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2006

vii

1-
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4

1.5
1.6
1.6.1
1.6.2 -
1.6.3
1.6.4
1.6.5
1.6.6 - Tissot
1.6.7 - Tissot
1.7
1.7.1
1.7.2
1.7.3 -

1.7.4
1.8

3
3
5
6

2- -
2.1
i

7
10
13
13
14
14
15
17
18
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
29
29

2.2 -
2.3

29
33

3-
3.1
3.2
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.3
3.3.1
3.3.2 - Lambert
3.3.3 - Albers
3.3.4 Bonne
3.3.5 Sanson
3.3.6 Mollweide
3.4
3.4.1 - Postel
3.4.2
3.4.3 - Lambert
3.4.4
3.4.5
3.5
3.5.1 - Cassini
3.5.2
3.6
3.6.1 - Hatt
3.7

35
35
35
35
38
42
43
45
47
50
52
53
54
55
56
58
60
62
64
66
67
68
72
72
76

4-

4.1
4.2 Hatt
4.3 UTM-6
4.4 -3
4.5 - 87
4.6
4.7

77
77
77
79
79
80
80
84

ii


5-
5.1
5.1.1
5.1.2
5.1.3
5.2
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.3
5.3.1
5.3.2
5.4
5.5
5.5.1
5.5.2
5.5.3
5.5.4
5.5.5
5.6
5.6.1
5.6.2
5.6.3
5.6.4
5.6.5
5.6.6
5.6.7
5.6.8
5.6.9
5.7
5.8
5.7.1

5.7.2 -
5.7.3

5.9
5.8.1
5.8.2
iii

87
89
89
90
91
92
93
93
94
95
95
96
97
98
98
100
101
101
102
102
103
104
104
105
107
107
108
109
110
110
112
114
115
116
118
120
120

5.8.3
5.10
5.11

125
127
127

6-
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.6.1
6.6.2
6.6.3
6.6.4
6.7
6.8

129
129
129
132
134
135
136
136
139
140
142
143
144

7-
7.1
7.2
7.3

7.3.1
Peucker
7.3.2
Brassel
7.3.3
7.3.4
7.3.5 Tanaka
7.3.6
Wiechel
7.3.7
Marsik
7.4
7.5

7.6
7.7

145
145
146

iv

149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
160
163
163

8-
8.1
8.1.1
8.1.2
8.1.3
8.1.4
8.1.5
8.1.6
8.2
8.3
8.3.1
8.3.2
8.3.3 / -

8.3.4 Voronoi
8.4
8.4.1
8.4.2
8.4.3 -
8.5

165
165
166
167
168
168
170
171
171
176
176
177

9-
9.1
9.2
9.2.1
9.2.2
9.2.3
9.3
9.3.1
9.3.2
9.4
9.4.1
9.4.2
9.4.3
9.4.4
9.4.5
9.4.6
9.4.7
9.4.8
9.4.9

191
191
191
191
193
195
196
197
197
198
199
200
200
201
202
202
203
204
205

178
179
180
181
182
186
188

9.4.10
9.5
9.5.1 /
9.5.2
9.5.3
9.5.4
9.5.5
9.5.6
9.5.7
9.6

9.7
( )
.1
.2
.2.1
.2.2
.2.3
.3
.4
.5
.5

.7

vi

206
207
207
209
211
212
212
213
214
216
218
219
219
219
220
220
220
221
221
221
222
222

35
, ,
.

,

().
,

,
.

.
,
,
, . ,

,
.
W. R. Tobler,
Michigan 1960. Tobler

. Tobler



. ,


.

, , ,
vii

,
, .

.


,
. ,
.
.

. ,
,
.
, .
,
. ,
.
,

.

.
,
. ,

.


.
. ,

. ,

.


, .


viii


. . . ,
. .
. ,
.


.

. . . ,
. .
.
,
.
,
,
.
.

, ...
, 2006

ix

1
1.
1.1


, .
, ,
. ,
,
. ,

, .
, ,
.
,
.

.

,
.

, . ( 1.1)

.
,

.

() .
3

PG

PE

1.1 ,
( )
,
,
.
.
, ,
( 1.1),
(.. )
( ).

( ) ,
.



.
,
,
.
4

,
.
1.2

( 1.2),
.


, ,

.

.

.
, .

1.2



. ,
,
(h).
5


.

().


().
Greenwich.
. 0 90
0 -90
0 360.


( ). ( 1.2)
.
(=c)
(=c).
( )

,
,
.

.
( ).
1.3

, . ,
()
,
,
.

.

.

.
6


,
.


.

( )
.
()
,
. ,
,
()
.

,
.
1.4
P
( 1.3),
(,). P P'
(+d, +d).
,
dS
PP' .


. ,
,
, ,
dS .
,
P P'. ,
:
: r, : r=cos, :
: .

() (N)
:
=
N=

a (1 e 2 )
(1 e 2 sin 2 ) 3
a
2

1 e sin 2

: a e
(f)
:
e = 2 f f 2.

1.3
(r)
(), (=0)

.

(dm) (dp) P P' ( 1.3)
:
dm = d
dp = r d dp = N cos d .

E, ( 1.3)
PP', , dS
:
dS = dm 2 + dp 2 ,
dS =

2d2 + r 2d 2 ,

dS =

2d2 + 2cos2 d 2 .


PP', :
dp
dp
dm
A = arc sin
= arc cos
,
dm
dS
dS
d
r d
r d
= arc tan
= arc sin
= arc cos
.
d
dS
dS
tanA =

,
P P' , (d)
:
d = dm dp d = r d d .


,
( R).

:
dm = R d
dp = R cos d .

(dS)
(A) :
dS = R d2 + cos2 d 2 ,

= arc tan

cos d
.
d

(d):
d = R 2 cos d d .

,
, .
1.5

, :
x = x(,),
y = y(,).
,
(,)

(x,y) .
x (dx)
y (dy)
: x(,) y(,)
.


. :
x
x
d + d ,

y
y
dy =
d +
d .

dx =

, P

p P' p' ( 1.4). PP'
pp'. ,
pp' (ds), ,
p p' pp'.

10

y
y.

IIy

dx
ds

ds
ds

-a

dy

IIx
1.4

(ds) :
ds = dx 2 + dy 2 .


x y

pp' :
ds =

E d 2 + 2F d d + G d 2 ,

:
2

x
y
E = + ,

x x y y
F = + ,

2

y
x
G = + .

11

E, G F
()
.
, =c
: d=0, (dsm) :
dsm = E d .

, , =c
: d=0, (dsp)
:
ds p = G d .



pp'. ()
:
= arc tan

dx
dx
dy
= arc sin
= arc cos .
dy
ds
ds

,
(m) (: =c, : d=0):
x y
1 x
1 y
= arc cos
.
m = arc tan : = arc sin
E
E

,
(p) (: =c, : d=0):
1 x
1 y
x y
.
= arc cos
p = arc tan : = arc sin

G
G

(=-m),
y,
.

. :
12


= arc tan
.
y

(d)

(dsm) (dsp), :
d = ds m ds p sin( p - m ).

,


, :
sin( p - m ) =

J
.
EG

J :
J=

x y y x
.


:
d = J d d .

1.6
1.6.1

(m) .
:

13

m = lim S 0

s ds
=
.
S dS

: dS
( 1.3) ds (
1.4).

.

,
.

.
1.6.2 -

,


.
.
,
, .

m1 m2.
(m1=max) (m2=min)
.

.
1.6.3


(m).
(m1).
:

14

m = m1 cos2 + m2 sin 2 .




( 1.5).

1.5

(m1=m2),
(m=
m1=m2).
1.6.4

(m1)
( 1.6) ,

,
:
tan =

m2
tan .
m1

,
, :

15

m1 m2 sin( - )
.
=
m1 + m2 sin ( + )

1.6
(),
:
= - ,
:
sin =

m1 m2
sin( + ) .
m1 + m2


() :
sin E =

m1 m2
.
m1 + m2


:
=


+ ,
4 2

16


,
4 2

. ,
2. ,
m1 = m2,
:
= 0.


, .
1.6.5

() .
:
= lim 0

d
=
.
d

: d
d ( 1.7).

1.7

:
17

= m1 m2.

(=1) ,

.
.
1.6.6 - Tissot


.
:
m=

ds
.
dS



, :
m2 =

Ed2 + 2 F d d + G d 2
.
2 d2 + r 2 d 2

d :
tan A =

r d
,
d

:
E 2F
G
+
tanA + 2 tan 2 A
2
r

r
m2 =
.
1 + tan 2 A


(m) , : m=f(,),
, : m=f(A). ,

18

,
. A
m .
m A:
G

dm
r 2 2
= tan 2 A tanA - 1 = 0 .
F
dA
r
2


.
:
tanA1 tanA2 = -1,

, :
1 = 2 +

.
2

, :
(
)
.
.

, :

.
Tissot:
(
)
.

19

,
:
M=

J
.
r

1.6.7 . Tissot

dS, :
dm 2 + dp 2 = dS 2 .


, :
2 d 2 + r 2 d 2 = dS 2 .

,
.
dx dy

x y.
d d, :
y
x
x
y
dx dy
dy dx

d =
d =
,
J
J

(J).
d d
,
:
2
2
x 2
y 2
x
2
2 y
2
+ r dx + 2 + r 2 dy 2




x y
x y
2 r 2 + 2 dx dy = J 2 dS 2 .

20

m2
P
b

m1

r=1.00

1.8 Tissot
:
a dx + b dy - 2c dx dy = k .

,
,
x. :

( )
.
(dS=1),
( 1.8).

Tissot.

(m1)
(m2).
1.7
,
. ,
21

.
.

.
1.7.1
S ,
s (
1.9).
:
ds = m dS.

()

()
dS

ds

1.9

. ,
:
s=

m dS .
S

, (m)
.
:
1
s=
S

m dS S .
S

,
:
22

m=

1
S

m dS .
S

:
s=mS .


,
.
1.7.2


.


,

.
- (). ,
( 1.10 1.11),
: b, a c :
B, A C , :
= + 1 + 2, : = .

1.10

1.11

23


( C)
, :
= C.
1.7.3

, .
( P Q)
P,

P.
.
p,
y.
y
. 1.12 1.13
,
:
A = A + ,
: .
, 1.13,
p
q , :
= + ,
: y
p
: - p
q.
, ,
1.5.
:
= + + .
24

1.12

1.13

- ,
, , .
1.7.4
,

( 1.14 1.15).
:
d = d.

1.14

1.15


. ,
:

25

d .

, ()
.
:
1
=

d .

,

:
=

d .

:
= .


,

.
1.8
, . . ,
, , 1977, . 69.
Cuenin, R. Cartographie Generale. Tome 1. Editions Eyrolles, Paris, 1972, p.
324.
Maling, D.H. Coordinate systems and map projections. G. Philip & Son Ltd.,
London, 1973, p. 255.
, . . . .
, , , 1993, .
220.
Richardus, P. and R.K. Adler. Map projections. North-Holland Pub. Co.,
Amsterdam, 1972, p. 174.

26

Thomas, P.D. Conformal projections in geodesy and cartography. U.S.


Deptartment of Commerce, Coast & Geodetic Survey. Special Publication No
251. Washington, 1952, p. 142.

27

28

2
2. -
2.1

, ( )
, .
. ,

( :
),
.
2.2 -
' ,

.
( 2.1).
, ,
, .
,
(
) : , (
2.2).
.

. , ,

.
29

2.1 ,

2.2 ,

.
.
.
.
,
.
,
30

,
.

(,),
(x,y) (,).
f,g

. ,
:
x = f(,)
y = g(,).

()

()

()

()

2.3

2.3
, f g
(x,y) .
( 2.3) . ,
: x=f(,) y=g(,)
.
( 2.3)
: x=f() y=g(,). , : x
,
.
31

( 2.3)
: x=f(,) y=g(). , : y
,
. , : x=f() y=g(),

( 2.3).
.

()

()

()

()

2.4

2.4
f g
(,) .
( 2.4) . ,
: =f(,) =g(,)

. ( 2.4)
: =f(,) =g().
, : ,
.
( 2.4)
32

: =f() y=g(,). , :
,
. , : =f() =g(),

( 2.4).
,
: , .

, .
. ,

.
,
,

. ,

. ,
.
2.3
, . . ,
, , 1977, . 69.
Cuenin, R. Cartographie Generale. Tome 1. Editions Eyrolles, Paris, 1972, p.
324.
Maling, D. H. Coordinate systems and map projections. G. Philip & Son Ltd.,
London, 1973, p. 255.
, . . . .
, , , 1993, .
220.
Richardus, P. and R. K. Adler. Map projections. North-Holland Pub. Co.,
Amsterdam, 1972, p. 174.
Tobler, W. R. "A classification of map projections". Annals of the Association of
American Geographers, 52, 1962, pp. 167-175.

33

34

3
3.
3.1



,
.

.

.


.
90

.
3.2

,
.
3.2.1
:
35

x = R ,
y = R ,
: R .
,
:
x
,
R
y
= .
R
=


, :
x = a
y = M,
: a M
.
(M)
:
M = a (1 e 2 ) [ M 0 2 sin 2 + 4 sin 4 6 sin 6] .

:
3 2
45 4
175
e +
e +
e 6 + ...
4
64
256
3
15
525 6
M 2 = e2 + e4 +
e + ...
8
32
1024
15 4 105 6
M4 =
e +
e + ...
256
1024
35 6
M6 =
e + ... ,
3072
M

= 1+

: e .

,
. ,
36


( 3.1).

3.1
,
:
ds m
dy
R d
=
=
= 1,
dm
R d
R d
ds p
1
dx
R d
.
mp =
=
=
=
dp
R cos d R cos d cos

mm =

:
mm =
mp =

ds m
dy
dM
=
=
= 1,
dm dM
dM
ds p
dp

dx
=
N cos d

a d
a
1 e 2 sin 2

=
cos d

1 e 2 sin 2
cos

,

mpmm,
Tissot .

37

,
,
:
M=

1
sin = tan 2 .
cos
2

.
.
( 3.2).

3.2

3.2.2
.


.
:
x = R ,
, :
38

mm = mp

ds m ds p
dy
dx
=

=
.
dm
dp
R d R cos d

: dx = R d, :

dy =

R
1
d y = R
d .

cos
cos
0

, :

y = R ln tan + .
4 2

3.3


( 3.3).
(=0), ( 3.4).
(, )
:
mm = mp =

1
,
cos

39

3.4
:
M=

1
.
cos2

, :
=

x
,
R

y
= 2 arc tan e R


.
2

40

3.2.3

.
:
x = R ,
, :
mm mp = 1

ds m ds p
dy
dx
=1
=1.
dm dp
R d R cos d

: dx = R d, :

dy = R cos d y = R cos d .
0

:
y = R sin.
:
=

x
,
R

= arc sin

y
.
R

( 3.5) ( =1).
( ) :
m m = cos m p =

1
,
cos

:
sin E =

1 cos2
.
1 + cos2

42

,

( 3.6).


.
.

3.5

3.6

3.3

.
(o).

(,).
43


( 3.7).
(o)
( 3.7) , :
0 =

N
= N tan 0 ,
tan 0

: ,
, =90-,
:
0 =

R
= R tan 0 .
tan 0

3.7


. , () :
d =

ds p0
0

N cos 0 d
,
N cot 0

: = sin 0 = cos 0.
,
: =.

44


, :
x = a , : a .
,
, :
mm = mp

ds m ds p
dy
dx
=

=
.
dm
dp
d N cos d

: dx =a d, :
dy =

a
a (1 - e 2 )
d =
d y = a
cos
(1 e 2 sin 2 ) cos

1 - e2
d .
(1 e 2 sin 2 ) cos

:
e

1 e sin 2

.
y = a ln tan +
4 2 1 + e sin


:
mm = mp =

1 - e 2 sin 2
cos

, :
M=

1 - e 2 sin 2
.
cos 2

,


.
.

41

,
, :
x = sin ,
y = 0 - cos ,

: = (-) sin 0 = (-) cos 0,


.
y
x ( 3.7).
3.3.1

, .
:
= sin 0 = cos 0 ,
= 0 + R (0 ).

3.8

45



( 3.8).
, :
=

,
sin 0

= 0

0
.
R

,
:
mm =

ds m d R d
=
=
=1 ,
dm R d R d

:
mp =

ds p
dp

sin 0 d sin 0
d
.
=
=
R cos d R cos d R cos

3.9

46

(mp)
,

( 3.9).


. :
= sin 0 = cos 0 ,
= 0 M .

: 0 .
3.3.2 - Lambert

(
3.10). :
= sin 0 = cos 0.

3.10 - Lambert

47

, ()
. , ,
, :
mm = m p

ds m ds p
sin0
d
d
.
=

=
=
dm
dp
R d R cos d R cos

d = cos 0 d d = -d, :
cos 0
d
d
d
=

= cos 0
.
R d R cos

sin

:
ln = cos ln tan

+ C = k tan
2
2

cos 0

k .
, =0 : =R tan 0.
k, :

k = R tan 0 cot 0
2

cos 0

, ,
:

= R tan 0 cot 0
2

cos 0

tan
2

cos 0

:
=

cos 0

= 2 arc tan
R
0
2
tan

cos 0

tan 0 .
2

48

(,
) :
mm = mp =

d
.
R d

3.11
,
.
Lambert
, . ,
.

3.11 Lambert

, :
= sin 0 ,
e

o 1 + e sin 2

tan 45
2 1 e sin

: = 0 tan 0
e

tan 45o 0 1 + e sin 0 2


2 1 e sin 0

49

sin 0

:
m = mm = mp =

sin 0
.
cos

3.3.3 - Albers

(
3.12). :
= sin 0 = cos 0.

3.12 Albers

, :
mm mp = 1.

(), :
ds m ds p
d
d
=1
= 1.
dm dp
R d R cos d

50

: d = cos 0 d d = -d. :
d cos 0
sin
d .
= 1 d = R 2
R d R sin
cos 0

:
2 = 2 R 2

cos
+C .
cos 0

C .
, =0 : =R tan 0.
C, :
C = R tan 0 + 2 R .

3.13 Albers
, ,
:

cos
.
2 = R 2 tan 2 0 + 2 R 2 1
cos 0

51

,
.
3.13
.
3.3.4 Bonne
Bonne

.


, (dp)
. :
dp = R cos d = R sin d .

() :

ds p

R sin
R cos
R sin
R cos
d =
d =
=
,

:
.
d =

3.14 Bonne

52

:
= 0 + R (0 ) = 0 + R ( - 0) ,

0:
0 =

R
= R tan 0 .
tan 0



( 3.14). ,



. Bonne
20 .
3.3.5 Sanson
Sanson
Bonne
.
Bonne 0=0 0=90.

3.15 Sanson

53

:
x = R cos
y = R .

( 3.15).
Sanson
,
.
3.3.6 Mollweide
Mollweide
- .

.
=90 .
( 3.16).
(y)
:
y = R 2 sin ,
: .

() :

3.16 Mollweide

54

sin =

2 sin 2
.
+

Mollweide Sanson
.

( 3.17)
.

.
.

3.17
3.4


.
. ,
.
(,).
, ,

.

,
, :
x = sin ,
y = y0 - cos ,
: =-, : .
55

y x
=y0.
3.4.1 - Postel
,

. ,

.
,
( 3.18). :
= ,
= R .

p
P R

3.18 Postel

, :
= =


.
2 R

56

mm =

ds m d R d
=
=
= 1.
dm R d R d

, :
mp =

ds p
dp

d
R d

.
=
=
R cos d R sin d sin

: mp1.
,

:
M=

sin
.
sinE =
sin
+ sin

3.19 Postel ()
()


.
.
3.19 ()
()
.
57

3.4.2
,
.
:
= .
, ,
, :
mm = mp

ds m ds p
d
d
=

=
.
dm
dp
R d R cos d

, d = d d = -d. :
d

d
d
=

=
.
R d R cos
sin

:
ln = ln tan

+ C = c tan .
2
2

p
P

3.20


, c.
58

c=2R,

( 3.20).
, :
= 2 R tan

.
2

:
=
=

2 arc tan
.
2
2R

:
mm = mp =

1
cos 2

, :

3.21 ()
()

59

cos 4


.
().
3.21
.

, :
= ,
2
2a
=
b

e
e

1 e 2 o 1 e sin 2
.

tan 45
2 1 + e sin
1+ e

3.4.3 - Lambert
, .
:
= .
, ,
, :
mm mp = 1

ds m ds p
d
d
=1
= 1.
dm dp
R d R cos d

d = d d = -d, :
d

= 1 d = R 2 sin d .
R d R cos

:
2 = - 2 R cos + C 2 = 4 R 2 sin 2

2 R 2 + c.
2

60

c , =0
: =0, :
c = 2R.
, :
= 2 Rsin

.
2

:
=
=

.
2 arc sin
2
2R

:
m m = cos

1
.
mp =

2
cos
2

3.22
() ()

61

(=1),
(E) :

2
.
sinE =
2
1 + cos
2
1 cos 2

3.22
()
().
3.4.4


.
( 3.23):
= ,
= R tan .

3.23

:
=

62

arc tan .
2
R

mm =

ds m d
=
=
dm R d

R
d
cos 2
1
=
.
R d
cos 2

, :
mp =

ds p
dp

d
R tan d
1
.
=
mp =
R cos d R sin d
cos

,

:
=

1
sin E = tan 2
3
2
cos

3.24 ()
()

63



. ,

. 3.24 ()

().
3.4.5

.
( 3.25):
= ,
= R sin .

3.25

:
=
= arc cos

.
R

64

mm =

d R cos d
=
= cos .
R d
R d

, :
mp =

ds p
dp

d
R sin d
=
= 1.
R cos d R sin d

,

:
M = cos sin E = tan 2

.
2

3.26

3.26

() (). 3.27

. 3.27,
()
.

.
.
65

,
.
,
.

3.27
3.5


.

(,) .
90
(u,v) : v
: u
. Q
( 3.28). (u,v)
u. (u,v)
u =
( =0 =90) ( =0 =-90)
v =
( 3.28). PQC, o
(u,v)
(,) :
66

3.28

1
v = arc sin (cos sin ) ,
u = arc tan
cot

cos

:
1

= arc sin (cos v sin u ) = arc tan


.
cot v cos u


Greenwich 0=0.
3.5.1 Cassini
3.2.1
,
.


. ,
(Cassini) :
x = R v,
y = R u.

67

:
mu =

v : mv=1, u
1
.
cos v

3.29 Cassini

3.29
Cassini .
3.5.2

,
Cassini
x
.
:
v

x = R ln tan 45 o + ,
2

y = R u.

, :
68

mm = mp =

1
.
cos v


- Cassini

.
. ,
10-12 ()
() 61, (x,y)
(,) :
5 18t 2 + t 4 + 14n 2

5
5
N 3 cos 3
N

cos

58t 2 n 2 + 13n 4 + 4n 6 +
x = N cos +
1 t 2 + n2 +

6
120
64t 2 n 4 24t 2 n 6

N 7 cos 7
61 479t 2 + 179t 4 t 6 ,
5.040
N 2 sin cos N 4 sin cos 3
+
y=M +
5 t 2 + 9n 2 + 4 n 4 +
24
2
2
4
2
2 2
4
6
N 6 sin cos 5 61 58t + t + 270n 330t n + 445n + 324n
+
+
680t 2 n 4 + 88n 8 600t 2 n 6 192t 2 n 8

720

N 8 sin cos 7
+
1.385 3.111t 2 + 543t 4 t 6 ,
40.320
e2
t = tan , n 2 =
cos 2 , e
1 e2
+

, M ,
= 0 0
.
(,)
(x,y) :
=

x 2 t1
x 4 t1
+
5 + 3t12 + n12 4n14 9t12 n12
2 1 N 1 24 1 N 13

61 + 90t12 + 46n12 + 45t14 252t12 n12 3n14 + 100n16 66t12 n14

720 1 N 15 90t14 n12 + 88n18 + 225t14 n14 + 84t12 n16 192t12 n18

x 6 t1

69

x 8 t1
40.3201 N 17

(1.385 + 3.633t
3

2
1

+ 4.095t14 + 1.574t16 ,

x
x

1 + 2t12 + n12
N 1cos1 6 N 13 cos1

5 + 28t12 + 6n12 + 24t14 +

x
+ 8t12 n12 3n14 4n16 +
+

120 N 15 cos1
+ 4t12 n14 + 24t12 n16

x7
61 + 662t12 + 1.320t14 + 720t16 ,
7
5.040 N 1 cos1

1
,
1 = y, = 1 ,
= 0 0,
1 1
1, t1 = tan 1 n12 =

e2
cos 2 1
1 e2

1, e .
()
(,) :

3 sin cos 2
1 + 3n 2 + 2n 4 +
3
2
2
4
2 2
6
5
4

sin cos 2 t + 15n + 35n 15t n + 33n


+
+
50t 2 n 4 + 11n 8 60t 2 n 6 24t 2 n 8

15

7 sin cos 6
+
17 26t 2 + 2t 4 .
315
= 0
= sin +

0,

t = tan

n2 =

e2
cos 2 ,
1 e2

.
()
(x,y) :
=

x 5 t1
x t1 x 3 t1
2
2
4
1
2

+
t
n
n
1
1
1
N 1 3 N 13
15 N 15

2 + 5t12 + 2n12 + 3t14 + t12 n12 + 9n14 + 20n16

7t 2 n 4 27t 2 n 6 + 11n 8 24t 2 n 8

1 1
1 1
1
1 1

70

x 7 t1
315 N 17

(17 + 77t

2
1

+ 105t14 + 45t16 .

1 , t1 = tan 1 n12 =

e2
cos 2 1 , e
2
1 e

1

.
(m)
(,) :
2
2
4
2 2
2 cos 2
4 cos 4 5 4t + 14n + 13n 28t n +
1 + n2 +
+

+ 4n 6 48t 2 n 4 24t 2 n 6
2
24

6 cos 6
+
61 148t 2 + 16t 4 .
720
= 0

m =1+

0,

n2 =

t = tan

e2
cos 2 ,
1 e2

.
, , (m)
(x,y) :
m =1+

x2
x4
x6
1 + n12 +
1 + 6n12 + 9n14 + 4n16 24t12 n14 24t12 n16 +
.
4
2
2 N1
24 N 1
720 N 16

1 , t1 = tan 1 n12 =

e2
cos 2 1 , e
2
1 e

1

.
3.30
.

.
(Universal Transverse Mercator UTM).
1987
.
71

3.30
3.6


(,).

.

Hatt,
.
3.6.1 - Hatt
Hatt .
.

( 3.31). Q

72

(S,A), q (s,).
Hatt :
s = S,
= A.

3.31 Hatt


:
x = s sin = S sin ,
y = s cos = S cos A.
: OPQ ( 3.31)
(S,A) (,) :
S = R arccos (sin 0 sin + cos 0 cos cos( 0 ) ) ,
sin ( 0 ) cos
A = arc sin
,
sin S

0,0 ( ).
Hatt :
sin S sin A

= 0 + arc sin
cos
= arc sin(cos S sin 0 + sin S cos 0 cos A),

73

:
A = arc tan

S = x2 + y2 .


. ,
:
mS = 1,
:
mA =

S
sin S

3.32 Hatt

3.32
Hatt.
(Hatt)

. , 1 x 1
74

() (), (x,y)
(,) :
x = N 0 cos 0 0 sin 0 -

1
0 2 cos 0 2 + 9t 02 n02
6

1
N 0 3 cos 0 sin 2 0 ,
6
1
3
y = 0 + N 0 2 sin 0 cos 0 +
02 2 t 0 n02 +
2
2N 0
1
+ 0 2 1 - 4 sin 2 0 + n 02 cos 2 0 .
6

0 0
(0,0), = 0 = 0
, t 0 = tan 0
n02 =

e2
cos 2 0 , e 0
1 e2

.
(,)
(x,y) :

3 y 2 t 0 n02 x 2 y 1 + 3t 02 + n02 9t 02 n02


x 2t0
y

,
2 0 0
0 2 0 0
6 0 02

x yt
x y 2 1 + 3t 02 + n02
x 3 t 02
x
,
+ 2 0 +

N 0 cos 0 N 0 cos 0
3 N 03 cos 0
3N 03 cos 0

0 0
(0,0), = 0 = 0
, t 0 = tan 0
n02 =

e2
cos 2 0 , e 0
2
1 e

.
()
(x,y) :
=

) (

x t 0 x y 2 + 3t 02 + 2n02
3 x y 2 x 3 sin 0
,
+
+
N0
3 N 02
3 N 03 cos 3 0

75

0 (0,0), t 0 = tan 0
n02 =

e2
cos 2 0 , e 0
1 e2

.

.
3.7

-, .. "
". :
.
, , ,
1985, . 45.
, . . ,
, , 1977, . 69.
Bugayevskiy, L.M. and J.P. Snyder. Map Projections. A Reference Manual.Taylor
& Francis, London, 1995, p 328.
Cuenin, R. Cartographie Generale. Tome 1. Editions Eyrolles, Paris, 1972, p.
324.
Maling, D. H. Coordinate systems and map projections. G. Philip & Son Ltd.,
London, 1973, p. 255.
Maling, D. H. Measurements from Maps. Pergamon Press. Oxford, 1989, p. 577.
, . " ".
. ,
, , 1979, .81.
, . . . .
, , , 1993, .
220.
Richardus, P. and R. K. Adler. Map projections. North-Holland Pub. Co.,
Amsterdam, 1972, p. 174.
Snyder, J.P. An Album of Map Projections. United States Geological Survey,
Professional Paper 1453, 1989, p. 249.
Thomas, P. D. Conformal projections in geodesy and cartography. U.S. Dept. of
Commerce, Coast & Geodetic Survey. Special Publication No. 251.
Washington, 1952, p. 142.

76

4
4.

4.1

.
.

.
.
4.2 Hatt
Hatt
Bessel ( a=6.377.397,155m
f=0,003342773).
, ,

.
Hatt 130
30'x30', (
4.1).
.

,
15' 45'.
5 ppm (parts per million),
1:200.000. Hatt
(
77

). ,
.


GPS.
'87.

4.1 Hatt

78

4.3 UTM-6 (Universal Transverse Mercator)


UTM
Hayford.
Hayford GRS-80 (
a=6378137m f=1/298,25722).
,
.
UTM 60 (
) 6 .
0=21 (34 ) 0=27 (35 )
Greenwich. (k0)
0.9996, (-eastings) 500.000m.

500ppm ( 1:2.000).
UTM
.
4.4 -3 ( )

Bessel ( a=6.377.397,155m
f=0,003342773). .
-3 3,
.
0=-3, 0=0 0=3.
(k0) 0.9999, (X)
200.000m (Y)

34.
.
100ppm ( 1:10.000).

Hatt.
('83)
. ,
'87.

79

4.5 ('87)
'87
GRS-80 ( a=6378137m
f=1/298,25722). .
0=24
Greenwich. (k0) 0.9996,
(X) 500.000m.


.
670 ppm. '87

.

().
4.6 M


.
(datum
)
.
(datum ),

(..
) (.. 2 ).

(datum ),
(,) (x1,y1),
.
, (x2,y2)
(,),
. ,

(,)
.
,
,
80

.
Hatt
3 (-3) .

(datum )
,
[X12, Y12, Z12]
, .
, (1,1)
(x1,y1),
. (1,1)
(1, 1, 1)
:

X 1 = N 1 cos 1 cos 1 ,
1 = 1 cos 1 sin 1 ,
1 = 1 (1 e12 ) sin 1 ,
1 e1
1.
,

(2, 2, 2) :
X 2 X 1 X 12

Y2 = Y1 + Y12 .
Z Z Z
2 1 12


(2,2) ,
:
Y
2 = arctan 2 ,
X2
+ e 2 N sin
2
2
2
.
2 = arctan 2
2
2

2 + 2

2 e2
2.
81

(2)

. ,
(x2,y2) (2,2),
. ,


(,) .
cm,
,
.
,
(datum )
,
.

.



.


(). ,

.

,
:
x 2 a1
=

y2 a4

a2
a5

1
a3
x1 ,
a 6
y1

(x1,y1) , (x2,y2)
ai (i = 1, 2,,6)
.

9,
.

82


2 ,
:
1

x1

x 2 a1 a 2 a 3 a 4 a 5 a 6 y1
2
=
,
y 2 a 7 a8 a 9 a10 a11 a12 x1
y12

x1 y1

(x1,y1) , (x2,y2)
ai (i = 1, 2,,12)
.

,

2 , 6,
.

( Hatt) (87)

, ,
2 (
Hatt) 1:50.000.
(Hatt)
(87) cm.
( 4.2)

(),

()
(-).
2
:
X = A 0 + A 1 x + A 2 y + A 3 x 2 + A 4 y 2 + A 5 x y,
Y = B 0 + B1 x + B 2 y + B 3 x 2 + B 4 y 2 + B 5 x y,

(X, Y)
87, (x,y)
83

Hatt, A0, A1, A2, A3, A4, A5 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,


5 ( 4.3).

4.2

4.3

4.7

, . . ,
, , 1977, . 69.
, . .
. , 1987.
Bugayevskiy, L.M. and J.P. Snyder. Map Projections. A Reference Manual.Taylor
& Francis, London, 1995, p 328.
.
( 1), , 1995, . 108.
Maling, D. H. Coordinate systems and map projections. G. Philip & Son Ltd.,
London, 1973, p. 255.
. " ". .
. 10, 1973.

84

, . . . .
, , , 1993, .
220.
Thomas, P. D. Conformal projections in geodesy and cartography. U. S. Dept. of
Commerce, Coast & Geodetic Survey. Special Publication No. 251.
Washington, 1952, p. 142.
Yang, Q., Snyder, J.P, and Tobler, W.R. Map Projection Transformation.
Principles and Applications. Taylor & Francis, London, 2000, p. 367.

85

86

87

88

5
5.
5.1
(ICA) :
....

:

,
,
,
.

,
. ,

.

(.. ), .
.
, ,
, , .
,
,
, .

. ,
, .
,
. .
89


,
.

; , ,
:

,
,
.

5.1.1
,
.
, ,
,
.
, .
,
,
.

, :

,
.
,
.
,

,
.
,
,
.

.
, ,
( ).
90

.

.

,
.

,
, , .

.
,
,
.

,
.
, ,

.

( )
.
,

.
5.1.2
,
,
, .
.
,
, .

(dead-reckoning).

2
,
91

,
0.5, .


,
.

,
.


.

,
,
.
5.1.3
.
, ,

.
. ,
,
, ,
, , ,
, , ,
.
,
,
.
,
.
:

,
,
,
.
92


.
, ,
.
. ,
, .

,
.
,
.
5.2
5.2.1
,
. , ,
, .

,
.
.
,
,
,
, .
(ICA)
,

:

offset
.
,
.
,
93

. ,

.

. , ,
,
.
,
,
, ,
. ,

,
.
,
, .

5.2.2

,
-.
, ,
.

.
-
.
:
,
.

, ,
. ,
1:500.000, ,
100m, 1km, 10km, 100km, .

.
,

94

. ,
,
,
,

.

, ,
,
.
- ,
.
5.3
.

,
. ,

, . ,

.

.
,
. ,
,

,

.
5.3.1


. ,

95


.
,
,

. ,
,
,
,

. , , ,
,
. ,

,
, .


,
. ,


,
.
5.3.2
.
. ,
,
. ,

,
.


. ,
.
. , ,
.
96


. ,

.

, .
,
,

.

.

.
,
.
.
.
, ()

.
5.4

( 5.1):

,
, .
,
.


, ,

.
,
.

, . ,
97


.
5.1





5.5
5.5.1

150mm, .
,
:
1.


.
, .
98

2.

3.

, ..
mm.

.

.
() 10mm
20mm. ,
.

.


, .
,
, .

.
4.

5.

6.


,
.
,
, .
,

(4),
.
(3),

.

(5) (6) . (4)


, .
,

.

99

5.5.2
,
,
.

.

. 5.1
,
.
,
. ,

, .

, , :
.
5.1, 1/12
.

()

()

5.1

,
.
, .
,

100

, ,
.
5.1 5.1
,
.
, ,
, .

.
,

.
,


.
5.5.3
,
.

.
. ,
.
5.5.4

,

.
,
,
.
, ,
:

101

L=

( xi xi +1 ) 2 + ( y i y i +1 ) 2 .

5.5.5

, .

,
.

5.2
( 5.2)
.
10-12mm, ,

.

, .
5.6
,

. ,
, .
, ,
102

.
.

,


( 5.3).

5.3
5.6.1
,
.

, .

, . 5.4
.

5.4

103

5.6.2

( 5.5),
.
,
, .
.
. ,
:
A=

1
2

xi ( y i 1 y i +1 ) =

1
2

y (x
i

i 1

x i +1 ) .

, ,

.
Y
xi-1

yi-1

1/2(xi-1+xi)(yi-1-yi)
yi

i-1
xi

1/2(xi+xi+1)(yi-yi+1)
yi+1

xi+1

i+1
X

5.5
5.6.3

.

.

.
104

, ,
,
( 5.6).

5.6

, .

,
, .. ,
.

( 5.6).
,
.
5.6.4
,
( 5.7).

.
: d, : d 2.
: n , :
a = nd2 .

105

5.7



. ,

.
:

.
.


.
: ,
: A = + ' .
, ,
,
. n
, :
' =

n' d 2
.
2



.
,
.
.

106

5.6.5

.
. , ,
,
( 5.8).

.

.
,
,
.
.
,
. ,
.

, ,
.
.

5.8
5.6.6
,

( 5.9),
.
.
107


.
()
(n) (d2):
A = n d2 .

5.9

, .
,

( 5.9).
,
.
5.6.7

, (1)
108

. ,
(n1). ,
(n).
()
:
A=

n
A1 .
n1

5.6.8
,
.

( 5.6),
( 5.10).
: li,
:
A=d

l ,
i

: d .

5.10

109

5.6.9

, ( 5.11).

.

.
.

5.11
5.7
,
,
.

. , ,
,
, .
,

.
, ( 5.12).
(V) :
:
V = A h , : h .

110

:
V=

1
A h , : h .
3

:
V=

1
A h , : h .
2

5.12 (, )

, (V)
(1 2)
(h), :
V=

h
(A1 + A2 ) .
2

: n
( 5.13), : 1, 2,, n
: h, :
V=

h
(A1 + An ) + h
2

n-1

A .
i



, .



111

, ,
.

Ai+1
h

Ai

5.13
5.8
.
--
. ,


.

.


.
. ,

, ,

.
,
.
,


. 5.14
.

112

.

( 5.14).
.
5.14 ,

.
,

.

( 5.14).

f -1

()

()

()

5.14

, ,
,
, . ,
, ,
.
, ,

()
.
,
,

.
,
113

.
,

.
()
L

()

1/2L

5.15

5.8.1
,
, ., .
5.15
L,
7L.
, L/2,
16(L/2) 8L ( 5.15).
,

.


. ,
. ,
,
114

,
.
5.8.2 -
Perkal
- . -

,

( 5.16).
-
2 (5.16). -


, 2 ( 5.16).
-

.
()

()

2
5.16 -

115

5.8.3
Richardson

. , Richardson
, , ,

( 5.17). ,

:
L( x) = A x 1 D

L(x) ,
,
x
D .
A

Log10( km)

4.0

3.5

3.0

(19
00)

1.0

1.5

2.0
2.5
Log10( km)

3.0

3.5

5.17 Richardson
O Mandelbrot D
.
, , D
.
, , .
,
116

, .
,

.

. ,

.
,
, ,
. ,
.
Mandelbrot (D)
:
n
log 2
n1
D=
s
log 1
s2

n1
,
n2
,
s1 ()
s2 ()

,
. ,

. , ,

.

.
Richardson,

.
.
.
117

,
,
.

, ,
. ,
,
,

. ,

.
5.9
:
.
. ,
, ,
,
, . ,
,
: . :
1. :
,
, .
,
.
2. :
.
.
,

, .
,
,
, ,
.
118

, . ,
:
, ,
,
.
.



. ,

,
.

, .

,
.
,
.


.
,
.
,


.

.
, .
,

.

119

5.9.1

,
.
1.
.
, ,
.
,
,
.
2.
, .

.

.
,
,
.

,
.
:
,
. ,
.
, ,
,
, ,
.
5.9.2


.
,
120

,
.

.
5.2 100

165.9 165.7 165.7 165.7 165.7 165.8 165.7


165.7 165.8 165.5 165.7 165.6 165.5 165.7
165.6 165.6 165.7 165.6 165.7 165.6 165.6
165.9 165.7 165.7 165.7 165.7 165.7 165.8
165.7 165.7 165.5 165.7 165.7 165.6 165.8
165.76
165.70 165.62 165.68 165.68 165.64 165.72
x
0.07
0.13
0.11 0.05 0.05 0.11 0.08
165.7 165.7 165.7 165.6 165.6 165.7 165.8
165.5 165.6 165.7 165.7 165.6 165.6 165.7
165.6 165.8 165.6 165.7 165.7 165.7 165.7
165.8 165.8 165.8 165.6 165.7 165.7 165.7
165.7 165.6 165.9 165.9 165.7 165.7 165.7
165.66
165.70 165.74 165.66 165.68 165.68 165.72
x
0.11 0.10 0.11 0.06 0.08 0.05 0.05
165.7 165.6 165.5 165.7 165.7 165.7
165.8 165.5 165.7 165.6 165.7 165.8
165.7 165.8 165.6 165.6 165.6 165.7
165.7 165.8 165.7 165.8 165.7 165.7
165.6 165.6 165.7 165.6 165.6 165.8
165.70
165.66 165.66 165.66 165.66 165.74
x
0.07 0.13 0.11 0.09 0.06 0.06
,

.
.

.

.
,
. .
121

,
.
...

, ,
.
.


. , :
. ,
165.7mm 100 .
5.2, 20
n=5 . , 0.1 mm
5.3 5.18.
100 :
x = 165.69mm
= 0.09mm.
: 165.686mm

50

5.3
(mm)

165.4
0
165.5
6
165.6
25
165.7
49
165.8
17
165.9
3
166.0
0

40

30

f
20

10

0
165.4

.5

.6

.7

.8

.9

166.0

5.18
100
5.18
.
(5.18)
. ,
5.19
. 5.19
122

.
20
. 20
5.20. (5.20)
,
20
.

5.19
5

5.20
20


( ),
.
(5.2 5.3) (5.18, 5.19 5.20)

.
1. ,
.
, ,
, ,
.
, Students
t.
2.
,
.
.

(s):
s=

n 1

( x )

n(n 1)

: x n .

123

3. ,
, n/.
, (s).
, ,
.
4. : : 2
,
: 2/n.
: .
n
,
. (sM)
:
sM =

s
.
N

, s ,
(sS) :
sS =

sM
2n



, ,
.

.
, 100
, : s=0.09mm,
: s=(0.09/100)= 0.01,
:
x = 165.70 0.01mm .


x=165.70 s=0.07, s = (0.07/5)=
0.03mm.
, :

124

x = 165.70 0.03mm .


. ,
n 100 5, x
mm
1mm. ,
,
. ,

,
, 100 .
5.2
.

,
.
5.9.3

,
.
; , ,
30 .
. 5.21
.

15.

10 , .
,
15 .

. ,
.
,
,
.
.
125

5.21
,
.

. ,
.
,
,
.
.

.
.
(), :
n=

a2 s2
,
E2

:
: n .

95%, =1.96, 99% a =2.58.
,
: 200mm, :
2.2mm. : 1 mm.
:
sM =

2.2

,
126

95% n
: 1.962.2/n . ,
: 1.962.2/n=1, n:
2

1.96 2.2
n=
= 19 .
1.0

5.10


.


.

.
(y)
(y) (x1,
x2,, xn) .
:
2

y
y =
x1 +
x2
x1

x 2

y
+ ... +
xn

x n


,

.
5.11
- . . I.
, , ,
1999, . 218.
Cromley, R. G. Digital Cartography. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1992, p.
317.
127

I.C.A., Multilingual Dictionary of Technical Terms in Cartography, International


Cartographic Association, Commission II, Franz Steiner Verlag, Wiesbaden, p.
573.
Maling, D. H. Measurements from Maps. Principles and Methods of Cartometry.
Pergamon Press, New York, 1989, p. 577.
Mandelbrot, B. The Fractal Geometry of Nature. Freeman & Co, New York,
1982, p. 468.
, . "
". .
, , ,
1990, . 200.
Perkal, J. "On the Length of Empirical Lines". Michigan Inter-University
Community of Mathematical Geographers, Discussion Paper No. 10, 1966.
Richardson, L. F. "The Problem of Contiguity: An Appendix of Statistics of
Deadly Quarrels". General Systems Yearbook, 6, 1961, pp. 139-187.

128

6
6.
6.1

,
, .


,
. .

, .
6.2

: ,
,
,
... ,
, ,
, .
,
. . ,
,

.
,
,
129

.
, .
.

. ,
:
||
.

, ,

. : [, ] : ,
<, , x,
x x.
. , x, <x
x<, ,
(,).
[,) (,] - -

.
,
. , S
, xS x S.
, x[1,2] x
1 2 1 2. S=[1,2]. ,
S , xS
x .
S
xS,
S.
S.
.. f, g, cos,
exp, log. xS, x f f(x)
f x.
S
. S
,
.

S
. ,
130

x, .. f(x) = x+1, g(x) = x.


S,
x . , S
.
,
.
.

.
,
.
,
.
.
S
.
f g
S, ,
f + g xS :
(f + g) = f(x) + g(x).
, , fg, S
:
(fg)(x) = f(x) g(x), xS.
, ,
f S f,
:
(f)(x) = f(x), xS.
: a=2, f
: f + f, :
f + f = 2 f.

131

6.3

, , x y.
S
x. (x,f(x)) x S
f.
.
, S .

S . , ,
S f
, , xS.
/

.
,
.
: f
S S. f f(x)
f() x
.

6.1
6.1 (), f . 6.1 ()
f , f()
f(x) x . ,
x , f(x) b f().
, b f(x).

:
132

: f S,
S . f S
>0,
>0, , xS
: |x-|<, f(x) :
|f(x)-f()|<.
|u-v| u v
. ,
f(x) f() , x (
).
, :
: f x
S lim x f()
f(x).
x S,
. , f
[,b], : limxa+ f(x)
limxb- f(x), f() f(b), .
,
:
1. . ,
f(x) =1/ x x =0.
.
2. f S. : f(x) =0
0 x 1 f(x) =1 x =1. f
x=1.


.
.
,
,
. f1
S1 f2 S2
S1 S2 ,
: f1 () = f2 (), .
133

6.4
,
. , f,
: f(x)=|x|
6.2. ,
, =0.

,
.

6.2 f(x)=|x|

x () S,
f. f
() x f x,
.
x, x
f, f. f ,
. f ,
( f) ,
f.
,
.
,
f f f
f.
,

.

134

,

, ,

.
.
6.5
,
,
.
,

.
1.
.
, x.
2.
.
, ,
.
3.
x .
4.
ax x ( ).
, x
( ).
5. p(x) x x=c p(x)
c. p(x)
(x-c), p(x)
x=c, c
p(x).

135

6.6
6.6.1


. ,
.
, ,
,
. , ,
,

. ,

, .
:
1.
2.
.
,
x f,
:
{x0, x1,, x}, {f0, f1,, f}.
,
f(x) . ,
:
f(xi)= fi , i = 0, 1,, N.
f(x)
(xi, fi ), i= 0, 1,, N xy.
.
, :

136

: {x0, x1,, x} +1
, {f0, f1,, f}
, p(xi)
: p(xi)=fi, i=0, 1,, N,
+1 (xi, fi ), i = 0, 1,, N.
, ,
+1 ,
:
0x + 0x -1 + + 0x2 + a1x + a0, : a1 a0
.
y
N=3
-4

-3

-2

-1

4 x

N=6
-4

-3

-2

-1

N=12
-3

-2

-1

6.3
-
+1 ,
, +1 .
,
. x0 =0, x1 =1, f0=1, f1=3,
(+1=2), =1,
.
p(x)=a1x+a0,
: a0=1 a1+a0=3, :
137

a0=1, a1=2 p(x)=2x+1.



: 1/(1+x2) [-4,4]. =3, 6, 12,
+1 xi
[-4,4], x0=-4 x=4. xi
fi=1/(1+xi2).
, 3, 6, 12 6.3.
,
.
5

17

17

6.4

6.5

, ,
.

,
. 6.4,
: 4, 8, 16
.

. (
)
. 6.5 ()
.

138

6.6.2

p(x) x,
a0, a1,, a. p(x) +1
: p(xi) = fi, i= 0, 1,, N, :
a0 + a1 x0 + a2 x02 + + a x0n = f0,
a0 + a1 x1 + a2 x12 + + a x1n = f1,
.
.
.
a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + + a xn = f.
N+1 N+1
, a0, a1,, a :
1 x0

1 x1

V =

1 xN

x0
2
x1
.
.
.
xN

N
x 0
f0
a0
f
a
N
x1
1
1

.
.
, a = , f = ,

.
.

.
.

f
a
N
... x N
N
N

...
...

( )
: V a = f, V f,
a . .
: V-1
,
: a = V-1f. ,
, ,
fi.
, ,
p .
Langrange ,
. ,
.

139

6.6.3
,
, . ,
,
.
N+1 : x0, x1,, x,
: f0, f1,, f.
: Pm, : m.
pPm p xi
: p(xi)-fi. ,
.
p,
, m
N.
.
pPm :
E ( p) =

( p( x ) f )

i =0

(p)
,
,
S.
:
pPm, .
p m+1 : a0, a1, a2,, am.
m+1 p.

.
.
/ai
i=0, 1,, m. a0, a1, a2,, am,
m+1 m+1
.
p(x)=a0 +a1 x + +a2 x2 ++ am xm, j=0, 1, 2,, m:

140

0=

E
=
a j

2( p ( x ) f )
i

i =0

N
p( x i )
j
= 2 xi ( p( xi ) f i )
a j
i =0

) x

N j
2
m
= 2 x i a 0 + a 1 xi + a 2 x i + ... + a m x i
i =0

j
i

i =0

f i

N j+ m
j
j+1
j+ 2
= 2 xi a 0 + xi a 1 + x i a 2 + ... + xi a m

i =0

i =0

i =0

i =0
N

x
i =0

j
i

f i .

: a0, a1, a2,, am


.
a, : a0=1,
:
N

a0

xi + a 1

i =0
N

a0

xi + a 2

i =0

xi + a 1

i =0

a0

xi + a 2

i =0

xi + ... + a m

i =0

i =0

xi + a 1

i =0

xi

i =0

x i + ... + a m

i =0

xi + a 2

f,

xi

m +1

i =0

xi + ... + a m

i =0

i =0

fi ,

i =0

xi

m+ 2

i =0

2
i

fi ,

i =0

...
N

a0

i =0

xi + a 1

i =0

xi

m +1

+ a2

i =0

xi

m+2

+ ... + a m

i =0

xi

2m

m
i

fi .

i =0

.
,
(p).
: x0, x1,, x +1
m, p(x)Pm
(p)
.
m=,
(p) .

P
, E(p), .

141

6.6.4
(m =1)
6.1, .
=6, xi=42, fi =59.66, xi2 =364 xifi=448.42.
:
6a0 + 42a1 = 59.66
42a0 + 364a1 = 448.42,
:
a0 = 6.683 a1 = 0.4400.
H
:
p(x) =0.4400 x + 6.683.

6.1
fi
i
xi
0
2
6.91
1
4
9.62
2
6
9.74
3
8
10.01
4
10
11.48
5
12
11.90
6.6

6.6
.

142

6.7 ;

,
.

, ,
, .
,

x,

. ,
.

(
).

.

: x0, x1,, x, .

,

.
,
,
. ,
,
.
,
,
.
,
. ,
,
. ,
,
(
).

143

6.7
- . . I.
, , ,
1999, . 218.
Lancaster, P. and K. Salkauskas. Curve and Surface Fitting. An Introduction.
Academic Press, London, 1986, p. 280.
Mikhail, F.M. and F. Ackermann. Observations and Least Squares. T.Y. Crowell,
New York, 1976, p. 497.

144

7
7.
7.1

.
,
,
.


. ,

.


.
.
,

. ,


.
(hill shading)

.
,

.
,
145

.

,
,
.

,

.

,

. ,


.
(
) .

. ,


.
7.2


( 7.1).
,
100% (),
, ,
.
: R.
,
- :
.
146

.
.

7.1

.

, :
, : ( 7.2).
:
p : q
( 7.2).
.

(
).


(0,0 p0,q0).

.
147

()

()

7.2

,

.
-
,
.

,
.
.
( ),
,
.
,
: , . 1

1



.

.

148

.

,

.

, ,
:


(-).


, ,
().

, .

.

.

,
.
(p,q ,)
.
, ,

( TIFF 256 ).
7.3
-
,
.

.

149

, ,
.
7.3.1
Peucker
,
,
,
.


( 7.3).

.
- -
i.
R :
R = cos i =

1 + p0 p + q0 q
2

1 + p 2 + q 2 1 + p0 + q0

7.3
Peucker
150

i


.
,
() , :
R = 0.4285( p q) 0.0844 p + q + 0.6599.

7.3.2
Brassel
Brassel
Peucker.
.

7.4
Brassel
Peucker
( ) ,
,
. ,

151

.
Brassel ,
.
(, ) : ,
: :
= ( 0 )

= arcsin sin 2( 0 ) .
2


, . 7.4
Brassel.
7.3.3


:
R=

1
s +
(1 +
),
2

7.5
152

: s
,
.

7.5.
7.3.4


/. -
,
( 7.6). ,
.

:
: 1-, :
R = ((1 ) + )

cos i
,

cos 0
2

7.6

153

: P
, i 0 .
7.3.5 Tanaka
: b
: w,

.
,
100 .
:
R = rw

b
( rw rb ) ,
w+b

: rb rw
.

7.7 Tanaka


( 7.7).

154

.

,
,
. : ,
: b : k

, :
R = rw

( p p 0 ) 2 + ( q q0 ) 2
b
.
( rw rb )
2
2
kd
p 0 + q0 + 1

7.8
Wiechel
7.3.6
Wiechel

.

.
: i
155

.
: e.

, ,
.
:
R=

cos i cos e
.
1
(1 + cos e)
2

7.8
Wiechel .

7.9 Marsik
7.3.7
Marsik

,
.

156

,
,

.
:
p0 p + q0q

R = 10

p02 + q02

7.9
Marsik.
7.4

-
.


. ,
-
( 7.10- ).

.
, -,
( 7.10 ).

7.10
.


157

.
7.11,
(),
- () () .

7.11


, -
. ,
-

.

.
.
7.12
- : 30, 45 60
(: , ).
7.12

.

7.12

.

158

( ,
7.12).
,
,

.


(.. Arc/Info,
7.13). ,
.
,
- .

,

(computer graphics).
.
,
,

.

7.13 Arc/Info

159

7.1
- ,
,
.
7.1

Peucker


Brassel

Tanaka

Wiechel


Marsik

P

n

b
k

7.5

.
, 250m.
.

.
160



,
.

.

.
(,
, , .)
.
(
7.14-). ,
( 7.14). , ,

,

.

.
.

. .

. .

7.14

,


( 7.15-).
( 7.15-),
,
. ,
161

. .

. .

7.15


,
( 7.16-). ,

.
()
( 7.16-).

. .

. .

7.16

162

7.6
,
,
.
,

.
,
()

.

,
,

. ,

. ,


.
7.7
Horn B.K.P. "Hill shading and the reflectance map", Geo-Processing. Vol. 2,
1982, pp. 65-133.
Imhof E. Cartographic Relief Presentation. (ed. H.J. Steward). Walter de Gruyter,
Berlin, 1982, p. 389.
. "
". .
, , ,
1990, . 200.
. . " ", , 16,
1994, . 44-47.
. . .
, , , 1993, .
220.

163

Snyder M.W. "A comparison of four techniques for the calculation of slope and
aspect from digital terrain matrices". M.Sc.Thesis, University of Illinois, 1980,
p. 56.
Tanaka K. "The orthographical relief method of representing hill features on a
topographical map". The Geographical Journal, 79, 1930, pp. 232-233.
. "
". E,
, ,
, 1994, . 135.
. . "
". 2 ,
, 1996, . 275-283.

164

8
8.
8.1
Klein
,
.

.

,
,
.
, ,

. ,

,
.
.
,
.

, .
, ,
.

.

. ,

165

,
. ,

.
,

. ,
,

. ,
, --

.
,
.
, , ,


.
8.1.1

.
(x,y) (x,y).

:
x' Tx x
= + .
y' Ty y

x ,
,
( 8.1). , y
,
, ( 8.1).
,
.

166


Y
Y
( x ,y )
(x,y)
y
y

Tx
(0,0)

Ty
(0,0)

8.1
8.1.2

.
-X
( 8.2). :
x' cos sin x
.
=
y ' sin cos y

8.2

.
,
.
167

8.1.3

.

:
x' S x
=
y' 0

0 x
.
S y y
Y

8.3


. Sx Sy (
X Y) ,
,
, .
(Sx= Sy),
.
(SxSy),
. 8.3
, : Sx= 0.5 Sy =2).
8.1.4
, (
: x y) .

( 8.4). :
168

x' Tx cos sin S


= +

y ' Ty sin cos 0

0 x
,
S y

: Tx Ty , : x,
S .
Y

8.4
:
( : X : Y),
. ,
:
x' = ax + by + c,
y ' = bx + ay + d.

(, )
(a, b, c d)
:
:

x=c Ty=d

b
= arc tan
a

S = a 2 + b2

169

8.1.5
(affine transformation)
.
Moebius Euler ,

.

.
(
8.5).

. :
x' Tx cos x
= +
y ' Ty sin x

sin y S x

cos y 0

0 x
,
S y y

Tx Ty ,
x y : X Y,
Sx Sy : X Y, .

8.5
:
, ( : X
: Y, ).
:
x' = ax + by + c,
y ' = dx + ey + f .

170

(, )
(a, b, c, d, e f)
:
:

x=c Ty=f

d
b
x = arc tan y = arc tan
a

S x = a 2 + d 2 S y = b 2 + e 2


.

.
8.1.6

(
).
.

,
.
.
,
,
.


,

.
8.2

, ,
.
171

.

.
,
:
a x + b y + c=0.
a, b c
. , , , :
a
= .
b

, .
, : : ,
:
=

c
.
b


:
y=x+ .



, b
, .
,
.
p(x1,y1) q(x2,y2), (a, b c)
p q :
a = y1 y 2 ,
b = x 2 x1

c = y 2 x1 y1 x 2 .

172



.
.
, ,
: a1, b1, c1 a2, b2, c2, (,)
:
a1 + b1 + c1=0
a2 + b2 + c2=0,
:
=

b1c 2 b 2 c1

a 1 b 2 a 2 b1

a 2 c 1 a 1c 2
, : a 1b 2 a 2 b1 0
a 1 b 2 a 2 b1




.
.
,
, . ,

,
...

1, 2 3, 4 .
(1 2)
() (3 4) ()
:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

1 2 .
1 2 .
1 2 .
2 1 .
1 2 .

173

6. (3 4)
(
).
3&4

3
4

3&4

A
1&2
B

1&2 B

2
2 B
1

B
3

2
A3
B
4

B
3 4

B
4

1 4

2
3 A

B
3
2

3
B 4
A
1

2
A
B3 4
1

B
2

A
3

B
2
A1
4

3
4
B

A4

2
A

24

2 1
A
B
3

2
3

2
4
B 3
A
1

4
1

2
A
1

2 B

1
3

A 3

2
A

3&4

A 4
B

3
B

B
3

2
4

1 3

2 3

4
1&2

14

2
A
1

A
1

1&2

3&4

13
A

1 3

2
A

1 B
2

2
4

4
3

1 2
A
B
3
4
1 2
A
B
3

3 2
1 4

A
B

8.6 36


(3 4) ()
(1 2) ().
36
, 8.6.
8.1 36
(6x6) .
8.1
174

,
(?).
8.1 36

1&2

3&4

3&4

3&4
/

1&2

1 (?)

2
=x1
=y1
2 (?)
=x3
=y3

2 (?)
=x1
=y1
4
/

2
=x1
=y1
2 (?)
=x4
=y4

2
=x1
=y1
2 (?)
1&2

2 (?)
=x1
=y1
4
=x1
=y1

1
2

1&2

1 (?)

2
1

1 (?)

2
=x2
=y2

2 (?)
=x2
=y2

2
=x2
=y2

2
=x2
=y2

2 (?)
=x2
=y2

1 (?)

2
=x3
=y3

2 (?)

3&4

2
=x4
=y4

3 (?)

1&2

1 (?)

2 (?)
=x3
=y3

2
=x3
=y3

2 (?)
=x4
=y4

3 (?)
3&4

2
=x1
=y1

1&2
/

3&4

1: .
2:
.
3: .
4: .
,

.
, 1
175

2 3 4
;
.
,
.
,
.

. ,
,
,
. ,

.
,
,

.
, (),
,

.
8.3

.
,

Voronoi (
Thiessen).
8.3.1

, ,
. ,
,
,
176

.
( ) . ,
,
. ,
: , . ,
n
(xi, yi), : i=1, 2,, n :
wi, :
n

x=

w
i =1
n

xi

y =

i =1

i =1
n

yi

w
i =1

,
,
.
8.3.2


.
.
(sx sy)
:
n

sx =

( x
i =1

x )2
s y =

( y
i =1

y )2
.

,
(ds)
, :
2

ds = sx + sy .

177




.
8.3.3 / -


( -).
,
( )
( ) .

.
,
Jourdan.
Jourdan, -
,
-
( 8.7).

8.7 /

,
. ,
,
.
178

. ,
,
,
,
8.2.
8.3.4 Voronoi
Voronoi S, S={l1,
l2,, ln } n 3, ,
.

li, Voronoi,
. ij,
:
Bij = {x R 2 | d ( x, l i ) = d(x, l j )},

: d
.
li lj
.
Voronoi vi li, Thiessen, :
vi = {x R 2 | d ( x, l i ) d ( x, l j ) j}.

Voronoi,
, Voronoi
Voronoi. , Voronoi V(S),
. 8.8 Voronoi
,
.

(...), Voronoi.
, Voronoi

. ,
Voronoi
(queries),
179

. , Voronoi,

(proximity) .

8.8 Voronoi
8.4
,
,


.

.
,
,

.
180

,
, ,
. ,

,
,
- ( )
(- ). -


, .
, ,
.
8.4.1

,
(Hatt),
.
:
x' = t sin
y' = t cos ,

: (x,y) (x, y) , t

, (x0, y0),
:
= arc tan

x x0
.
y y0


( 8.9 )
( 8.9 ) .
,
. ,

.
.
181


,
, . ,

.

- .
y

Ty

Tx

8.9

8.4.2

, ,
,
.

, .


.

- (fish-eye) ( 8.10).
S0
, R P f(R)

182

,
S, R,
:
S = S 0 + S 0 f ( R).

8.10
S, :
i. R.
ii.
, R=0.
, :
f ( R) =

a
b+cR

( d 0 + d1t + d 2t 2 +...+ e1u + e2 u 2 +...)

: a, b, c, di ei ( i=0, 1, 2,)

.
, t u
, .
.

183

,
b,
:
f ( R) =

A
1+ C R

( d 0 + d1t + d 2t 2 +...)

, : A =

a
c
C = .
b
b

, ,
,
, d0=2 di=0 ( i=1,
2,). f(R)
:
f ( R) =

A
.
1+ C R2


, R=0,
. ,
S0=1
,
S, :
S =1+

A
.
1+ C R2

,
,
r R
:
r = S R.

,
:
r=R+

AR
.
1+ C R2


,
184

C
.
(x0, y0)
R P (x, y), ,
:
R = ( x x0 ) 2 + ( y y 0 ) 2 .

P (x, y),
(x0, y0), :
x = x 0 + R sin = x 0 + dx
y = y 0 + R cos = y 0 + dy,

, :
= arc tan

x x0
.
y y0

P
P , (x,y),
r, :
x' = x 0 + r sin
y ' = y 0 + r cos .

,
.
r R, :
AR

x' = x 0 + R +
sin
1+ C R2

AR

y' = y 0 + R +
cos ,
1
C R2
+

:
AR
sin
1+ C R2
AR
y ' = y 0 + R cos +
cos ,
1+ C R2

x' = x 0 + R sin +

185

:
R sin = x x0 = dx
R cos = y y 0 = dy.

8.11

:
A dx
= x + x
1+ C R2
A dy
y' = y +
= y + y.
1+ C R2

x' = x +

,
,
.
8.11
.
8.4.3 -
- ,
,
186

.
-

.

(x, y)
(x y),
R
A C . , n
:
x' = x + x1 + x 2 + ... + x n = x +

i =1

y ' = y + y1 + y 2 + ... + y n = y +

y .
i

i =1

8.12 -
, , n (xi, yi),
i=1, 2,, n, i Ci,
Ri
:
x' = x +

Ai ( x xi )

1+ C R
i =1

187

y' = y +

Ai ( y y i )

1+ C R
i =1

:
Ri = ( x x i ) 2 + ( y y i ) 2 .

8.12
- .

8.5
Boutoura, Ch. "Logarithmic Urban Thematic Mapping in MIS Envirinment".
Cartographica, Vol. 31, No. 1, 1994, pp. 41-53.
Boutoura, Ch., E. Livieratos and P. Patias. "Focal Photomaps for Urban Use".
Proceedings of 19th International Cartographic Conference, International
Cartographic Association, Ottawa, 1999, pp. 1489-1496.
Clarke, K. C. Analytical and Computer Cartography. Prentice Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, 1990, p. 290.
Cromley, R. G. Digital Cartography. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1992, p.
317.
Douglas, D. "It makes me so CROSS". In: Introductory Readings in geographic
Information Systems. (Eds. D. J. Peuquet and D. F. Marble), Taylor & Francis,
London, 1990, pp. 303-307.
Gold, Ch., P. R. Remmele and Th. Roos. "Voronoi Methods in GIS". In
Algorithmic Foundations of Geographic Information Systems (Eds. M. van
Freveld, J. Nievergelt, Th. Roos and P. Widmayer). Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
pp. 21-35.
Kadmon, N. and E. Shlomi, "A Polyfocal Projection for Statistical Surfaces". The
Cartographic Journal, Vol. 15, No. 1, 1978, pp. 36-41.
,
.
"

".

, , , 1995, .
30.
Keahey, T. A. "Area-Normalized Thematic Views". Proceedings of 19th
International Cartographic Conference,
International Cartographic
Association, Ottawa, 1999, pp. 859-868.

188

Klein, F. Elementary Mathematics from an Advanced Standpoint. Geometry.


(Translated by E. R. Hedrick and C. A. Noble), Dover Pub., New York, 1939,
p. 214.
, . . . "
".
:
, , , 1982.
, . "
". .
, , ,
1990, . 200.
Snyder, J. P. "Magnifying-Glass Azimuthal Map Projections". The American
Cartographer, Vol. 14, No. 1, 1987, pp. 61-68.

189

190

9
9.
9.1


,
. ,


.


.
. ,

. ,

.
9.2
9.2.1
,
( , , ,
, . ).
,
: 1:25.000, 1:50.000, 1:100.000, 1:250.000, 1:500.000 1:1.000.000.
191

,

. ,

.
, ,

.
,

. , ,
. ,
, ,
0.35mm ,
, 0.25mm .
,

,
. , 1:100.000,
35m,
, .
,
25m.

9.1

192

,

:

, .
9.1 , ,

. ,


.
9.2.2
,
,
(
). ,

,
,
.
,
.

(International Cartographic
Association I.C.A.):


.
, ,
.
, , .

.

.
, ,
193

,
( ,
, .)
.
.

.
.

.


,
, . ,
. ,

.

, , .

,

.


. ,


, , .
,
, :
,
,
,

.


,
194

.

,
, ,
( ,
).
,
,
,
,
( 9.1).
9.2.3

. ,

.
:
1. :
,
,

.
.
.
2. :


.
.
.
3. / :


.
.
.

195

()
.
4. :

.
/
.
.
.
5. :
.
.
.
.

5 ( )
4, 1, 2 3
. ,
5,
.
,
.
,

,
.
9.3


. ,
.

196

9.3.1

.

,
( ,
)
.
,

, ,
, (
) .
,


.
,
.

.

,

(.. ).
/
.

,
.



.
9.3.2

.

,
197

. ,

.

.


: /
,
, /


.

.
9.4


. ,

.
, ,
.
,
,
.

,
.
,
. ,
, , //
, , , ,
.

198

9.4.1

, . ,
, ,

.
(
)
. ,

,
.



.

9.2 : ()
(100%), () ()
(50%)


. ,
,
,
.

. 9.2
.
199

9.4.2

,
.


.

. 9.3
.

9.3 : ()
(100%), () ()
(50%)
9.4.3
, ,
,
.

.

, ,
. ,

,
, ,
. 9.4
.

200

()

()

()

9.4
: () (100%), ()
() (50%)
9.4.4


, ,
.

.

()

()

()

9.5
: () (100%), ()
() (50%)
,

.
,
. , ,
.
, ,
201


. 9.5
.
9.4.5

,
.

.
,
,
,
,
.

. ,

. 9.6
.

()

()

()

9.6
: () (100%), ()
() (50%)
9.4.6
, ,
,
202

. ,
,
.

. ,
, , , .,
.
,
,
, ,
. ,
,
. 9.7
.

()

()

()

9.7 : ()
(100%), () ()
(50%)
9.4.7

. ,
,
. ,

. ,
,
.

.
,
,
203

.
.

, . 9.8
.

()

()

()

9.8 : ()
(100%), () ()
(50%)
9.4.8


.

.

()

()

()

9.10 : ()
(100%), () ()
(50%)
,
,
.
204

,
.
, ,

.
,
, .

. 9.10
.
9.4.9

, ,

.
.
,

.

()

()

()

9.10 : ()
(100%), () ()
(50%)
, ,


. ,

,

205

, ,
.
,

. 9.10
.
9.4.10

, ,
.
,

,
.

()

()

()

9.11 : ()
(100%), () ()
(50%)


. ,


.
,
.
: (1)
(), (2) (
), , (3) .
9.6
206


. 9.11
.
9.5

:
/ .

. ,
,
, (
),
. ,

,

.
9.5.1 /
/
,
,
,
. ,
:
1. ;
2. ;
3. ;

,
,

. ,
.
207

,
Tpfer Pillewizer, .

.
:
n = n0

S
,
S0

: n0 n
, S0 S , .
,
/,
( ) ,
, :
n = n0

S
,
S0

: n0 n
, .
,

.
Tpfer Pillewizer
.
,
,
( ).

.
,
.

( , ),

.

.
( ). ,

208

,
.
/ .
,
, .

9.12
9.5.2

.
(, .),
( , .)
.

.
(
), .


.

, , .
, ,
(
9.12).
:
1. .
2. .
3. .

209

,
:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

.
.
.
.
.

9.13
, ,

. 9.13
, : (),
(), () (),
.

. 9.14


.

210

4
3

15

14
5

12

13

7
11

9
8

10

9.14

9.5.3


.
.

. ,
( =5) .
4
3

15

14
5

12

13

7
9
8

11
10

9.15
,
,
.
211

.
. 9.15

.
9.5.4
, ,

/ .
,

,
.

. ,

. ,
,
.
9.5.5

.
, ,
.
Lang.
Lang (
, ) /

,
( 9.16).
9.16,
,

( 9.16)
( 9.16).

212

. ,
( 9.16).

9.16 Lang
9.5.6
,
,
.
,
.
9.17 Reumann
Witkam.
Reumann Witkam
,
.
.
. ,

. , ,
,
... ,
, .

213

9.17 Reumann Witkam


9.5.7


. Douglas Peucker,
, .
,
, Visvalingam Whyatt
,
.

9.18 Douglas Peucker

214

Douglas Peucker

. ,
9.18.
. ,

. ,
,


.
Douglas
Peucker ,
. ,
,

().
,
.
Douglas Peucker

,
.
Douglas Peucker
, ,
.
,
, Visvalingam Whyatt,

.
, ,

, , ( 9.19).

.
, , . ,

. ,
, ,
( 9.19).

215

,
.

9.19 Visvalingam Whyatt


Visvalingam Whyatt
,
, Douglas
Peucker
.
9.6


/
.
,

.


, .

.
,


. ,

,

216

. ,
,
.
, , .

()

()

()

()

9.20
9.20
,
IGN (Institut Geographique
National).
, ,
( 9.20).
,
( 9.20). ,
.



217

. ,
( 9.20). ( 9.20),
.
9.7
Buttenfield, B. P. and R. B. McMaster (Eds.) Map generalization: Making rules
for knowledge representation. Longman Scientific & Technical, Essex,
110101, p. 245.
Clarke, K. C. Analytical and Computer Cartography. Prentice Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, 110100, p. 2100.
Cromley, R. G. Digital Cartography. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 110102, p.
317.
Joo, E. M. Causes and Consequences of Map Generalisation. Taylor & Francis,
London, 110108, p. 266.
Jones, Ch. Geographical Information Systems and Computer Cartography.
Addison Wesley Longman Ltd., Essex, 110107, p. 319.
Mackaness, W. "Integration and evaluation of map generalization". In Map
generalization: Making rules for knowledge representation. (Eds. B. P.
Buttenfield and R. B. McMaster). Longman Scientific & Technical, Essex,
110101, pp. 217-226.
McMaster, R. B. and K. S. Shea. Generalization in Digital Cartography.
Association of American Geographers, Washington, 110102, p. 134.
Nakos, B. "Comparison of Manual Versus Digital Line Simplification".
Proceedings of 3rd Workshop on Automated Map Generalization. International
Cartographic Association, Commission of Map Generalization, Ottawa,
110109.
http://www.survey.ntua.gr/main/labs/carto/Comparison.PDF
Shea K. S. and R. B. McMaster. "Cartographic Generalization in a Digital
Environment: When and How to Generalize". Proceedings of AUTOCARTO
10, Baltimore, Maryland, 110810, pp. 56-67.
Tpfer, F. and Pillewizer, W. "The Principles of Selection". The Cartographic
Journal, Vol. 3, No. 1, 11066, pp. 10-16.
Weibel, R. "Generalization of Spatial Data: Principles and Selected Algorithms".
In Algorithmic Foundations of Geographic Information Systems (Eds. M. van
Freveld, J. Nievergelt, Th. Roos and P. Widmayer). Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
110107, pp. 1010-152.

218

.1
.
, ,
.
,
.

().
,
(
Ordance
Survey).
,
()
.
,
. ,

.
.2

,
, .

219

, UTM.

.
.2.1
:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.


1:2.000.000 1:2.500.000.
.
1:1.000.000.
,
1:500.000.
1:500.000.
1:400.000.

.2.2
1 :
1.
2.
3.
4.

1:250.000.
1:200.000.

1:100.000. 136.

1:50.000.
. 387.

.2.3
:
1.
2.

1:25.000 1:20.000 .
1:10.000 .

220

3.

1:5.000, .
. , ,
:
.

.3

.
,

.
1.
2.
3.
4.


1:4.200.000 1:2.250.000.

1:1.750.000, 1:1.000.000 1:500.000.

: 1:250.000, 1:150.000, 1:100.000, 1:75.000 1:50.000.
,
.
(1:40.000, 1:25.000, 1:20.000, 1:15.000, 1:12.500, 1:10.000, 1:7.500,
1:6.000, 1:5.000, 1:4.000, 1:3.000, 1:2.500 1:2.000).


.
.4

.
, UTM
1:1.000.000 1:500.000.
.5

1:200.000.
. 52. ,
221

1:5.000
1500 .
.6
(
) .

-3 1:2.000 1:1.000.
.7
. -
-
. , 2 . ,
1971, . 25.
.
1:1.000. ' , , , 1990, . 171.
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. , , 1989.

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