Environmental quality is a set of properties and characteristics of the environment, either generalized or local, as they impinge on human beings

and other organisms. It is a measure of the condition of an environment relative to the requirements of one or more species and or to any human need or purpose.[1] Environmental quality is a general term which can refer to varied characteristics that relate to the natural environment as well as the built environment, such as air and water purity or pollution, noise and the potential effects which such characteristics may have on physical and mental health caused by human activities[2]

The Economists' Approach to Valuing Environmental Goods Economists, philosophers, and environmentalists have starkly contrasting ways of thinking about environmental values. In economics, everything revolves around the choices imposed on us by the existence of scarcity. Since we cannot have everything we want, trade-offs are inevitable. Economists believe that if we think hard about those trade-offs (using benefit-cost analysis) that we will make better decisions than if we do not. In the extreme case of perfect information, thinking about the benefits and costs should, it is argued, lead to "perfect" decisions; if we had either more or less environmental quality, we would be worse off. Even among economists, however, there is very spirited debate about whether we do the calculations at all right. Environmental goods are, generally, a subset of a general class of goods called "public goods." The distinction between public goods and private goods has nothing directly to do with whether they are publicly provided, although it turns out that they will have to be. Rather, being a pure public good hinges on two critical properties:

1 Johnson, D.L., S.H. Ambrose, T.J. Bassett, M.L. Bowen, D.E. Crummey, J.S. Isaacson, D.N. Johnson, P. Lamb, M. Saul, and A.E. Winter-Nelson. 1997. Meanings of environmental terms. Journal of Environmental Quality 26: 581-589 2 EEA multilingual environmental glossary

1) A public good is non-rivalrous in consumption (e.g. your breathing of the clean air or looking at the scenic view, does not affect my ability to do so), and 2) A public good is also non-excludable in consumption (e.g. we cannot be prevented from seeing the view or breathing the air). Two important problems stem from those properties. First, it will never be profitable to produce public goods privately, because the producer who incurs the cost of production cannot prevent the consumer from using the good freely (it is non-excludable). So public goods provision is accordingly the most important, perhaps the only important, role of government (e.g. police protection, national defense, legal institutions, along with the environmental goods of specific focus here, come to mind). The government must be in charge of supplying public goods, since it will not be profitable for the private market to provide them. Second, how is the government to decide how much to provide? The economists' view is that government interventions should replicate, as closely as possible, what a perfectly functioning private market would do, if it could exist.In a competitive private market for an ordinary good, people face prices that determine how much they would like to buy or sell. Demanders will buy the good as long as the added

(or "marginal" in the jargon of economics) benefit they derive from the good exceeds its price. Indeed, they will wish (individually, hence collectively) to buy the good right up to the point where their declining marginal values (the more you have of anything the less an additional unit is worth) equal the price. To stop short of that would be to fail to do something that could make the demanders themselves better off. Suppliers, similarly, will supply the good as long as they receive more for their good than its (marginal) cost of production. They, too, will want to supply right up to the point where their marginal costs equal the price, obtaining maximum profit. The market-clearing price then has the property that peoples' marginal values of all private goods just equal the marginal costs (of foregone other goods) of those purchases. Additionally, the net benefit of having the good versus doing without it is as large as possible at this output level (the sum of consumer and producer is maximized). As Adam Smith would have expressed it, the competitive market outcome maximizes "the wealth of nations," giving us the most of the private goods we value. Note that the "appropriate question" then is at what prices will the quantity produced exactly balance marginal benefits and marginal costs for private goods. In the case of public goods the "appropriate question" changes. We no longer ask "how much will be bought and sold at various prices and what price equates those?" Rather, we now want to ask "how much will adding more of this good be worth to everybody, since we all get it once it is produced, and at what level will the aggregate marginal value from all consumers just equal the marginal cost?"

For ordinary private goods, then, one adds "horizontally" the demands of everybody for, say, broccoli, and at the market outcome the marginal value of broccoli will equal the marginal cost of broccoli; the right amount is produced, given peoples' preferences. Were we to produce a smaller amount of broccoli, additional broccoli would be worth more to people than it would cost (in foregone other goods) to produce, so we could make ourselves better off by producing more. If we, instead, produced more broccoli than the equilibrium amount, the added costs would exceed the added benefits and we would be making ourselves worse off. We can have, in short, too much of a good thing, even environmental quality. In the case of public goods, the seemingly parallel treatment is to add "vertically" the demands for, say, an improvement in CO2 levels or the saving of an endangered species, since everybody benefits (non-rivalrously) from such activities. Adding up what everybody is willing to pay and comparing that to the marginal cost of getting that improvement tells us whether we want to do it or not, and how much of it to do for activities that are continuously variable. We would want to keep cleaning up the air, for example, until aggregate marginal benefit (decreasing) equals the marginal cost (increasing) of further clean up. However, there is an additional problem with applying the preceding methodology to the provision of public goods that is very serious as a practical matter. It will be very difficult to figure out what any individual's true marginal willingness to pay is, since they will have an incentive to lie when asked to contribute, knowing that if everybody else pays enough to get it, they cannot be excluded. This is the wellknown "free rider" problem in output markets that has been addressed elsewhere (see Clarke 1971, Groves and Ledyard 1977). We will assume that the demand revelation problem caused by free riders in the output market has been solved in what follows. Since this problem is unlikely to be solved in practice, the extent that

current provision levels of environmental goods falls short of the socially optimal levels is likely to be still larger. The apparent conclusion, with perfect demand revelation, is that we as a society would get the right amounts of all goods, public and private, if we follow the preceding approach of vertically summing the (true) marginal values for the public goods. At such an optimum, if we were to increase the levels of the public good, we would be worse off, since the added (marginal) costs in terms of foregone other private goods that we also care about would exceed the added (marginal) benefits of the improved environment. While beset with many practical problems of implementation that are fiercely argued about, the preceding way of thinking has dominated economics for a half-century.

Air as an environmental quality

Atmosphere is the life blanket of the earth, the essential ingredient of all living things. Air is the most commonly used natural resource, which cannot be excluded by any individual and this, is the root cause for it being polluted to the core. Air pollution It is defined as the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or cause damage to the natural environment or built environment, into the atmosphere. Sources of air pollutants There are different types of air pollutants. They are classified into primary and secondary pollutants. Primary pollutants are those, which are remitted directly into the atmosphere and the secondary are derived from the primary pollutants due to some chemical reactions in the atmosphere. Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include:
y

Sulfur oxides (SOx) - especially sulphur dioxide, a chemical compound with the formula SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Since coal and petroleum often contain sulphur compounds, their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain.[2] This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use of these fuels as power sources.

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - especially nitrogen dioxide are emitted from high temperature combustion. Can be seen as the brown haze dome above or plume downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula NO2. It is one of the several nitrogen oxides. This reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor. NO2 is one of the most prominent air pollutants.

Carbon monoxide - is a colourless, odorless, non-irritating but very poisonous gas. It is a product by incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) - a colourless, odorless, non-toxic greenhouse gas associated with ocean acidification, emitted from sources such as combustion, cement production, and respiration

Volatile organic compounds - VOCs are an important outdoor air pollutant. In this field they are often divided into the separate categories of methane (CH4) and non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant greenhouse gases via their role in creating ozone and in prolonging the life of methane in the atmosphere, although the effect varies depending on local air quality. Within the NMVOCs, the aromatic compounds benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukemia through prolonged exposure. 1,3-butadiene is another dangerous compound which is often associated with industrial uses.

Secondary pollutants include:

y

Particulate matter formed from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in photochemical smog. Smog is a kind of air pollution; the word "smog" is a portmanteau of smoke and fog. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal

burning in an area caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog does not usually come from coal but from vehicular and industrial emissions that are acted on in the atmosphere by ultraviolet light from the sun to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog.
y

Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key constituent of the troposphere. It is also an important constituent of certain regions of the stratosphere commonly known as the Ozone layer. Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it drive many of the chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally high concentrations brought about by human activities (largely the combustion of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant, and a constituent of smog.

Health effects The World Health Organization states that 2.4 million people die each year from causes directly attributable to air pollution, with 1.5 million of these deaths attributable to indoor air pollution. Air pollution is also emerging as a risk factor for stroke, particularly in developing countries where pollutant levels are highest. The worst short term civilian pollution crisis in India was the 1984 Bhopal Disaster. Leaked industrial vapours from the Union Carbide factory, belonging to Union Carbide, Inc., U.S.A., killed more than 25,000 people outright and injured anywhere from 150,000 to 600,000. The United Kingdom suffered its worst air pollution event when the December 4 Great Smog of 1952 formed over London. In six days more than 4,000 died, and 8,000 more died within the following months.

An accidental leak of anthrax spores from a biological warfare laboratory in the former USSR in 1979 near Sverdlovsk is believed to have been the cause of hundreds of civilian deaths The health effects caused by air pollution may include difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing and aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiac conditions. These effects can result in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency room visits, more hospital admissions and premature death. The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, the individual's health status and genetics.

Water as an environment quality

Water as an environment quality is very essential for human existence and also for all living organisms. Due to the rapid increase in the population and fast industrialization most of the water resources are being degraded and polluted. Water pollution Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans and groundwater). Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds. Contaminants may include organic and inorganic substances. Organic water pollutants include:
y y

Detergents Disinfection by-products found in chemically disinfected drinking water, such as chloroform

Food processing waste, which can include oxygen-demanding substances, fats and grease

Insecticides and herbicides, a huge range of organohalides and other chemical compounds

Petroleum hydrocarbons, including fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuels, and fuel oil) and lubricants (motor oil), and fuel combustion byproducts, from stormwater runoff

Tree and bush debris from logging operations

Inorganic water pollutants include:

Acidity caused by industrial discharges (especially sulfur dioxide from power plants)

y y y

Ammonia from food processing waste Chemical waste as industrial by-products Fertilizers containing nutrients--nitrates and phosphates--which are found in stormwater runoff from agriculture, as well as commercial and residential use

Heavy metals from motor vehicles (via urban stormwater runoff) and acid mine drainage

Silt (sediment) in runoff from construction sites, logging, slash and burn practices or land clearing sites

Effects The effects of water pollution are increasingly drawing the environment and human beings as well to feel the pinch of polluted water. Water pollution affects our, rivers, lakes, oceans and drinking water. With the increase in population and industrial development, demand for water has increased. Water is getting polluted when chemicals, harmful contaminants are detected Human beings have the most crucial impact on our water resources. Moreover the need for water is far more in the society today than the quantity of water available. Some water pollution effects show up immediately where as others dont show up for months or years. The water pollution has damaged the food chain and is very important for the food preparation of plants through photosynthesis When Filth is thrown in water the toxins travel from the water and when the animals drink that water they get contaminated and when humans tend to eat the meat of the animals is infected by toxins it causes further damage to the humans. Infectious diseases such as cholera and typhoid can be contracted from drinking contaminated water. Our whole body system can have a lot of harm if polluted water is consumed regularly. Other health

problems associated with polluted water are poor blood pressure, vomiting, skin lesions and damage to the nervous system. In fact the evil effects of water pollution are said to be the leading cause of death of humans across the globe. Control of water pollution The water pollution can be controlled only by the treatment of the effluents discharged by the industries and treating the sewage.the following are the method to control water pollution: y Chemical coagulation method y Chemical oxidation method y Carbon absorption method y Ion exchange method y Electrodialysis and y Reverse osmosis

Forests as an environment quality

Forest makes no demand from the human beings but supplies the product for their life and activity. They provide food, fuel, building material, industrial products etc. Deforestation Deforestation is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter converted to a nonforest use.[1] Environmental problems Deforestation is a contributor to global warming,[2] and is often cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced greenhouse effect. Tropical deforestation is responsible for approximately 20% of world greenhouse gas emissions.According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change deforestation, mainly in tropical areas, could account for up to one-third of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions.[3] But recent calculations suggest that carbon dioxide emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (excluding peatland emissions) contribute about 12% of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions with a range from 6 to 17%. Trees and other plants remove carbon (in the form of carbon dioxide) from the atmosphere during the process of photosynthesis and release oxygen back into the atmosphere during normal respiration. Only when actively growing can a tree or forest remove carbon over an annual or longer timeframe. Both the decay and burning of wood releases much of this stored carbon back to the atmosphere. In order for forests to take up carbon, the wood must be harvested and turned into long-lived products and trees must be re-planted. Deforestation may cause carbon stores held in soil to be released. Forests are stores of carbon and can be either sinks or sources depending upon environmental circumstances. Mature forests alternate between being net sinks and net sources of carbon dioxide (see carbon

dioxide sink and carbon cycle). In deforested areas, the land heats up faster and reaches a higher temperature, leading to localized upward motions that enhance the formation of clouds and ultimately produce more rainfall. The water cycle is also affected by deforestation. Trees extract groundwater through their roots and release it into the atmosphere. When part of a forest is removed, the trees no longer evaporate away this water, resulting in a much drier climate. Deforestation reduces the content of water in the soil and groundwater as well as atmospheric moisture. The dry soil leads to lower water intake for the trees to extract. Deforestation reduces soil cohesion, so that erosion, flooding and landslides ensue. Forests enhance the recharge of aquifers in some locales, however, forests are a major source of aquifer depletion on most locales. Undisturbed forests have a very low rate of soil loss, approximately 2 metric tons per square kilometer (6 short tons per square mile). Deforestation generally increases rates of soil erosion, by increasing the amount of runoff and reducing the protection of the soil from tree litter. This can be an advantage in excessively leached tropical rain forest soils. Forestry operations themselves also increase erosion through the development of roads and the use of mechanized equipment.

1.Dictionaryofforestry.org (2008-07-29). 2. Philip M. Fearnside1 and William F. Laurance, TROPICAL DEFORESTATION AND GREENHOUSE-GAS EMISSIONS, Ecological Applications, Volume 14, Issue 4 (August 2004) pp. 982986 3. IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I Report "The Physical Science Basis",

Industrial Growth and Environmental Degradation:A Case Study of Tiruppur Textile Cluster The rapid economic growth achieved after globalization by most of the developing countries, has imposed considerable social costs and has become a major threat to sustainable development. However it is also extremely important for developing countries to achieve a high level of economic growth to mitigate their socioeconomic problems. But the major challenge here is to ensure development in a sustainable manner by achieving a proper trade-off between environment and development. This paper attempts to operationalize sustainable development strategies using a case study of Tiruppur, a major textile cluster in India. The textile industrial growth in Tiruppur is discussed in the context of global diversification of textile manufacturing and trade with emphasis on employment, income and foreign exchange in regional economy perspective. Since the environmental issues of textile industries are associated with bleaching and dyeing, an inventory of all processing units was prepared for analysis includes water consumption and effluent discharge. The existing pollution management efforts through IETPs and CETPs and economics of production and pollution control costs were estimated for different size of units for understanding the burden of pollution abatement. Environmental impacts of pollution were analyzed with the help of physical data on ground water, surface water and soil quality. The economic value of the damage (social cost) was estimated for different sectors like agriculture, fisheries, domestic and industrial water supply. Different economic and environmental indicators of Tiruppur industry over the period 1980-2000 and the reasons for the environmentally unsustainable industrial growth of Tiruppur are provided.

The rapid economic growth achieved by most of the developing countries after globalization has adversely affected the quality of the environment, imposed considerable social costs and livelihood impacts, and has become a major threat to sustainable development Since the . citizens of poor countries may not demand a high level of environmental quality, these countries take up export oriented manufacturing which is sometimes pollution intensive. It is extremely important for developing countries to achieve a critical level of economic growth to mitigate their unemployment and poverty. But the major challenge is to ensure development in an environmentally sustainable manner, so far to achieve proper trade-off between environment and development. Normally developing countries may have reasonably good growth policies and strategies for agriculture, industry and infrastructure development, but not have a sound environmental management policy. The global diversification and shift of textile manufacturing and exports to developing countries has had significant implications for the Indian textile sector. The textile industrial growth and export in India has been appreciable during the last two decades. Since most of the textile centres have developed as small-scale clusters, pollution management and enforcement is not at a satisfactory level. Hence in many places the pollution load discharged into the environment has exceeded the assimilative capacity and caused severe degradation of the quality of the environment, and ultimately affected different sectors like agriculture, domestic water supply, fisheries, public health and biodiversity. Even though these types of tradeoffs between development and environment are common in many countries, most of the researchhas emphasized either the development aspect or the environmental aspect, but not from a sustainable development perspective. The doctoral thesis is an attempt towards the operationalization of sustainable development strategies through a case study of Tiruppur, a major textile cluster in Tamil Nadu. This includes the following aspects:

(a) Industrial growth and socio-economic contribution of the textile industry to the regional economy of tiruppur, (b) Pollution abatement cost of the textile wet processing units which cause pollution, (c) Environmental damage caused by textile effluents to different sectors in the Noyyal river basin, and (d) Appropriate policy options for achieving sustainable industrial development of Tiruppur through various institutional and technological options.