Meltem Ahska

Occidentalism: The Historical

Fantasy of the Modern
A place on the nap is also a place in histoiy.
Adiienne Rich, Notes towaid a Politics ol Location
One who goes too lai East,
Because ol geogiaphy aiiives in the West,
The ieveise is also tiue.
Ece Ayhan, Ycrt Suvu|
Euiope has leen an olect ol desiie as well as
a souice ol liustiation loi Tuikish national iden-
tity in a long and stiained histoiy. Tuikey, who
has long leen tiying to le a nenlei ol Euiope,
1
iegaided zooz as an especially ciitical yeai in its
ielations with the Euiopean Union (EU). Hoping
to le given a date loi negotiations loi lull
nenleiship at the end ol the yeai, the Tuikish
goveinnent concentiated its eoit to initiate
legislative ieloins conceining hunan iights.
Although the political taiget ol lull nenlei-
ship to Euiope lound suppoit in nost segnents
ol the society, the enthusiasn was neveithe-
less shadowed ly a doult whethei Euiope oi
the West would at last accept Tuikeys sell-
consciously cialted Westein identity. It tuined
out that the anxiety was not without ieason. In
Decenlei zooz, the EU leadeis neeting cane
The Scutn At|untic Quurtcr|y oz:z[, Spiing[Sunnei zoo.
Copyiight _ zoo ly Duke Univeisity Piess.
352 Mc|tcn Ansku
to the conclusion that il the Euiopean Council in Decenlei zooq, on the
lasis ol a iepoit and a ieconnendation lionthe Connission, decides that
Tuikey lullls the Copenhagen political ciiteiia, the Euiopean Union will
open accession negotiations with Tuikey without delay.
2
The anliguity ol
the il condition is causing luithei delates in Tuikey as to the possille
ieasons ol this iecuiiing delay. The delates take new shades given that
a pio-Islanic paity has leen in goveinnent since Novenlei zooz. How-
evei, instead ol analyzing the tiaectoiy ol the delates, I would like to locus
on the yeai zooz when loth the hopes and the anxieties conceining nen-
leiship in the EU lound signicant social and cultuial expiessions, which
I nd ielevant to ny discussion ol Occidentalisn in this aiticle.
One ol the stiiking thenes that eneiged in the pio-Euiopean canpaigns
enphasizing the uigency ol acconplishing the iequiied legislative ieloins
in zooz echoes the peisisting anxiety ovei the possilility ol nally catch-
ing the tiain
3
ol nodein civilization. I ienenlei seeing a conic stiip in
one ol the populai conic nagazines in Tuikey yeais ago that liilliantly cap-
tuies and nocks the tiain netaphoi. The conic stiip shows a typically
diessed Kuidish nan lazily sitting in a loiloin tiain station looking at a
typically Westein-style diessed young wonan waiting loi the tiain with a
lig suitcase. He says, The last tiainhas long gone, Miss. So, naiiy ne. The
nessage is cleai: The tiain netaphoi is lunctional to deploy the desiie loi
a Westein lutuie enlodied in the guie ol a Westein-looking wonan, yet
the piesent is the piollen-stiicken Tuikey unalle to deal with its Kuidish
oi othei ethnic-identity piollens. Instead ol concentiating on the piesent
piollens and theii solutions, the hegenonic inaginaiy looks leyond the
piesent with the aid ol an alieady-late and always-postponed ideal.
4
Despite
the appaient enphasis on novenent and speed lest exenplied in the
netaphoi ol catching the tiain leloie it is too late, I aigue that theie is a
ceitain tenpoial stasis, even tinelessness involved in the way the EU was
peiceived in pullic discussions in zooz. As I discuss latei, speed is synp-
tonatic ol a nuch eailiei condition ol nodeinity in Tuikey, which uiges
one to think that the enphasis on speed has nothing to do with novenent,
lut iathei is static.
My ain in this aiticle is neithei to discuss the specic case ol the EU
nenleiship ol Tuikey in its highly contested political and econonic
aspects, noi to dwell on its long and liustiating histoiy. Instead, I point at
the tenpoial constiuctions ol nodeinity appiopiiated in discussing the EU
Occidcntu|isn 353
as pait ol a laigei histoiical lianewoik in oidei to elaloiate the concep-
tion and expeiiencing ol nodeinity in Tuikey in ielation to the West. The
piesent cannot sinply le ieduced to a natuialized and piivatized tine
enledded ineveiyday lile oi to a segnent inthe national-duiational tine ol
nodein histoiy that connects past and lutuie in the nonent. The piesent
has its own politics ol tine and space that is oveideteinined ly what is
called histoiy, itsell a geogiaphical-tenpoial iepiesentation.
I oei the tein Occidcntu|isn to conceptualize how the West guies in
the tenpoial[spatial inagining ol nodein Tuikish national identity. Fion
its initial conception in the piocess ol dening the Tuikish national identity
in the late nineteenth centuiy to this day, the West has leen contiasted
to the East in a continuous negotiation letween the two constiucts. The
West has eithei leen celeliated as a nodel to le lollowed oi exoicised as
a thieat to indigenous national values. I aigue that in theoiizing the con-
stiuction and iepiesentation ol Tuikish nodeinity, we can neithei unpiol-
lenatically heiald the Westein nodel noi disniss the lantasy ol the West
that inloins the hegenonic national inaginaiy.
5
Tuikey, which has leen
laleled ly loth outsideis and insideis as a liidge letween the East and the
West,
6
has an anlivalent ielation not only to the geogiaphical sites ol the
East and the West, lut also to theii tenpoial signication: nanely, lack-
waidness and piogiess. Tuikey has leen tiying to cioss the liidge letween
the East and the West loi noie than a hundied yeais now, with a sell-
conscious anxiety that it is aiiested in tine and space ly the liidge itsell.
In othei woids, the neaning ol the piesent has a nythical coie that has pei-
sisted ovei yeais and which ienains as a souice ol liustiation and thieat,
and as a synpton ol inteinalized inleiioiity.
7
A study ol Occidentalisn neans leing ieceptive to the piollens on the
veiy loundaiy ol the East-West divide. Theieloie, it is neithei anenic analy-
sis that tiies to see things lionthe actois point ol view,
8
noi an etic analy-
sis that looks at things lion inposed lianes ol ieleience, such as those
lased onWesteiniepiesentations. I puisue, iathei, a theoietical lianewoik
that clains to analyze the gaps and nisnatches that eneige on the lound-
aiies ol inteiconnected pioections ol the Occident and the Oiient. This
lianewoik attends to questions ol nodeinity in a non-Westein context and
ains to evoke the histoiicity ol the non-Westein othei iendeied invisille in
the hegenonic conceptions ol Westein nodeinity, and even in sone exist-
ing social theoiies that attenpt to analyze these conceptions. Theieloie, the
354 Mc|tcn Ansku
ain ol the aiticle is not sinply to go leyond the East-West divide, instead it
is to ie-nenlei the histoiical divide as constitutive ol loth the Westein
and Eastein nodeinities. This seens to le an even noie necessaiy task
at a tine when intellectual naneuveis tiy to tianscend the divide, yet the
wai positions continuously iepioduce violent veisions ol it.
The Time Lag and the West
The wide gap letween the piesent and the lutuie, captuied in the tiain
netaphoi, is not contingent to Tuikish nodeinity. Nilulei Gle aigues that
non-Westeineis aie alienated lion theii own piesent which they want to
oveicone ly pioecting thenselves eithei to the utopian lutuie oi to the
golden age ol the past
9
due to the tine lag stignatized and inteinal-
ized as lackwaidness in iepiesentations ol non-Westein nodeinity. Halil
Nalaolu nakes a sinilai point: the sell-identity ol those countiies wheie
nodeinization is attenpted in a non-Westein context is signicantly detei-
nined ly leing late.
10
Catching the tiain is a netaphoi that signies the
destination ol histoiy to which the lateconeis aie u|wuys u|rcudy late.
11
Nalaolu points at the chionic anxiety and the univeise ol synlolic
ciises theiely pioduced.
12
The tine lag is paiadoxically innolile and stands apait lion the con-
stantly onwaid-noving chionological sequence ol Westein piogiess.
13
It is
a tineless elenent ol the sell-denitions ol the non-Westein. Yet, as I aigue
latei in the aiticle, it does not oiiginate lion the cultuie ol the specic
sites laleled as non-Westein and cannot le ieduced to essential tiaits ol a
past heiitage. Instead the past that guies in this state ol stasis should le
thought ol inconnectionto the histoiical dynanics ol nodeinity. The nove-
nent is aiiested and liacketed in the loinula that equates the piesent with
stasis points to the dislocated tine and space ol the non-Westein.
When seen in this laigei lianewoik, it is not suipiising to nd that the
sane anxiety ol the tine lag plays itsell out in the way the EU is cui-
iently peiceived and discussed in Tuikey. Although it is not easy to poitiay
the conplexity ol the long- and shoit-tein political inteiests ol each actoi
paiticipating in the discussions, it is notewoithy that, positively oi nega-
tively, the EU was evoked as a synlolic naikei loi the lutuie ol Tuikish
society.
14
What all the paities in the ongoing discussions shaied was the
anlivalence
15
alout the trunsccndcntu| neaning ol the ieloins iequiied ly
Occidcntu|isn 355
the EU loi nenleiship. The ieloins weie not discussed us sucn, as solu-
tions to piesent social piollens, lut signied as a code loi the desiied oi
leaied Westeinization.
16
It is stiiking that the anlivalence peisisted even
altei the ieloins weie nally and niiaculously enacted in the national
pailianent at the last ninute.
17
Moie conceined with the question Howdoes Euiope see us? the pullic
discussions delei the piactical-political neaning ol the ieloins.
18
The gap
letween what the ieloins inplyloi exanple, the iights given to ethnic
connunities to speak and lioadcast in theii own languageand the con-
tinuing political piessuies ovei the sane gioups lecones distuiling only
il pointed out ly the EU iepiesentatives. This nakes it noie appaient that
the ieloins weie not neant loi addiessing the piesent piollens in Tuik-
ish society,
19
lut they weie pait ol a peiloinance geaied loi the gaze ol
the West.
The hegenonic inaginaiy conceining the EU displaces the piesent and
locuses on the lutuie. Neveitheless, the lutuie is oveishadowed ly a xed
past. This is lest illustiated in the canpaign ol Euiope Movenent zooz.
This is a civil society
20
novenent suppoited ly a laige nunlei ol pii-
naiily lusiness and tiade oiganizations, the specic canpaign consists ol
newspapei ads and lillloaids advocating the uigent need loi Tuikey to
lecone a nenlei ol the EU.
21
The slogan ol the canpaign is Theie is no
othei tonoiiow. The canpaign evokes an enphasized leeling ol uigency
ly loth the slogan and the text ol the ads. The ist ad uses the old Kenal-
ist notto, Tuik, le pioud, woik and tiust, and supplenents it with the
phiase and le quick. It links the piesent anxiety alout the lutuie to the
centuiies-long stiuggle ol Tuikish nationalists to lecone pait ol con-
tenpoiaiy civilization. The stagnant past is ievisited in the light ol the
uigency ol choosing a lutuie. The second one accentuates the anxiety with
a thieat. It poitiays a ciying laly and, using iionic language, clains that
without the Euiopean lutuie, Tuikey is dooned to stay in the unleaialle
piesent (past?) ciisis. The inlantalization ol the national identity that des-
peiately needs theWest to suivive is againa iesuiiectionol a past thene that
will le addiessed latei in this aiticle as I develop the theoietical constiuct ol
Occidentalisn. The thiid ad is especially signicant in liinging in the past
issues ol national identity. Showing identical-twin inages ol an Oiiental-
looking nan with a noustache, the ad invites us to look at the dieience.
We leain that the dieience, which doesnt showlut has a naoi inpact on
356 Mc|tcn Ansku
the piesent, is the dieience in the lile quality letween a Gieek who is a
nenlei ol the EU, and a Tuik who is not. The past when the Gieeks weie
pait ol the Ottonan Enpiie, and hence oined in saneness with then, is
ieclained yet cancelled ly the national dieience, in lact a pioduct ol the
invisille nediation ol the West.
22
The nal ad gives the clues loi the long-
awaited solution. The headline GoldenGoal nakes a ieleience to Tuikeys
unexpected victoiy in the Woild Cup. It says that with a little willpowei
and couiage, Tuikey will nake a nal attack to win the natch. Once
again, the neaning ol the ieloins as code woids loi the EUaie seveied lion
theii piesent neanings (such as the ongoing painlul stiuggles loi hunan
iights in the society)
23
and ieduced to a clevei tactic in a gane conducted
and viewed ly the Westein woild.
As the ads thenes show, the canpaignconveys a discouise deeply shaped
and luidened ly the past, yet nevei passing, synlolic ciises ol Tuikish
national identity. It tells nuch alout the tenpoial constiuctions ol nodei-
nity and national identity. The uigent call to the lutuie ieinsciiles the
past as the innutalle and tineless oiigin ol the piesent, which should
le annihilated ly a iadical leap into a lutuie that has no connections with
the piesent. The piesent tine is denied in its heteiogeneous expeiiential
teins and ieduced to a peinanent ciisis that the Tuikish national elite has
stiuggled to evade lion the veiy leginning.
The piesent is veiy nuch haunted ly leginnings.
24
The tineless lantasy
ol the West in contiast to the East is not a constiuction in void. It has its
dialogical ieleiences to the lantasy ol the East pioduced in the histoiical
encountei ol theWest andEast, as accountedly EdwaidSaids Oricntu|isn.
25
The lantasy still inloins the piesent inages ol Tuikey utilized ly Westein-
eis. It is not at all a coincidence that Westein ouinalists also nade ielei-
ence to the leginnings ol Tuikish national identity in theii connents
on Tuikeys nenleiship to the EU.
26
Foi exanple, theii envisaging Tuikey
as the sick nan ol Euiope inplies a doulle neaning: While pointing to
the piesentto the pooi condition ol health ol Bulent Ecevit (then piine
ninistei ol Tuikey)it invigoiates the late-nineteenth-centuiy phiase that
the Euiopeans used to denigiate the Ottonan Enpiie. Anothei classical
type ol connent that cane lionthe Westein ouinalists and inltiated the
Tuikish nedia iaises doult alout the authenticity ol Tuikish nodeinity. It
ieads that Tuikey, altei the enactnent ol the ieloins, is now |ikc Euiope.
27
Once again, this is not a new peispective. The Westein nodel and Tuik-
Occidcntu|isn 357
ish copy have leen iecuiiing thenes not only in ouinalistic iepiesenta-
tions lut also in social theoiy loi a long tine. The distinction histoiically
nade letween the nodel and the copy lies at the heait ol the hegenonic
inaginaiy conceining the constiucts ol the East and the West. The Tuikish
hegenonic inaginaiy has leen stiuctuied within an encountei with the
West, which inposed a nodel loi nodeinity in its colonialist and inpeii-
alistic histoiy, and which has always iepioduced itsell thiough insucient
copies.
Let us nowlook liiey at howthe concepts ol ncdc| and ccpy guie visilly
oi invisilly in theoiies that addiess Tuikish nodeinity.
The Time Dierence between the Model and the Copy
Modeinization theoiists iegaided the piocess ol Westeinization and[oi
nodeinization as a novenent ol Westein values and techniques lion the
centei ol nodeinity to its developing naigins.
28
In this Euiocentiic con-
ception, the conplexity and the ciisis ol nodeinity aie neglected, leing
ieduced to a nodel which is taken as an cc|usivc|y Eurcpcun phenone-
non.
29
Howevei, as long as the so-called nodeinizing nission is integial to
this view, the lineai-tine nodel ol nodeinity that is expected to tiavel lion
the nodein to the tiaditional is paiadoxical. The honogenizing attenpt ol
nodeinization is pienised upon a dieientiation that, accoiding to Petei
Osloine, nust ist le iecognized in oidei to le negated, so that the
iesults ol synchionic conpaiisons aie oideied diachionically to pioduce a
scale ol developnent which denes piogiess in teins ol the pioection ol
ceitain peoples piesents as othei peoples lutuies, at the level ol the devel-
opnent ol histoiy as a whole.
30
In this sense, the lineai tine nodel is
also an invisilly spatial one.
31
The iesulting paiadox is that the novenent
ol tine is cancelled ly the stasis ol space. Modeinization is lound to le
distoited in the end lecause ol the essential paiticulaiities ol the specic
space undei consideiation. This neans that nodeinization theoiies, which
pieach that nodeinization is possille in non-Westein contexts, at the sane
tine posit an opposition ol tine and space, which is not iesolvalle within
theii paiadign.
32
The essential space ol the non-West is stagnant and is
dened in opposition to tine and change.
33
Foi exanple, it is not suipiis-
ing that Beinaid Lewis, who celeliated the eneigence ol nodein Tuikey
noie thanthiity yeais ago, iecently evaluated the Tuikish case as still lacing
358 Mc|tcn Ansku
inpoitant choices letween the Middle East and the West.
34
Tuikey is not
theie yet lecause catching up with the nodein woild neans noie than
loiiowing oi luying nodein technology.
35
Foi Lewis, too, Tuikey could
not still cioss the liidge. As can le cleaily seen lion this exanple, nod-
einization theoiy is quite anlivalent alout the inevitalility ol nodeinity
in places such as Tuikey. Modeinity does not have its inheient dynanic
in non-Westein sites lut is always dependent on an evei-appeaiing ciitical
choice letween the East and the West, which is paiadoxically insciiled on
its essential space.
Recent ieseaich on nodeinity and nationalisn in Tuikey is veiy ciitical
ol nodeinization theoiies. In opposition to classical nodeinization theo-
iies that celeliated the asynptotic adoption ol Westein nodeinity in Tui-
key, ciitiques ol this appioach pullicly delate and ciiticize the Kenalist
doctiine as a patiiaichal and antidenociatic inposition lionalove that has
negated the histoiical and cultuial expeiience ol the people in Tuikey.
36
Wheieas nodeinization theoiies sawa noie oi less successlul cunp|c
37
ol
univeisal nodeinity in the Tuikish case, the ciitique tieats this case as a
lailuie to achieve a denociatic and nodein society.
38
Howevei, loth views
shaie the ieleience point ol the inplicit nodel.Whethei the histoiy ol West-
einization is designated as a success oi lailuie, loth veisions inply that
Tuikey, which initated the West, is an exceptional case: an inept vehicle
loi Westein nodeinization. It is lound to le a copy.
Fuitheinoie, iniecent ciitical appioaches theie is a tendency to inteipiet
the naking ol the Tuikish nation in teins ol laliication lion a nodel.
39
This seens to le a niiioi inage ol the nationalist ideology that piioiitizes
the successlul initiative ol the political and cultuial leadeiship in the intei-
connected piocesses ol nationalization[nodeinization[Westeinization. Il
the ocial nationalist iepiesentationenphasizes good intentions, the cii-
tique points to the dictatoiial intentions ol the initiative. Accoiding to the
lattei view, the Tuikish nodeinizing elite voluntaiily adopted the nodel
ol Westein civilization and loicelully inposed it on the nasses, which,
ol couise, lalls shoit ol the denociatic Westein nodel. Both views deal
with Tuikish identity within a piollenatic ol initation, hence naintaining
the necessaiy tenpoial[spatial dieience letween the nodel and the copy.
Eventhose scholais who aie ciitical ol Westeindoninance puisue the sane
logic to enphasize the evils ol initation. Accoiding to Kevin Rolins, loi
exanple, Tuikish cultuie has leeninitative and deiivative inits enulation
Occidcntu|isn 359
ol the Euiopean nodel. But, ol couise, he continues, howevei good the
sinulation, it does not anount to tnc rcu| tning.
40
The West is posited as the
oiiginal stage loi nodeinity to play out its concepts and institutions. This
appioach iendeis Tuikish nodeinity a nonhistoiical and nonsociological
phenonenon.
So, one is conlionted with seveial questions deiiving lionthe alove pei-
spectives conceining Westeinization[nodeinization in Tuikey: the piol-
len ol how one night conceive ol inpact and inuences, the piollen
ol what initation nay nean, and, ol couise, the piollen ol what the
ieal thing is. These questions pose a theoietical, piactical, and political
challenge. Olviously, the piollen ol nodel and copy is not unique to Tui-
key. This veiy challenge is addiessed, loi exanple, in postcolonial theoiies.
Postcolonial theoiies attenpt to deconstiuct the histoiical iepiesentations
ol the nodel[copy oi the sell[othei ly attending to the colonial histoiy ol
these dichotonous oppositions.
41
Howevei, what can le consideied unique
to Tuikey is its uneasy ielation to colonialisnand its consequent invisilility
in postcolonial theoiies.
The Tuikish case has not ieally attiacted the attention ol postcolonial ciit-
ics.
42
Modeinization theoiies have noie to say on this case, they advance
the idea that Tuikey was Westeinized without leing colonized.
43
It then
lecones woithwhile to pondei Tuikeys invisilility in postcolonial ciiti-
cisn. It is even noie stiiking that Edwaid Said onitted Tuikey in his study
ol Oiientalisn, given that his ciitical investigation ol the Westein concep-
tions ol the non-West nade a lig inpact on studies ol nodeinity, including
postcolonial ciiticisn. Not only does Said skip the long Ottonan histoiy
that has leenthe olect ol Oiientalist visions ol desiie and deiisioninnany
aieas such as philosophy, tiavel wiiting, and ait,
44
he also does not addiess
the conplications ol the deleat ol Tuikey and the Wests appiopiiation ol
its loinei inpeiial possessions
45
altei the Fiist Woild Wai. Saids silence
on this issue is signicant, since he desciiles the sane peiiod as a tine
when the Oiient incieasingly appeaied to constitute a challenge . . . to
the Wests spiiit, knowledge and inpeiiun.
46
Said piinaiily locates the
Oiiental othei in the Aialic woild to which he paitially lelongs, and his
neglect ol the Tuikish case inplies that Tuikey stands in a veiy piollen-
atic ielationship to the Aial woild, the Ottonan Enpiie leing the loinei
colonial powei theie. This nay ieect Saids own anlivalence towaid the
histoiy ol the Ottonan colonization ol Palestine: the Ottonan Enpiie dis-
360 Mc|tcn Ansku
iupts the linaiy oppositions ol East and West, colonizei and colonized that
inloin his analysis.
Hence, the status ol Tuikey in ielation to the histoiy ol colonialisn is
luithei conplicated ly the lact that the Ottonan Enpiie was itsell a colo-
nizing loice.
47
The naoi challenge to Ottonan iule cane lion the so-
called West staiting in the eighteenth centuiy. The invasion ol Westein
sciences, know-how, and aitilacts, which contested Islanic and tiaditional
ways ol lile and invoked the existence ol a lack, was acconpanied ly actual
Westein enteipiises that estallished and nonopolized ceitain tiades and
industiies. Theiealtei Ottonan iule undeiwent a peiiod ol decline, which
can le desciiled as the colonization ol the colonizei.
48
The inpact ol this
peiiod, eithei the Westein colonization ol Ottonan lile oi the piollen ol
the Ottonan colonies, was not openly addiessed in the Kenalist discouise
that ieigned altei the loundation ol the Tuikish Repullic.
49
The Kenalist
iuptuie that tiied to set a zeio point in tine has contiiluted to the pie-
doninantly anlivalent attitude towaid loth the West and the Ottonan past
in Tuikey. In paiallel to the naneuvei ol the Kenalist discouise that ien-
deied the dynanics ol the colonization ol the colonizei Ottonan invisille,
social theoiy has also not lully addiessed the conplexities involved. Con-
sequently, the Tuikish ieplica ol nodeinity is eithei taken too liteially oi
ienains invisille in theoiies ol nodeinization, Oiientalisn, and postcolo-
nial ciiticisn.
The Meaning of the Present: Alternative or Multiple Modernities
Il the postcolonial ciitique is nostly ollivious to the case ol Tuikey, a line
ol ciitique that stens lion postcolonial ciiticisn lut liees itsell lion the
dialogisn ol sell and othei celeliates the hyliid and nultiple (oi alteina-
tive) nodeinities in Tuikey and othei non-Westein countiies. This is, in a
sense, a paitial lileiation lion the luiden ol the histoiy ol nodeinity and
colonialisn. The oppiessive lianewoik ol nodel and copy is ieluted.
Instead, a site-lased ieading ol nodeinity
50
is piivileged. Accoiding to
Dilip Paianeshwai Goankai, nodeinity today is glolal and nultiple and
no longei has a goveining centei and nastei naiiatives to acconpany it.
51
But ol couise, this does not nean loi the authois who engage with the idea
ol alteinative oi nultiple nodeinities that the Westein discouise ol nodei-
nity could oi should le alandoned. A neie celeliation ol cultuial diei-
Occidcntu|isn 361
ence would le too naive. In oidei to oveicone the diculty ol dening the
univeisal and the local neanings ol nodeinity, a distinction letween
societal nodeinization and cultuial nodeinity has to le nade alleit in
a dialectical way. In Tayloi and Lees woids, A vialle theoiy ol nultiple
nodeinities has to le alle to ielate loth the pull to saneness and the loices
naking loi dieience.
52
Hence, it is posited that societal nodeinization
piovides the axis ol conveigence loi the diveigent site-specic cieative
adaptations Goankai advances on this distinction to puisue the nean-
ing(s) ol nodeinity.
53
Inspiied ly Foucaults ieading ol Kant, he piinaiily
aigues that nodeinity is lest undeistood as an attitude ol questioning the
piesent.
54
This peispective is an attenpt to negate the inheient paiadox ol nodein-
izationthat I discussed eailiei. Inoppositionto naiking space inhegenoni-
cally iepiesented tenpoial teins (such as the woids buckwurd oi prcgrcss
inply), space is tieated as a dieiential and pioductive constituent ol
nodeinity. Non-Westein localities should le thought ol as the site wheie
people nake thenselves nodein, as opposed to leing nade nodein ly
alien and inpeisonal loices.
55
Il nodeinity is a loinol ielationship to the
piesent and to onesell that eneiges eveiywheie aiound the glole, thenthe
analysis ol nodeinity is lased no longei on sequential chionology lut on
coeval tine.
56
Such a conception ol nodeinity nay have lileiating eects,
especially loi non-Westeineis. Howevei, ny contention is that within this
lianewoik, the theoietical and political piollens that inict the nodein-
ization appioach aie not totally iesolved, il not sinply ieveised.
The eoit to iethink yet naintain the distinction letween societal nod-
einization and cultuial nodeinity along the axis ol conveigence[divei-
gence ienains highly piollenatic. Although diveigence is thought to le
possille within the linits ol conveigence, and diveigence is tieated as pio-
ducing sinilaiities at the linits, this lianewoik does not ieally addiess the
piollen ol the woin-out lut still alive histoiical iepiesentations ol nodei-
nitynot only in scholaily texts lut in discouises that continue to ustily
powei iegines in loth the West and the non-West. The enphasis on coeval
tine and dieiential space ieduces the powei-stiicken textuie ol histoiy to
a at suilace on which saneness and dieience opeiate indenitely. The
inplicit spatial lactoi in the lineai-tine nodel ol nodeinization theoiies is,
in a way, ieveised. In the lianewoik ol nultiple oi alteinative nodeinities,
nodeinity appeais to le a desiied nal destination the lateconeis have
362 Mc|tcn Ansku
theii own cieative ways ol appioaching. Yet one has to le sensitive to the
language and lessons ol Westein nodeinity loi a theoiy and piactice ol
cieative adaptation.
57
Then, the chionology ol Westein nodeinity is not
only assuned without questioning its histoiical constiuction and iepiesen-
tation, lut it is also inplicitly takenas a nodel. The inplicit chionology ien-
deied invisille in the site-specic ieading ol nodeinity once again ains
the legacy and the nodel ol Westein nodeinity.
58
The nost intiiguing question, howevei, loi the specic piollens iaised
in this aiticle on the Tuikish case is the question ol the piesent. Modeinity
as an attitude oi an ethos loi inteiiogating the piesent iuns countei to ny
aigunent so lai, that the neaning ol the piesent is displaced in Tuikey. At
this point, it would le woithwhile to look at how the lianewoik ol nul-
tiple nodeinities is applied to Tuikey. Nilulei Gle aigues that theie is an
indigenization ol nodeinity in Tuikey and othei non-Westein contexts,
which inplies a divoice ol Westeinization and nodeinization.
59
In hei
elaloiate theoietical discussion on the piollens and pionises ol nultiple
nodeinities, she iightly points to a new conceptual awaieness in the eoit
to iead non-Westein nodeinities dieiently. Accoiding to Gle, postulates
such as . Decenteiing the West, z. Intioducing coeval tine, . Replacing
the peispective ol lack with extia nodeinity, q. Dissonant tiaditions can
piovide sone nethodological loundations loi an appioach in teins ol the
non-Westein nodeinities,
60
nay, to sone extent, le neaninglul in theo-
ietically conlating the oppiessive nodel ol Westein nodeinity. Gle pio-
vides exanples, especially iegaiding the Islanic expeiiences ol nodeinity
inTuikey, that point at the heteiogeneity ol the nodein. Howevei, I would
aigue that the hyliidity and heteiogeneity ol nodein identities loil down
to the histoiical naikeis ol East and West to the extent that these identities
aie appiopiiated within the linits ol national identity. Identities aie always
hyliid and anlivalent lut they aie, at the sane tine, totalized within
loundaiies and leai the violence and the luiden ol histoiy as well as possi-
lilities loi iesistance within thenselves. Hence, the liniting and the total-
izing hegenonic inaginaiy nay not le at all congiuent with the eoits ol
cieative adaptations ol nodeinity piacticed ly the heteiogeneous social
gioups in the society. I contend that what is thought to lelong to the past
ol Tuikish nodeinity, and is assuned to le suipassed (i.e., the Westein
hegenony, the peispective ol lack, the noncontenpoianeous peiception
ol tine, the linaiy opposition ol tiaditional[nodein) is veiy nuch piesent
Occidcntu|isn 363
in the hegenonic deploynent ol what nodeinity neans. I have alieady dis-
cussed the piesent node ol discussing the EU nenleiship in Tuikey as a
signicant exanple ol this.
Gle too easily equates the new theoietical awaieness with the dissolu-
tion ol the East-West divide. Foi exanple, she aigues that decenteiing the
West would ieplace the Westein niiioi ol identity with one that piovides
an oppoitunity to iead oui expeiiences in the ieection ol each otheis his-
toiical expeiience and social piactice.
61
This innediately liings to nind
the question ol whethei, in this case, the olten-ieleienced Tuikish-Gieek
ennity will le dissolved, and Tuiks and Gieeks will iead theii expeiiences
in the ieection ol each otheis expeiiences, which aie histoiically intei-
twined. Many cuiient exanples, including the poitiayal ol the Gieek and
Tuikish nen in the Euiope Movenent zooz canpaign discussed eailiei,
nake one think that the West is still a poweilul nediatoi in the con-
stiuction ol national identities
62
that nay encapsulate local expeiiences in
a nythical tine. What is called histoiy is not easy to disentangle in theoiy,
which is itsell a challenge to theoiy.
The Mythical Time of Occidentalism
A new theoietical conceptualization is necessaiy in oidei to conpiehend
the histoiical inteidependence letween Tuikey and the West without eithei
collapsing paiticulai dieiences into a dulious univeisalisn oi celeliat-
ing paiticulaiisns loi theii own sake.
63
This new peispective is especially
ielevant loi Tuikey, which has leen iegaided as an ideal space wheie East
and West neet. But it was, at the sane tine, wheie the loundaiy letween
East and West was denaicated and consequently iepioduced.
64
The histoiy
ol Tuikish nationalization[nodeinization[Westeinization piovides a iich
account to study the peisisting iepioductions ol the East-West divide. I will
piesent snapshots lion this histoiy in oidei to illustiate the ielevance ol
the theoietical lianewoik ol Occidentalisn.
The late nineteenth centuiy witnessed the iise ol Tuikish nationalisnin
the Ottonan Enpiie.
65
When the Enpiie was invaded and paititioned ly
Biitish, Italian, Fiench, and Gieek loices altei leing deleated in the Fiist
Woild Wai, nost ol the Tuikish nationalists who opposed the policies ol the
Ottonan goveinnent in Istanlul, and weie denounced as godless athe-
ists waging wai against the caliph,
66
took ieluge in Anatolia, wheie they
364 Mc|tcn Ansku
paiticipated in the National Stiuggle. Halide Edip Advai, a iaie lenale
guie iepiesented in the National Stiuggle, had leen assigned the duty to
visit dieient villages and iepoit the violence done ly the Gieeks to Tuik-
ish populations.
67
She nentions, in hei nenoiis, a conveisation with an
old peasant wonan at that tine. The peasant wonan conplained to Halide
Edip that hei wiiting iepoits was invain. She said, Why do youwiite? What
could wiiting nean loi a people who aie leing slaughteied?
68
Then she
continued: I have asked loi pity lionthe Gieeks. . . . They told us that they
have leen sent ly Aviope [Euiope, in Tuikish, Avrupu|. So, ny giil, please
tell that nan called Aviope to leave us alone, we didnt do anything lad to
hin, tell hin not to distuil us.
69
The old peasant wonans painlul woids on Euiope give a sense ol what
the West oi Euiope could nean loi the people ol Anatolia duiing the
inpeiialist invasion. It iepiesented a thieatening loice that was involved
in conspiiacies stiiving to destioy the tiaditional oidei ol things. But loi
Halide Edip heisell, the wiitei, Euiope always was an alstiact concept,
anlivalent in nany aspects. While actually ghting the Westein loices,
Halide Edip and othei Tuikish intellectuals discussed and wiote on the pos-
sililities ol Westeinization as a synonyn ol nodeinization. Theie was a
wide gap letween how the intellectuals and the local connunities intei-
pieted the West.
70
The national discouise was not nonolithic. It was pio-
duced and iepioduced ly continuous negotiations letween the West and
the Oiient. Also, it was not a voluntaiily cieated set ol ideas, as the inita-
tion piollenatic would say. Westeinization and nodeinization had leen
liought on the agenda ol the Tuikish national elite ly neans ol a thieat, ly
convincing Tuiks ol past and piesent inadequacy.
71
The constitutive lack
was theie, iight at the centei ol national identity.
The Tuikish national identity piopagated as the ocial identity ol the
new Tuikish State altei z had to assune nany dinensions that weie
thought to lelong to the nation lut weie alsent.
72
Tuikish national dis-
couise, as iegulated and disseninated ly the elite, was an eclectic nix ol
diveise elenents: ideas taken ovei lion past geneiations ol nationalists,
concepts, tools, and techniques loiiowed lion the West, unique solutions
to deal with the piessing cuiient political, ethnic, social, and econonic
piollens, and nuch altei-the-lact theoiizing. Despite its piagnatic u-
idity,
73
the consequent national discouise was stiuctuied in and thiough
a lantasy. The diveise iealn ol ielations with the Westein countiies was
Occidcntu|isn 365
tianslated into a naikei called the West, in a sinilai nannei, the heteio-
geneous iealnol the population was signied as the people, which iepie-
sented the Oiient in teins ol lackwaid Islanic and Aialic inuences.
74
The Occidentalist lantasy evokeda lack inthe people uponwhichit oiga-
nized the desiie to ll it. This was in close connection to the lack pioected
onto the Tuikish ly the Oiientalist lantasy. They lunction in the sane econ-
ony ol identity and desiie.
Il Oiientalisn is a iepiesentation that is inloined ly histoiical and
nateiial powei conguiations
75
lut also conveys the desiie ol the Westein
sulect, how the Oiientals answeied lack to theii iepiesentation ly the
West liings to viewa conplex eld ol sulectivity. Then, what is the sulec-
tivity ol the othei? Fuitheinoie, il the cieation ol the Oiient . . . signies
the Wests own dislocation lion itsell, sonething inside that is piesented,
naiiativized, as leing outside,
76
then what does the concept ol the West
pioduced ly non-Westeineis piesent and dislocate?
The concept ol Occidentalisnthat I want to intioduce is dieient lionan
idea ol inteinalized Oiientalisn oi a delensive ieaction against the West.
77
Instead, it points to the specic nechanisns that Oiientals enploy to cie-
ate theii sulect status (not at all a honogeneous entity) and also to the
connon sky that stiuctuies dieient hoiizons. The othei is iepiesented
not only ly the Westein sulect, as the theoiy ol Oiientalisn would put it.
Occidentalisn also denotes the sulectivity ol the othei in ielation to Oii-
entalisn. It opens a space loi the positivity ol the otheiits expeiiences,
utteiances, and piacticesinstead ol adopting the olten negative denition
ol the othei in theoiies ol Oiientalisn. But it also shows how the sulec-
tivity ol the othei is encapsulated in the discuisive iealnol the othei that is
denied the ieal thing ol nodeinity. The otheis inhaliting the space ol the
othei and speaking loi itsell occuis in the sane univeise ol signication.
But the doulle ieection (the viewpoint ol the Westein iepiesentation
that is, how the non-Westein inagines that the West sees itsellis incoi-
poiated in the ieection on its own identity) conplicates the identication
piocess. Hence the ciitical study ol Occidentalisn not only deals with the
anlivalent identity ol the non-Westein lut also conveys that the inagined
Westein gaze is an integial pait ol this identity. It attends to how centei
and peiipheiy, oi nodel and copy, aie alieady insciiled in the concep-
tion ol nodeinity.
I do not neanto suggest that Occidentalisniepiesents the othei, as such,
366 Mc|tcn Ansku
as a unitaiy and sepaiate entity, that it designates a (lileitaiian, oi non-
iepiessive and nonnanipulative)
78
alteinative to Oiientalisn, oi that it is
neiely a ctive iepiesentation ol the othei otheied ly Westein donination.
I aigue that the tein Occidcntu|isn can le lest undeistood as desciiling
the set ol piactices and aiiangenents ustied in and against the inagined
idea ol the West in the non-West. On the one hand, it signies a pioective
identication with the thieatening powei ol the West. On the othei hand,
it inplies a denaication ol inteinal and exteinal loundaiies.
Westeinization in Tuikey cannot le undeistood as an olective piocess
in which ceitain things, including nanneis, weie inpoited lion the West.
Neithei was it neiely a sulective oiientation that shaped events in line
with the willpowei ol the iuling elite. It was a piocess in which the non-
Westeineis weie otheied and sulected to unequal powei ielations lut also
pioduced theii sulectivity in that veiy encountei. Occidcntu|isn ieleis to
a eld ol social inagination thiough which those in powei consune and
iepioduce the pioection ol the West to negotiate and consolidate theii
hegenony in line with theii piagnatic inteiests. The hegenony opeiates
ly enploying the nechanisns ol pioection that suppoit the lantasy ol the
West. Pioection, in its psychoanalytical neaning, opeiates loth as the dis-
placenent ol what is intoleialle inside into the outside woild, thus as a
ielusal to know, and as intioection ol what is thieatening in the exteinal
woild so as to contain and nanage it. Theieloie it designates at the sane
tine what the sulect ieluses to le and desiies to le. In Tuikey, pioec-
tion, in its doulle piocess, guies in the conception ol the people on the
one hand, and in the conception ol the West on the othei. Menleis ol
the national elite constituted theii identity thiough a pioection ol the West
in aining theii constiuction ol a nodein society. They oiganized the
desiie to le nodein aiound the naikei ol the West, which they clained
to possess. By doing this they intioected the inagined nation into theii
sulectivity. But they displaced what is distuiling loi then, such as the
thieatening powei ol the West, ly assuning a guaidian iole that nodein-
izes lut at the sane tine piotects the less civilized and inlantile popula-
tion lion the dangeis ol too nuch Westeinization. The viitual viewpoint
ol the West, which is the pioduct ol doulle pioection, oscillates letween
iecognition and ieection, leading to a seiies ol splits.
It nust le olseived that Kenalists in eaily Tuikish histoiy weie quite
anlivalent alout the possille inpact ol Westeinization. While Westein
Occidcntu|isn 367
civilization was acknowledged as supeiioi to the Ottonan heiitage, it was,
at the sane tine, despised loi seveial ieasons associated with its noiality,
the piesence ol dangeious class stiuggles and the existence ol inpeiialist
tendencies, and so on. It was seen as a souice ol loth piogiess and thieat.
Civilization, in Mustala Kenals woids, stands out as a eice loice that
destioys those who iesist oi stay indieient to it, it is aggiessive, thieat-
ening, and all-poweilul.
79
The leelings ol panic iaised ly its piogiess and
the leai ol leing late aie acconpanied ly a leeling ol inleiioiity inicted
on those who aie not pait ol Westein civilization. The lethaigic nentality
ol the past centuiies should le alandoned, said Mustala Kenal, the new
standaids should le lased on speed and novenent that dene oui cen-
tuiy.
80
In a sinilai nannei, the ist sociologist ol the nation, Ziya Gkalp,
had said, We shall skip ve hundied yeais and not stand still.
81
The inpact ol the West, theieloie, was noie than a neie inpoit ol con-
cepts and techniques loi Tuikish nationalists. It was not ust a novenent ol
nodeinity intine and space. It was a peiloinance loi the inagined West-
ein audience. It was also a totally newconception ol tine, which pioceeded
violently. It was a thieat that the Tuikish nationalists had to acknowledge
and adapt to with high speed. eiil Maidin points to a leeling ol uigency
on the pait ol the Kenalists to woik loi sonething which did not exist as
il it existed and nake it exist.
82
Nation and Westein civilization weie
lundanental code woids loi this.
Theie is no need to say that Tuikish econony, politics, and social lile
undeiwent naoi changes lion the zos to the piesent. Howevei, the
nythical tine ol Occidentalisn ienains to this day without nuch altei-
ation. Mytnicu| tinc is the iecuiience ol the sane appeaiing as new and
desiialle.
83
The past ieappeais as the desiialle lutuie in the Occidentalist
lantasy. It is piinaiily a lack ol histoiicity, a ielusal to know the iealn ol
loices that pioduce things as they aie. It is a node ol iepiesentationol social
ieality ieducing its conplexity and heteiogeneity in a national idion that
is captuied in the tineless polaiity ol West and East. It is iepioduced as
long as it sustains its hegenonic powei and sets the linits and teins ol the
sulectivities ol vaiious social gioups in society.
The case ol the piesent signications that iestiict the EU delate in Tui-
key to tineless naikeis ol East and West indicates that the Occidentalist
lantasy is still at the heait ol the hegenonic inaginaiy. I do not intend to
undeiestinate the nateiial inteiests in powei stiuggles. But signications
368 Mc|tcn Ansku
and iepiesentations also have a conplex iole in shaping powei stiategies.
]ust as the West always ieleis to the notion ol the East to asseit its hege-
nony, Tuikey iepioduces the ieied inages ol the West to ustily its iegine
ol powei in its loundaiy nanagenent ol dividing spheies, iegions, and
people along the axis ol East and West. Occidentalist lantasy nuituies powei
stiategies. It is not sinply an adniiation loi the West oi hatied against it.
The ieied inage ol the West loi Tuikish in this context can have loth
positive and negative neanings. Foi exanple, a goveinnent in Tuikey nay
liing the piollen ol hunan iights to the agenda with ieleience to the sen-
sitivity ol the West on this issue, as in the EU case. But when conlionted
with an accusation ol hunan iights violations, the sane goveinnent nay
wain people against the dangeis ol Westein inteileience. Occidentalisn
nakes the conicting statenents possille, ustilying eveiy act and state-
nent withieleience to aninagined Westeinness. It should not le loigotten
that Kenan Evien, the geneial who seized powei altei the nilitaiy coup in
8o, connented that Tuikey is an integial pait ol denociatic and liee
Euiope and intends to ienain so. And he iionically olected to any West-
ein ciiticisn taigeted to the nilitaiy iegine and nassive hunan iights
violations.
I have aigued in this aiticle that nodeinity is a histoiical constiuct, and
its histoiicity is displaced in the polaiity ol East and West. Hence the his-
toiical path ol nodeinity in Tuikey, veiy nuch inteitwined with the devel-
opnent ol woild capitalisn, colonialisn, and nationalisn, ienains unac-
knowledged. Instead a lantasy ol the nodein, as the West, is ieplaced in
the hegenonic inaginaiy. I have also aigued that social theoiies such as
nodeinization, ly sustaining the polaiity ol East and West, have contiil-
uted to this lantasy. On the othei hand, iecent ciitical stances ol alteinative
oi nultiple nodeinities niss the iole ol the lantasy ly too easily dissolv-
ing the poles ol East and West. I have suggested that one should addiess
the synptons ol tension involved in the ie-pioduction ol the polaiity, in
loth its paiticulai histoiical nanilestations and univeisal ielevance. Occi-
dentalisn piovides exanples ol this tension. Occidentalisn is an answei-
ing piactice to the constiuctions ol the West, which opeiates in the nythi-
cal tine ol ieied iepiesentations. It nay pioduce a iesistance to Westein
powei, lut opeiates within its discuisive teins to naintain a systenol gov-
einnent that endoises its hegenony. The desiie ol the nationalist elite in
Tuikey to lecone loth Westein and anti-Westein and Tuikish iesonates
Occidcntu|isn 369
with the Westein desiie to see Tuikey as a liidge that nevei ciosses the dis-
tance letween the West and the East. But Occidentalisnalso liings to light
synptons ol nisnatch and excess not pinned down in this tineless cii-
culaiity. Theieloie, a ciitical study ol Occidentalisn nay illustiate how the
pioections ol the West ly non-Westeineis hovei ovei the univeisal piin-
ciples ol Westein nodeinity as a deleiied echo that challenges and alteis
its univeisal and local neanings.
I have also aigued that the enphasis on speed in Westeinization[
nodeinization lased on the idea ol a tine lag paiadoxically llocks possille
changes in the stiuctuie ol social lile in Tuikey. It is in the notion ol speed
that the ieied, thinglike chaiactei ol nodeinity associated with the West is
sustained. The idea ol speed encapsulates eneigies that could otheiwise le
spent in dealing with liozen identities and piollenatics. The netaphoi ol
catching the tiain ol Westein civilization loth channels and liustiates the
desiies ol the people to le nodein. The anxiety ol leing late puts a laiiiei
to ciitical and cieative thinking that could have attended to the questions ol
the piesent. Most luining questions in Tuikey today aie deleiied oi nade
invisille ly theii displacenent in Occidentalisn, including hunan iights
violations, gendei inequalities, ethnic piollens, and political Islan.
It is nevei easy to iesist ieication at eithei the level ol the pioduction ol
connodities oi that ol iepiesentations. But it is woith the eoit. Il we can
undeistand and analyze the innei contiadictions, the tensions ol nodeinity
that pioduce the inteitwined histoiies ol Oiientalisn and Occidentalisn,
then nayle we can ievive the luiied pionise ol nodeinitythe piactice ol
ciitique. It is tine that we ieach out loi the eneigency liake
84
in the tiain
ol Westein civilization.
Notes
Tuikey ist lecane a candidate loi nenleiship in the EEC (Euiopean Econonic Con-
nunity) in the 6os. Altei a long peiiod ol indeteininacy, Tuikey was declaied an o-
cial candidate loi lull nenleiship to the EU(Euiopean Union) with twelve othei coun-
tiies in Decenlei . Although nost ol the othei candidates aie pioceeding towaid a
nal decision in theii negotiations with the EU, Tuikey is the only candidate still waiting
loi appioval lion the EU to stait negotiations loi lull nenleiship.
z In the Wel ouinal En|urgcncnt Wcck|y (Decenlei ;, zooz) the decisions ol the Copen-
hagen Meeting ol EU leadeis Decenlei zq, zooz, aie iepoited. Accoiding to these
iepoits, not only is the staiting date ol the accession negotiations with Tuikey postponed
to zooq, lut it is also nade dependent onthe lulllnent ol ceitainconditions, which, this
370 Mc|tcn Ansku
tine also include the inplenentation ol legislative ieloins. See www.euiopa.eu.int[
conn[enlaigenent.
This netaphoi has leen widely used in Tuikish nedia loi yeais to point at Tuikeys
lelated ielationship to Westeincivilization. Cuiiently it has gained luithei pioninence
in the discussions ovei the question ol the EU. Foi exanple, a distinctively pio-Euiopean
newspapei, Rudiku|, has tuined the phiase into a logo loi its specic canpaign loi the
EU: AB Tieni Kanasn [Dont let the EU tiain iun away|.
q The concept ncgcncnic inuginury is inspiied ly Coinelius Castoiiadiss concept scciu|
inuginury. See Coinelius Castoiiadis, Tnc !nuginury !nstituticn cj Sccicty, tians. Kathleen
Blaney (Canliidge: Polity, 8;). !cgcncnic inuginury ieleis to the iealn ol signica-
tions and iepiesentations that constitute and piovide a histoiical node ol social leing loi
individuals in the society. The inaginaiy is hegenonic to the extent that it is ieinloiced
ly powei ielations as the doninant node ol leing and channels the desiies ol people to
appiopiiate that node ol leing. Tuikishness in ielation to the Westein woild is a signi-
cant elenent ol the hegenonic inaginaiy in Tuikey.
While ncgcncnic inuginury iegaids the signications and iepiesentations that piovide
the social nediation loi leing a social agent, juntusy ieleis to the psychopolitical dynan-
ics in the constitution ol sulectivities in a ceitain histoiical context. Postcolonial theoiy
inloined ly psychoanalysis nakes use ol the concept to addiess the splits and pioec-
tions in the piocesses ol sulect constitution and identication in a colonial and postcolo-
nial situation. Foi signicant exanples, see Ashis Nandy, Tnc !ntinutc Encny. Lcss und
Rcccvcry cj Sc|j undcr Cc|cniu|isn (Delhi: Oxloid Univeisity Piess, q), Fiantz Fanon,
B|uck Skin, Wnitc Musks, tians. C. L. Maiknann (London: Pluto, ), Honi Bhalha,
Renenleiing Fanon: Sell, Psyche and the Colonial Condition, in Cc|cniu| Disccursc
und Pcst-Cc|cniu| Tnccry. A Rcudcr, ed. P. Willians and L. Chiisnan (New Yoik: Colun-
lia Univeisity Piess, ). Mladen Dolai aigues that lantasy is a useless tool to explain
its olect. Yet it can shed light upon its pioduceis and adheients. It pioects onto the
scieen ol this distant Othei oui own inpasses and piactices in dealing with powei, and
stages then. Mladen Dolai, The Sulect Supposed to Enoy, in Tnc Su|tuns Ccurt.
Eurcpcun Funtusics cj tnc Eust, ly Alain Giosiichaid, tians. L. Heion (London: Veiso,
8), xiv.
6 In the 8os August Conte wiote to the Giand Viziei Reit Paa: The woild has leen
divided into two oppositional woilds, Asia and Euiope, loi centuiies, it is tine that this
opposition should le oveicone, that theie nust le a connon civilization in the woild.
Conte iegaidedTuikey as the only countiy withthe capacity, inhistoiical andgeogiaphi-
cal teins, to iealize the synthesis letween the two woilds. Mehnet Kaplan, Ncsi||crin
Runu (Istanlul: Haieket Yayn, 6;), ;.
; ATuikishsocial scientist captuies this stiuctuie ol sentinent, whichhe, like nost otheis,
cannot nanage to deal with ciitically: Ol all the nations in the woild, Tuikey is unique
in having lailed to loige a consistent inage ol heisell. Is she ol Euiope oi ol the East? Is
she a nodein nation-state oi a leudalist [sic| association wallowing in the Middle Ages?
Is she a populai denociacy oi a canouaged gioup dictatoiship? Awaie ol theii lack ol
aiticulateness in inteinational discouise, the Tuiks llane thenselves loi the conlusion.
Occidcntu|isn 371
Nuii Eien, Turkcy Tcduyund Tcncrrcw. An Epcrincnt in Wcstcrnizuticn (London: Pall
Mall, 6), zq.
8 Clioid Geeitz, Tnc !ntcrprctuticn cj Cu|turcs (London: Fontana, ), q.
Nilulei Gle, Glolal Expectations, Local Expeiiences: Non-Westein Modeinities, in
Tnrcugn u G|uss, Durk|y, ed. Wil Aits (Leiden: E. ]. Biill, zooo), q8.
o Halil Nalaolu, Deviinci Oiencileiin Ozgul Fantezi Uzan, Tcp|un vc Bi|in
(zooz): qz;z. See also Giegoiy ]usdaniss elaloiate account ol lelated nodeinity
in Gieece: Giegoiy ]usdanis, Bc|utcd Mcdcrnity und Acstnctic Cu|turc. !nvcnting Nuticnu|
Litcruturc (Minneapolis: Oxloid, ).
Accoiding to Nalaolu, the synptonatic signicance ol the tiain netaphoi is not that
we aie late to it, lut we aie u|wuys late to it. Nalaolu, Deviinci Oiencileiin, q6.
z Ilid.
Petei Osloine dwells on the tenpoial dialectic ol nodeinity, aiguing, Insolai as
nodeinity is undeistood as a peiiodizing categoiy in the lull sense ol iegisteiing a
lieak not only lion chionologically dened peiiod to anothei, lut in the quality ol his-
toiical tine itsell, it sets up a dieiential letween the chaiactei ol its own tine and
that which piecedes it. This dieiential loined the lasis loi the tiansloination in the
late eighteenth centuiy in the neaning ol the concepts ol piogiess and developnent,
which nakes thenthe piecuisois ol latei, twentieth-centuiy concepts ol nodeinization.
Foi the idea ol the ncn-ccntcnpcrunccusncss ol geogiaphically diveise, lut chionologically
sinultaneous, tines which thus develops, in the context ol colonial expeiience, is the
loundation loi univeisal histoiies with a cosnopolitan intent. Petei Osloine, Tnc Pc|i-
tics cj Tinc. Mcdcrnity und Avunt-Gurdc (London: Veiso, ), 6.
q Foi a long tine the delate centeied on whethei Tuikey wishes to connit itsell to the
ieloins iequiied ly the EU loi nenleiship, such as the lan ol capital punishnent and
the iight ol Kuidish people to speak and lioadcast in theii nothei tongue. It nust le
stated that no one paity in the Tuikish political aiena was consistently loi oi against the
ieloins. The alliances on eithei liont do not t to the appaient political divisions in Tui-
key: while the lig louigeoisie, lileial intellectuals, Kuids, nost Islanists, the new lelt-
ist novenents, hunan iights activists, and those Kenalists that aie devoted to Westein
civilization aigue loi the EU, the extiene iight, the iight conseivatives, Tuikists, iadi-
cal Islanists and sone Kenalists keen on national independence, leltist nationalists,
and iadical socialists aigue against it. Oya Baydai, Yaln Kl ABye Doiu, Rudiku|,
]une 6, zooz.
Accoiding to Ahnet nsel, the anlivalent attitude towaid the EU lunctions as a hege-
nonic powei stiategy that xes Tuikish society in a twilight zone, investing in hopeless-
ness disguised as postponed hope. Even the leltist ODP (Fieedon and Solidaiity Paity),
he aigues, is pait ol the hegenonic ideology, as its anlivalent attitude sunnaiized inthe
slogan, ABye Havet [Ncs to EU, Ncs neaning a conlination ol yes and no| illustiates.
Ahnet nsel, AB Kaps Kapaniken, Rudiku|, ]une z, zooz.
6 Mesut Yeen, AB Kaitlai: Sancl Sa, Rudiku|, ]uly ;, zooz.
; While the pio-Euiopeannewspapei Rudiku| and the Euiope Movenent zooz celeliated
theii own contiilution to having a place in histoiy, the newspapeis, including Rudi-
372 Mc|tcn Ansku
ku|, continued to pullish aiticles that enphasize the unceitainty ol the piesent situation
with ieleience to whethei the iecent legal initiative would le adequate loi nenleiship.
While Rudiku| concentiated on the possille ieactions coning lion the EU, inteiestingly
the Islanic newspapei Ycni ujuk intioduced noie iadical questions iegaiding the nean-
ing ol the ieloins and questions the link letween nodeinization and Westeinization
olten taken loi gianted. It aigued that Tuikey should get iid ol its platonic love ielation-
ship with Euiope and lace its own identity as the othei ol the West, while getting ieady
to le a nenlei ol the EU. Yusul Kaplan, ABye Taial Olaiak Beitaial Olnak n, Yoksa
Yuzleeiek Vaiolnak n? Ycni ujuk, August q, zooz.
8 Avni Ozguiel states that the delate ovei the EU in Tuikey is inloined ly the question
What does Euiope think? By giving a histoiical account ol the piollen ol the Westein
gaze, he aigues that the question has a histoiy ol zo yeais. Avni Ozguiel, Osnanldan
Balayp Bugune Kadai Gelen zo Yllk Bii Soiu . . . Aviupa Ne Duunuyoi? Rudiku|,
August q, zooz.
Foi exanple, while the enactnent ol the ieloins weie celeliated, not nuch attention
was paid to what will happen to the univeisity students who have leen penalized due to
theii denands ol education in theii nothei tongue, nanely Kuidish.
zo The concept civi| sccicty gained pioninence in Tuikey in the late 8os. Its neanings
vaiy in dieient conceptions, lion leing associated with the inteiests ol the society in
opposition to the state, to leing positioned as the newagent ol nodeinization. In nost
cases, civi| sccicty denotes the lusiness and tiade oiganizations, as in the case ol Euiope
Movenent zooz. Tanl Boia and Seda alai ciitically discuss the iole ol the so-called
civil society oiganizations as the new agents ol nodeinization and Westeinization in
Modeinlene ve Batllanann Bii Taycs Olaiak Sivil ToplunKuiululai, in Mcd-
crn Turkiycdc Siyusi Duuncc. Mcdcrn|cnc vc Butc|k, ed. Uygui Kocalaolu (Istanlul:
letiin Yaynlai, zooz).
z The canpaign was specically designed loi cieating a pullic opinion, especially on the
need loi enacting the ieloins, as a condition loi nenleiship to the EU. Howevei, it con-
tinued altei the enactnent ol the ieloins stiessing the cuiient piollens that should le
addiessed in the piocess ol leconing a nenlei. The canpaign had wide pullicity in
piint nedia, as well as a Wel site petition inciting individuals to enioll in the novenent.
zz Gieece and Tuikey aie not only engaged in a leud ovei teiiitoiial clains, such as in the
case ol the Aegean Islands oi in Cypius, they also conpete loi leing consideied West-
ein. Foi exanple, when Gieece was accepted in the EEC, a Tuikish newspapei wiote:
They have lecone Euiopeans and we have ienained Asians. The leeling ol inleiioiity
tiiggeied ly Gieeces nenleiship was addiessed ly Muntaz Soysal, a Tuikish acadenic
and politician, in a signicant ienaik: This is the nost oppoitune tine to iid ouiselves
ol the conplex ol leing consideied Euiopean. . . . We aie Tuiks lion Tuikey. Tuikey is
a countiy with one lank in Euiope and the othei in Asia. . . . We nust iealize this and
accept this as such, and we nust tuin this enlaiiassnent into a sense ol supeiioiity.
David Kushnei, Westeinisnin Contenpoiaiy Tuikey, in Atuturk und tnc Mcdcrnizuticn
cj Turkcy, ed. ]. M. Landau (Bouldei, CO: Westview, 8q), zqqo. On the othei hand,
Heizleld points at the constitution ol the Gieek identity ly inventing a Gieek tiadition
that was supposed to le Westein in opposition to the loieign local Tuikish cultuie.
Occidcntu|isn 373
Michael Heizleld, Hellenisn and Occidentalisn: The Peinutations ol Peiloinance in
Gieek Bouigeois Identity, in Occidcntu|isn. !nugcs cj tnc Wcst, ed. ]. G. Caiiiei (Oxloid:
Claiendon, ).
z In its piess declaiation on August , zooz, altei the enactnent ol the ieloins, IHD
(Hunan Rights Oiganization) ieiteiated that the lan ol capital punishnent cannot le
iegaided as a nonentaiy decision. So nany people have leen stiuggling ovei decades
loi this end in Tuikey, and they paid a piice loi it. Sone weie convicted and sone weie
killed. So we should not loiget the stiuggles that have leen going on in the society ly
equating the iecent ieloins with the EU denands (www.ihd.oig).
zq Honi Bhalha aigues with ieleience to Michel de Ceiteaus Tnc Writing cj !istcry (New
Yoik: Colunlia Univeisity Piess, 88), Beginnings can le the naiiative linits ol the
knowalle, the naigins ol the neaninglul. Honi Bhalha, The Woild and the Hone,
in Dungcrcus Liuiscns. Gcndcr, Nuticn, und Pcstcc|cniu| Pcrspcctivcs, ed. A. McClintock,
A. Multi, and E. Shohat (Minneapolis: Univeisity ol Minnesota Piess, ;), qq.
z Edwaid Said, Oricntu|isn (London: Penguin, ).
z6 The Lcndcn Tincs, the Eccncnist, and Dic Wc|t have iecently talked alout Tuikey as the
sick nan ol Euiope. The tianslated aiticles appeaied in Rudiku| as pait ol the discus-
sions on the EU nenleiship. Aviupann Hasta Adan, Rudiku|, ]uly 6, zooz (Lcndcn
Tincs, ]uly , zooz), Tukenni Balakana Yei Yok, Rudiku|, ]uly 6, zooz (Eccncnist,
]uly , zooz), Dietiich Aleksandei, Hasta Adann Ozguveni Yeiinde, Rudiku|, ]uly ;,
zooz (Dic Wc|t, ]uly , zooz).
z; One connent, quoted lion an Italian connunist newspapei, Munijcstc, cleaily undei-
lines the inteiplay ol pioections letween Tuikey and the West. The saicastic connent
ieads, the NewTuikey is nowlike Euiope. Nilgun Ceiiaholu, Tuikiyeye Evet Ana,
Cunnuriyct, August , zooz.
z8 Foi classical exanples ol nodeinization theoiy applied to Tuikey, see Daniel Leinei, Tnc
Pussing cj Truditicnu| Sccicty (Glencoe, IL: Fiee Piess, 8), Beinaid Lewis, Tnc Encr-
gcncc cj Mcdcrn Turkcy (London: Oxloid Univeisity Piess, 68).
z Eniique Dussell, Beyond Euiocentiisn: The Woild-Systen and the Linits ol Modei-
nity, in Tnc Cu|turcs cj G|cbu|izuticn, ed. F. ]aneson, M. Miyoshi (Duihan: Duke Uni-
veisity Piess, 8), 8.
o Osloine, Tnc Pc|itics cj Tinc, ;.
Osloine aigues that it is in the iepiessed spatial pienises ol the concept ol nodeinity
that its political logic is to le lound. Osloine, Tnc Pc|itics cj Tinc, 6.
z This is due to the conceptions ol space and tine in hegenonic loins ol nodeinity, in
which tine is associated with novenent and politics and space is dened as stasis. Space
and tine opposition is also gendeied along this axis, space is leninine, tine is nale.
See Doieen Massey, Politics and Space[Tine, in P|ucc und tnc Pc|itics cj !dcntity, ed. M.
Keith, S. Pile (London: Routledge, ).
Saids account ol Oiientalisn(in his Oricntu|isn) illustiates this point. His path-lieaking
study illustiates how the Westein scholais attenpt to tiavel to, to penetiate into, and to
iepiesent the Oiient pioduced an olectied and essentialized Oiient.
q Tuikey today stands leloie inpoitant choices. It nay choose, as sone ol its leadeis
would cleaily pielei, to tuin its lack on the West and ietuin to the Middle East, this tine
374 Mc|tcn Ansku
not leading lut lollowing, in a diiection deteinined ly otheis. It nay choose, as othei
Tuikish leadeis would cleaily pielei, to tighten its ties with the West and tuin its lack on
the Middle East, except loi those countiies that shaie Tuikeys westwaid oiientation and
denociatic aspiiations. Beinaid Lewis, Tnc Futurc cj tnc Midd|c Eust (London: Phoenix,
;), q8. See also Lewis, Tnc Encrgcncc cj Mcdcrn Turkcy.
Lewis, Tnc Futurc cj tnc Midd|c Eust, q6.
6 Silel BozdoanandReat Kasala, intioductiontoRctninking Mcdcrnity und Nuticnu| !dcn-
tity in Turkcy (London: Univeisity ol Washington Piess, ;), q.
; The lact that Euiope is alieady an exanple lound with the histoiy ol donination ovei
otheis insciiles a hieiaichy letween the exanples in Euiope and those elsewheie. As
Deiiida puts it, Euiope has the piivilege ol leing the gccd cunp|c, loi it incainates in its
puiity the Telos, ol all histoiicity: univeisality, onnitenpoiality, innite tiaditionality,
and so loith, . . . The enpiiical types ol non-Euiopean societies, then, aie only ncrc oi |css
histoiical, at the lowei linit, they tend towaid nonhistoiicity. ]acques Deiiida, Tnc Otncr
!cuding. Rcccticns cn Tcduys Eurcpc, tians. P. Biault (Bloonington: Indiana Univeisity
Piess, z), .
8 Keydei aigues that Tuikish nationalisn is an extiene exanple ol a situation in which
the nasses ienained silent paitneis and the nodeinizing elite did not attenpt to accon-
nodate populai iesentnent. alai Keydei, Whithei the Pioect ol Modeinity? Tuikey
in the os, in Bozdoan and Kasala, Rctninking Mcdcrnity und Nuticnu| !dcntity in
Turkcy, q.
Foi exanple, Kadolu, who nakes use ol Chatteiees peispective to analyze Tuikish
nationalisn, aigues that the eneiging newTuikish identity . . . was distinguished ly its
nanulactuied chaiactei. Aye Kadolu, The Paiadox ol Tuikish Nationalisn and the
Constiuction ol Ocial Identity, in Turkcy. !dcntity, Dcnccrucy, Pc|itics, ed. S. Kedouiie
(London: Fiank Cass, 6), 88. Despite the lact that Paitha Chatteiee insists on the
colonial dynanics ol inagining the nation in India, Kadolus statenent ieects the
exceptionalisn that has leen so widely inteinalized ly the Tuikish people. See Paitha
Chatteiee, Nuticnu|ist Tncugnt und tnc Cc|cniu| Wcr|d. A Dcrivutivc Disccursc (London:
Zed, ).
qo Kevin Rolins, Inteiiupting Identities: Tuikey[Euiope, in Qucsticns cj Cu|turu| !dcntity,
ed. S. Hall and P. du Gay (London: Sage, 6), 6;, enphasis added.
q Foi exanple, Bhalhas concein is to oveicone the given dichotonous nodel[copy oi
sell[othei poles ol identity ly pointing to the hyliidity and anlivalence in colonial dis-
couise. He aigues that the naiiative ol colonial niniciy naintained a iecalcitiant diei-
ence, a dieience that is alnost the sane lut not quite, which is sinilai to the lunction-
ing ol nodeinization naiiatives. Honi Bhalha, Ol Miniciy and Man: The Anlivalence
ol Colonial Discouise, Octcbcr q (8): z6. Bhalha thinks that the necessaiy heteio-
geneity in the naiiative piovides a nediun ol inteivention. The in-letween iewiiting
ol the naiiative, which pioduces not a copy ol the oiiginal lut a nisappiopiiation ol it,
is capalle ol inteiiupting the hegenonic naiiative and exposing its anlivalence.
qz Although Tuikey does not ieally t into a postcolonial nodel due to the lact it was nevei
oveitly colonized, and also lecause ol the conplications ol its own colonial past, it is still
possille to aigue that it is noie oi less a piopei olect ol study loi postcolonial ciiticisnil
Occidcntu|isn 375
we accept Bait Mooie-Gilleits lioad denition: In ny view, postcolonial ciiticisn can
still le seen as a noie oi less distinct set ol ieading piactices, il it is undeistood as pie-
occupied piincipally with analysis ol cultuial loins which nediate, challenge oi ieect
upon the ielations ol donination and suloidinationecononic, cultuial and political
letween (and olten within) nations, iaces oi cultuies, which chaiacteiistically have theii
ioots inthe histoiy ol nodeinEuiopeancolonialisnand inpeiialisnand which, equally,
chaiacteiistically, continue to le appaient in the piesent eia ol neo-lileialisn. Bait
Mooie-Gilleit, Pcstcc|cniu| Tnccry. Ccntcts, Pructiccs, Pc|itics (London: Veiso, ;), z.
q Foi exanple, Gellnei aigues that the Tuikish case is unique in that sense: Tuikey . . .
can clain that its connitnent to nodein political ideas owes nothing to alien inposi-
tion, and eveiything to an endogenous developnent. Tuikey chose its destiny. It achieved
political nodeinity: it was not thiust upon it. Einest Gellnei, Enccuntcrs witn Nuticnu|-
isn (Oxloid: Blackwell, q), 8z. Foi Gellnei, the connitnent to elective and consti-
tutional goveinnent testies loi this. The nilitaiy coups, in his view, although signs ol
not an easy iide in lileial denociacy, weie ust necessaiy lapses in denociacy, since
they have always ensuied that denociacy is eventually iestoied. In this appioach, the
conpionises in denociacy, and a whole histoiy ol sueiing that acconpanied then, aie
shadowed as negligille while the connitnent to Westeinization is piivileged.
qq Alain Giosiichaid studies the Euiopean lantasies ol the East locusing on seventeenth-
and eighteenth-centuiy wiitings on the Ottonan Enpiie. In Tnc Su|tuns Ccurt, he ana-
lyses the Westein inage ol Oiiental despotisn in teins ol the Lacanian concept ol
lantasy. Mladen Dolai, in the intioduction to the English tianslation ol the look, states
that Said consciously linits hinsell to the Aial woild, the Neai East, while Giosiichaids
souices nostly tieat the Ottonan Enpiie (still a veiy ieal thieat at that tine) (x).
q Mooie-Gilleit, Pcstcc|cniu| Tnccry, z.
q6 Said, Oricntu|isn, zq8.
q; The powei iegine in the Ottonan Enpiie was highly centialized lut exille enough to
hold dieient ethnic and ieligious connunities ovei a laige teiiitoiy lion Balkans to
the Aialic peninsula undei contiol ly allowing sone cultuial autonony to each connu-
nity. The peculiai nechanisns and iationale ol the Ottonan iule in its colonies is a vast
sulect loi Tuikish and Westein scholais that lies leyond the scope ol this aiticle.
q8 The Westein capital inltiated the Ottonan social, econonical, and political lile staiting
in the nineteenth centuiy. The low taii iates in tiade duiing the Tanzinat eia led to a
ood ol inpoited Euiopeangoods, whichdealt a llowto snall cialt industiies. eiil Mai-
din, Turkiycdc Tcp|unvc Siyusct (Istanlul: letiinYaynlai, o), 8. Econonic capitu-
lations given to Westein poweis and the tieaties that endowed Euiopean neichants with
econonic piivileges ieduced the Tuikish goveinnent to the status ol the gendaines
ol loieign capital. Feioz Ahnad, Tnc Muking cj Mcdcrn Turkcy (London: Routledge,
), . In addition to econonic colonization, the social lile was also colonized due
to lactois such as the constitution ol Westein schools and oiganizations, the invasion ol
Westein technologies and ideas, and the political powei enoyed ly Westein enlassies.
See Ahnad, Tnc Muking cj Mcdcrn Turkcy, q, Rodeiic H. Davison, Essuys in Ottcnun
und Turkisn !istcry, r,,r.. Tnc !npuct cj tnc Wcst (London: SAQI Books, o). Mete
Tuncay nakes the point that, despite the nationalist stiuggle against loieign piivileges,
376 Mc|tcn Ansku
the position ol loieigneis in econonic, social, and political lile was not dianatically
alteied in the ist ten yeais altei the loundation ol the Repullic. Mete Tuncay, Turkiyc
Cunnuriyctindc Tck-Purti Ycnctininin Kuru|nus (Ankaia: Yuit Yaynlai, 8), 8.
q The only exception to this is a gioup ol Kenalist intellectuals aiound the ouinal Kudrc,
which legan pullication in z and was loiced to suspend pullication in q. Accoid-
ing to Feioz Ahnad, theii ain was the cieation ol an ideology oiiginal to the iegine.
Ahnad, Tnc Muking cj Mcdcrn Turkcy, 6. Ahnad explains that they dwelled on the eco-
nonic and political aspects ol colonialisnand ieckoned theii ideology to le uselul loi all
colonies and senicolonies (a tein they used to dene the Tuikish past) enphasizing the
oiiginal chaiactei ol the Tuikish ievolution. One ol the pioninent nenleis ol Kudrc,
Yakup Kadii Kaiaosnanolu, has continued to le an alnost haunting ciitical voice ol
Kenalist ieloins ly evoking the sell-deception ol the cultuial elite and theii alienation
lion the people in his novels and essays.
o Dilip Paianeshwai Goankai, On Alteinative Modeinities, Pub|ic Cu|turc z; (): q.
Goankai edited the Pub|ic Cu|turc special issue onAltei-native Modeinities inwhichdil-
leient cultuies inAsia, Aliica, and Austialia aie analyzed with analteinative-nodeinities
appioach.
Ilid., .
z Fion Chailes Tayloi and Benanin Lees woiking dialt on the Multiple Modeinities
Pioect, cited ly Gle, Glolal Expectations, qz.
Goankai, Alteinative Modeinities, 6.
q Ilid., .
Ilid., 6.
6 Gle, On Glolal Expectations, q6.
; Goankai, Alteinative Modeinities, 6;.
8 Those who sulnit to that iage loi nodeinity aie not nave, they aie not unawaie ol
its Westein oiigins, its colonial designs, its capitalist logic, and its glolal ieach. In hap-
hazaidly naning eveiything nodein, they aie exeicising one ol the lew piivileges that
acciue to the lateconei: the license to play with loin and ieguie lunction accoiding to
the exigencies ol the situation. Thus, in the lace ol nodeinity one does not tuin inwaid,
one does not ietieat, one noves sideways, one noves loiwaid. All ol this is cieative adap-
tation. Non-Westein people, the lateconeis to nodeinity, have leen engaged in these
naneuveis loi neaily a centuiy. Goankai, Alteinative Modeinities, ;.
Gle, On Glolal Expectations, qoqz, see also Nilulei Gle, Tnc Fcrbiddcn Mcdcrn.
Civi|izuticn und Vci|ing (Ann Ailoi: Univeisity ol Michigan Piess, 6), Nilulei Gle,
Snapshots ol Islanic Modeinities, Ddu|us z (zooo).
6o Gle, On Glolal Expectations, q.
6 Ilid.
6z I have alieady cited Heizleld and ]usdaniss ieseaich that points at the conplexities ol
the Westein nediation in the constitution ol Gieek national identity.
6 Deniz Kandiyoti nakes an inpoitant point stiessing howievolving aiound two opposed
naiiativestwo sides ol the sane discuisive coin liings us lull ciicle to posting notions
ol lost authentic indigeneity and inviting loins ol neo-Oiientalisn that aie ininical
to an undeistanding ol conplex histoiical piocesses. Deniz Kandiyoti, Gendeiing the
Occidcntu|isn 377
Modein: On Missing Dinensions in the Study ol Tuikish Modeinity, in Rctninking
Mcdcrnity, q.
6q Tuikish national identity was constituted and continuously nodied at the naigin
letween leing a lad and a good exanple ol nodeinity. Islan has leen a veiy inpoi-
tant lactoi that contiiluted to the anliguity. Foi Islan was seen to contiadict Westein-
ization and nodeinity, ly loth Westeineis and Tuikish nationalists who aspiied to le
Westeinized. Yet, as Bolly Sayyid aigues, Tuikish nationalists, Kenalists, lound then-
selves in a paiadoxical situation: to le westein one had to ieect the Oiient, lut theii
ieection ol the Oiient ielied on then leing alle to aiticulate and peipetuate an oiien-
tal identity . . . The only way to nanage this paiadox ol westeinizing and oiientalizing
was loi the Kenalists to x upon Islanthe iepiesentation ol oiientalness. Bolly Sayyid,
A Fundcncntu| Fcur. Eurcccntrisn und tnc Encrgcncc cj !s|unisn (London: Zed, ;),
6. A gioup ol people who call thenselves laicists in Tuikey today aigue against the
Islanic lundanentalisn they think takes Tuikey lackwaid in nodeinity.
6 The iise ol Tuikish nationalisn, the delates within its dieient advocates, and its con-
nections to the iise ol othei nationalisns in and out ol the loinei Ottonan Enpiie, such
as Gieek, Bulgaiian, Seilian, Russian, Allanian, and Aial nationalisns, aie extensively
docunented. Releiences include Feioz Ahnad, Tnc Ycung Turks (London: Oxloid Uni-
veisity Piess, 6), Suavi Aydn, Mcdcrn|cnc vc Mi||iycti|ik (Ankaia: Gundoan, ),
Uiiel Heyd, Fcunduticns cj Turkisn Nuticnu|isn. Tnc Lijc und Tcucnings cj Ziyu Gcku|p (Lon-
don: Luzac and Co., Haivil Piess, o), Eicunend Kuian, The Inpact ol Nationalisn
on the Tuikish Elite in the Nineteenth Centuiy, in Bcginnings cj Mcdcrnizuticn in tnc
Midd|c Eust. Tnc Ninctccntn Ccntury, ed. W. Polk and R. L. Chanleis (Chicago: Univeisity
ol Chicago Piess, 68), eiil Maidin, Tnc Gcncsis cj Ycung Ottcnun Tncugnt (Piinceton:
Piinceton Univeisity Piess, 6z), Ali Engin Ola, Turk Mi||iycti|iinin Dcuu (Ankaia:
nge Kitalevi, ), Osnan Okyai and Halil nalck, eds., Scciu| und Eccncnic !istcry cj
Turkcy. rc,rr.c (Ankaia: Hacetepe Univeisity, 8o), Stanloid ]ay Shawand Ezel Kuial
Shaw, !istcry cj tnc Ottcnun Enpirc und Mcdcrn Turkcy, vol. z, Rcjcrn, Rcvc|uticn, und
Rcpub|ic. Tnc Risc cj Mcdcrn Turkcy, r6c6r, (Canliidge: Canliidge Univeisity Piess,
;;), Eiic Zuichei, Tnc Unicnist Fuctcr, tnc Rc|c cj tnc Ccnnittcc cj Unicn und Prcgrcss
in tnc Turkisn Nuticnu| Mcvcncnt. rcr.6 (Leiden: E. ]. Biill, 8q).
66 Ahnad, Tnc Muking cj Mcdcrn Turkcy, q8.
6; Halide Edip is a signicant guie in eaily Tuikish liteiatuie. She wiote nany novels and
essays in Tuikish, as well as in English. She was, at the sane tine, a nilitant nationalist
who took pait in the national stiuggle in the leginning ol the twentieth centuiy.
68 Halide Edip Advai, Turkun Atc|c ntinun (Istanlul: Atlas Kitalevi, q), zo.
6 Ilid.
;o Yakup Kadii, who also wiote on the wai yeais in Anatolia, says: The dieience letween
a peison educated in Istanlul and an Anatolian peasant is gieatei than an English
Londonei and an Indian lion Punal. Yakup Kadii Kaiaosnanolu, Yubun (Istanlul:
letiinYaynlai, 8), . The intellectuals lelt that as they went deepei into the coun-
tiy which they call theii own, theii alienation lion theii oiigins giew liggei. In ietuin,
the peasants laleled thenas stiangeis. Should the national stiuggle end in victoiy, said
Yakup Kadii, then the intellectuals had to nake the nation ly liidging the gap.
378 Mc|tcn Ansku
; Davison, Essuys in Ottcnun und Turkisn !istcry, z.
;z The West, which had leen a thieatening loice against the nationalist novenents and
ieloins in the Ottonan Enpiie, was heialded as a natuial ally. Ahnad, Tnc Muking cj
Mcdcrn Turkcy, q. The national diean was to liidge the gap letween the West and Tui-
key, letween the national elite and the local Muslin population, letween the econonic
powei concentiated in the hands ol non-Muslin connunities and the politics centially
contiolled ly the national elite, and letween the authoiitaiian iegine in piactice and an
inage ol a civilized denociatic iepullic.
; Hasan ndei clains that the philosophy ol Kenalisn can lest le desciiled as piagna-
tisn. He aigues that piagnatisn has leen lunctional to naintain a distance against the
Westein techniques and piinciples that weie instiunentalized in goveinnent, to sus-
tain a position ol leing lothWestein and anti-Westein. Hasan ndei, Tuik Deviininin
Felselesi, Murckkcp 6 (6): q8.
;q A Kenalist spokepeison wiote in his nenoiis that to le Westeinized neant at the
sane tine to escape lion leing Aialicized, it neant leing Tuikied. Falih Rlk Atay,
unkuyu (Istanlul: Doan Kaide Basnevi, 6) qq6. Koak dwells ciitically on this
aiguing that the inteinationalization ol Tuikey was an escape lion the East to the
West inoidei to guaid against Aialicization[Calilanization. OihanKoak, Ata, Meii,
Calilan, Bandung- Eviensellik ve Ksnilik zeiine lii Taslak, in Turk Aydn vc Kin-
|ik Scrunu, ed. S. en (Istanlul: Balan Yaynlai, ), z. The ethnic and ieligious
ninoiities in the population, such as the Kuids, Ainenians, Gieeks, and ]ews yet estal-
lished anothei kind ol othei, which posed a thieat to the idea ol a honogeneous national
unity.
; Said, Oricntu|isn, z.
;6 Roleit Young, Wnitc Mytnc|cgics. Writing !istcry und tnc Wcst (London: Routledge, o),
.
;; Occidcntu|isn has leen given dieient neanings ly dieient scholais. Sone enploy the
tein to denote anti-Westeinisn. Foi exanple, in his alteiwoid to the edition ol
Oricntu|isn, Said talks alout the ieception ol his woik ly sone ciicles as suggesting anti-
Westeinisn. Saiddisowns this stance, equating it withOccidentalisn. Onthe othei hand,
Iianian histoiian Mohaned Tavokoli Taighi ciiticizes Said loi contiiluting to the silenc-
ing ol the othei. He studies the sell-lashioned expeiiences ol nodeinity inIianinthe vein
ol postcolonial ciiticisn. In this context Occidentalisnis peiceived as a neans ol ieveis-
ing Oiientalisn. Mohaned Tavokoli Taighi, Rcjusnicning !run. Oricntu|isn, Occidcntu|isn
und !istcricgrupny (Hanpshiie, UK: Palgiave, zooo). Ina sinilai nannei, Xiaonei Chen
attends to the question ol a countei-discouise in post-Mao China ly utilizing the tein
Occidcntu|isn. Xiaonei Chen, Occidcntu|isn. A Tnccry cj Ccuntcr-Disccursc in Pcst Muc
Cninu (Oxloid: Oxloid Univeisity Piess, ). Couze Venns use ol the tein, Occidental-
isn, howevei, sets anothei, conpletely dieient exanple. Venn iegaids Occidentalisn
in ielation to the piocess ol leconing-West ol Euiope and the leconing-nodein ol the
woild. Couze Venn, Occidcntu|isn. Mcdcrnity und Subjcctivity (London: Sage, zooo), 8.
The conception ol Occidentalisn conveyed in the aiticles included in ]anes Caiiieis
look cones closest to ny undeistanding ol the tein. Caiiiei says that Occidentalisns
and oiientalisns seive not ust to diaw a line letween societies, lut also to diaw a line
Occidcntu|isn 379
within then . . . this piocess is likely to le paiticulaily pionounced in societies that sell-
consciously stand on the loidei letween occident and oiient. ]anes Caiiiei, intioduc-
tion to Occidcntu|isn. !nugcs cj tnc Wcst (Oxloid: Claiendon Piess, ), zzz. I have
developed ny lianewoik ol Occidentalisn in Melten Ahska, Occidentalist Fantasy:
Tuikish Radio and National Identity (Ph.D. diss., Goldsniths College, Univeisity ol Lon-
don, zooo).
;8 Said, in his intioduction to Oricntu|isn, nentions his hope that theie will le luithei
ieseaich tackling those questions lelt leyond the scope ol his own woik. He says, Pei-
haps the nost inpoitant task ol all would le to undeitake studies in contenpoiaiy altei-
natives to Oiientalisn, to ask how one can study othei cultuies and peoples lion a lil-
eitaiian, oi a noniepiessive and nonnanipulative, peispective (zq).
; The inageiy ol Westein civilization that appeais in Mustala Kenals speeches is stiik-
ing: It is lutile to tiy to iesist the thundeious advance ol civilization, loi it has no pity
on those who aie ignoiant oi ielellious. . . . We cannot aoid to hesitate any noie. We
have to nove loiwaid. . . . Civilization is such a ie that it luins and destioys those who
ignoie it. Mustala Kenal Atatuik, Atuturkun Scy|cv vc Dcnc|cri !! (Ankaia: Tuik Taiih
Kuiunu, ;), zo;z.
8o Ilid., z;;.
8 Ziya Gkalps woids aie cited in Leinei, Tnc Pussing cj Truditicnu| Sccicty, 6.
8z eiil Maidin, Religion and Seculaiisn in Tuikey, in Atuturk. Tnc Fcundcr cj u Nuticn
Stutc, ed. A. Kazancgil and E. Ozludun (London: C. Huist and Co., 8), zo.
8 Benanin nakes a connection letween the nyth ol piogiess and the eteinal iecui-
ience ol the new in connodity letishisn. I use the concept ol nythical tine evoking
Benanins ciitique ol piogiess. Waltei Benanin, Tnc Arcudcs Prcjcct, tians. Howaid
Eiland and Kevin McLaughlin (Canliidge, MA: Belknap Piess, ).
8q Counteiing Maixs idea ol ievolutions leing the loconotives ol woild histoiy, Benanin
says, in his notes to Theses on Histoiy, that peihaps ievolutions aie the ieaching ol
hunanity tiaveling in this tiain loi the eneigency liake. Cited in Susan Buck-Moiss,
Tnc Diu|cctics cj Sccing. Wu|tcr Bcnjunin und tnc Arcudcs Prcjcct (Canliidge: MIT Piess,
), z.