnosus and Micrococcus varians.

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Food, Fermentation and Micro-organisms

If no starter culture is used, then the pH reaches only 4.65. Fermentation here is dependent upon endogenous organisms such as Lactobacillus sakei and Lb. curvatus. In the production of fermented sausages, the comminuted lean and fatty tissue is mixed with salt, spice, sugar, curing agent and starter cultures and put into casings. The Aw of a starting semi-dry sausage mix is achieved by employing some 3035% of fatty tissue and 2.53% salt. Nitrite is added in the range of 100150 mg kg1 , and ascorbic acid is also generally included at 300500 mg kg1 . For dry sausages, nitrate may replace nitrite and the fermentation temperature is likely to be lower. Mixes incorporate 0.3% glucose to act as substrate for lactic acid bacteria. The oxygen is rapidly consumed by endogenous meat enzymes. The acid produced in fermentation promotes the reaction of nitrite with metmyoglobin to produce NO-myoglobin. Any residual nitrite is reduced by the microora. The temperature is lowered to approximately 15 C and the relative humidity in the chamber is brought down to 7580%. Much of the avour and aroma that develops is due to the degradation of lipids, notably through autoxidation and the microbial transformation of the products generated by lipid degradation (Fig. 13.2). Additionally, proteinases produce peptides that are converted by the microora to amino acids and volatile fatty acids. The sausage may be aged (dried) and smoked. A surface growth may be allowed to develop and this comprises inter alia salt-tolerant yeasts (e.g. Debaromyces hansenii) and moulds. Where smoking is performed, surface microora are eliminated. The ora may also be reinforced by starters of Penicillium nalgiovense or Penicillium chrysogenum. The surface moulds scavenge oxygen and assist the drying process.

LH

I IH O2

LH

LO2

LO2H LH = unsaturated fatty acid I = initiator radical, e.g. hydroxyl, perhyxdroxyl L = alkyl radical L = peroxyradical LO2H = hydroperoxide

Carbonyls
Fig. 13.2 The fundamental route for autoxidation of unsaturated fatty acids.

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The pH of unground meat must be below 5.8 to prevent the growth of undesirable organisms (pathogens). It is also important that the raw material should not be oxidised (i.e. it should have a low peroxide value). To this end, the meat may rst be chilled or frozen to prevent oxidation. Furthermore, the access of oxygen to the meat will be minimised at all stages. To ferment unground meat, salt is rst rubbed into the surface, or the meat is dipped in brine, or it is injected with the salt. The meat is then kept at 10 C to allow the salt to become evenly distributed throughout the piece. The meat is then shifted to 1530 C to allow for water loss and the action of endogenous proteinases in the meat, which degrade the protein structure and increase tenderness and improve the avour. During this time, a surface bloom of cocci, moulds and yeasts may develop. The meat may be smoked and then dried to the target Aw .

Bibliography
Campbell-Platt, C.H. & Cook, P.E. (1994) Fermented Meats. London: Blackie. Lcke, F.-K. (2003) Fermented meat products. In Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition (eds B. Caballero, L.C. Trugo & P.M. Finglas), pp. 23382344. Oxford: Academic Press. Varnam, A.H. & Sutherland, J.P. (1995) Meat and Meat Products. London: Chapman & Hall.