a covalent bond should be present between substances when the difference in their electronegativities is less than around 1.7.

however this is a rough guide, as there is no real distinction between covalent and ionic bonds, there are really just increasingly polar covalent bonds. or for a more gcse-level answer, you can expect that covalent bonds should be formed when non-metals react with other non-metals. Read more: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/When_should_you_expect_a_compound_to_contain_covalent_bond# ixzz1nC7qF3Qb

.. ..

:O-O: . .o2
In chemistry, polarity refers to a separation of electric charge leading to a molecule or its chemical groups having an electric dipole or multipole moment. Polar molecules interact through dipoledipole intermolecular forces and hydrogen bonds. Molecular polarity is dependent on the difference in electronegativity between atoms in a compound and the asymmetry of the compound's structure. For example, a molecule of water is polar because of the unequal sharing of its electrons between oxygen and hydrogen in which the former has larger electronegativity than the latter, resulting in a "bent" structure, whereas methane is considered nonpolar because the carbon shares the electrons with the hydrogen atoms almost uniformly. Polarity underlies a number of physical properties including surface tension, solubility, and melting- and boiling-points.

Suggested for you:

What is a cloud shape? cloud can shape in different ways by air Ex: mushroom, dragon, plane if you see a cloud and it looks like something that is a cloud shape

What is the difference of the clouds? Height and precipitation

What shape are clouds? Clouds dont actually have a specific shape. Their shape is formed by wind currents in the sky.

Are electons the same as electron clouds? Not exactly. An electron is an actual physical particle with a negative charge. An electron cloud is (generally) a spherical area around the nucleus of an atom that predicts where the electrons might..

Read more: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/How_can_the_shape_of_an_electron_cloud_be_affected_by_electron egativity_difference#ixzz1nCBZRiyd

the only repulsion happening is between the substituents, so it is in its optimal (lowest) energy state as the tetrahedral form. Square planar molecules (like AX4E2) contain 2 lone pairs that produce electron to bond repulsion that result in the lowest energy form to be square planar. Read more: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Why_molecules_of_the_type_AX4_take_a_tetrahedral_form_often_t han_the_square_planar_form#ixzz1nCDvWzC0

Encephalitis
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June
2011)

Encephalitis
Classification and external resources

Coronal T2-weighted MR image shows high signal in the temporal lobes including hippocampal formations and parahippogampal gyrae, insulae, and right inferior frontal gyrus. A brain biopsy was performed and the histology was consistent with encephalitis. PCR was repeated on the biopsy specimen and was positive for HSV ICD-10 ICD-9 DiseasesDB eMedicine MeSH A83-A86, B94.1, G05 323 22543 emerg/163 D004660

Not to be confused with syphilis.

Encephalitis is an acute inflammation of the brain. Encephalitis with meningitis is known as meningoencephalitis. Symptoms include headache, fever, confusion, drowsiness, and fatigue. More advanced and serious symptoms include seizures or convulsions, tremors, hallucinations, and memory problems.

Contents
[hide]

1 Cause 1.1 Viral 1.2 Bacterial and other 2 Diagnosis 3 Treatment 4 Prevention 5 Encephalitis lethargica 6 Limbic system encephalitis 7 Epidemiology 8 See also 9 References 10 External links
o o

[edit] Cause
[edit] Viral Main article: Viral encephalitis

Viral encephalitis can occur either as a direct effect of an acute infection, or as one of the sequelae of a latent infection. The most common causes of acute viral encephalitis are rabies virus, Herpes simplex, poliovirus, measles virus, and JC virus.[1] Other causes include infection by flaviviruses such as Japanese encephalitis virus, St. Louis encephalitis virus or West Nile virus, or by Togaviridae such as Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEE virus), Western equine encephalitis virus (WEE virus) or Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEE virus).
[edit] Bacterial and other

It can be caused by a bacterial infection, such as bacterial meningitis, spreading directly to the brain (primary encephalitis), or may be a complication of a current infectious disease syphilis (secondary encephalitis). Certain parasitic or protozoal infestations, such as toxoplasmosis, malaria, or primary amoebic meningoencephalitis, can also cause encephalitis in people with compromised immune systems. Lyme disease and/or Bartonella henselae may also cause encephalitis. Cryptococcus neoformans is notorious for causing fungal encephalitis in the immunocompromised. Streptococci, Pneumococci, Staphylococci and certain gram negative bacilli cause ceribritis prior to the formation of a brain abscess. Another cause is granulomatous amoebic encephalitis.

[edit] Diagnosis

Adult patients with encephalitis present with acute onset of fever, headache, confusion, and sometimes seizures. Younger children or infants may present irritability, poor appetite and fever. Neurological examinations usually reveal a drowsy or confused patient. Stiff neck, due to the irritation of the meninges covering the brain, indicates that the patient has either meningitis or meningoencephalitis. Examination of the cerebrospinal fluid obtained by a lumbar puncture procedure usually reveals increased amounts of protein and white blood cells with normal glucose, though in a significant percentage of patients, the cerebrospinal fluid may be normal. CT scan often is not helpful, as cerebral abscess is uncommon. Cerebral abscess is more common in patients with meningitis than encephalitis. Bleeding is also uncommon except in patients with herpes simplex type 1 encephalitis. Magnetic resonance imaging offers better resolution. In patients with herpes simplex encephalitis, electroencephalograph may show sharp waves in one or both of the temporal lobes. Lumbar puncture procedure is performed only after the possibility of prominent brain swelling is excluded by a CT scan examination. Diagnosis is often made with detection of antibodies in the cerebrospinal fluid against a specific viral agent (such as herpes simplex virus) or by polymerase chain reaction that amplifies the RNA or DNA of the virus responsible (such as varicella zoster virus). Serological tests may show high antibody titre against the causative antigen.

[edit] Treatment
Treatment is usually symptomatic. Reliably tested specific antiviral agents are few in number (e.g. acyclovir for herpes simplex virus) and are used with limited success in treatment of viral infection, with the exception of herpes simplex encephalitis. In patients who are very sick, supportive treatment, such as mechanical ventilation, is equally important. Corticosteroids (e.g., methylprednisolone) are used to reduce brain swelling and inflammation. Sedatives may be needed for irritability or restlessness. For Mycoplasma infection, parentral tetracycline is given. Encephalitis due to Toxoplasma is treated by giving a combination of pyrimethamine and sulphadimidine.

[edit] Prevention
Post-infectious encephalomyelitis complicating small pox vaccination is totally avoidable now as small pox is now eradicated. Contraindication to Pertussis immunisation should be observed in patients with encephalitis. An immunodeficient patient who have had contact with chicken pox virus should be given prophylaxis with hyperimmune zoster immunoglobulin.

[edit] Encephalitis lethargica

Main article: Encephalitis lethargica

Encephalitis lethargica is an atypical form of encephalitis which caused an epidemic from 1918 to 1930. Those who survived sank into a semi-conscious state that lasted for decades until the Parkinson's drug L-DOPA was used to revive those still alive in the late 1960s by Oliver Sacks.

There have been only a small number of isolated cases in the years since, though in recent years a few patients have shown very similar symptoms. The cause is now thought to be either a bacterial agent or an autoimmune response following infection.

[edit] Limbic system encephalitis

In a large number of cases, called limbic encephalitis, the pathogens responsible for encephalitis attack primarily the limbic system (a collection of structures at the base of the brain responsible for emotions and many other basic functions).

[edit] Epidemiology
This section requires expansion.

[edit] See also

Awakenings Chronic Fatigue Syndrome aka Myalgic Encephalomyelitis Rasmussen's encephalitis

Mystery illness - ovarian teratoma associated encephalitis(audio report)

[edit] References
1. ^ Mark Fischione, M.D., AT Still University SOMA, Pathology Lecture. October 2011

Shaw PJ, Walls TJ, Newman PK, Cleland PG, Cartlidge NE (February 1991). "Hashimoto's encephalopathy: a steroid-responsive disorder associated with high anti-thyroid antibody titersreport of 5 cases". Neurology 41 (2 (Pt 1)): 22833. PMID 1992366.

Linear Trigonal Planar Tetrahydral Trigonal Bipyramid Octahedral Square Planar These are the symmetrical molecular shapes. Read more: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/When_is_a_molecular_shape_symmetrical_or_unsymmetrical#ixzz1 nCG8MIkk

Molecular symmetry
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search

Molecular symmetry in chemistry describes the symmetry present in molecules and the classification of molecules according to their symmetry. Molecular symmetry is a fundamental concept in chemistry, as it can predict or explain many of a molecule's chemical properties, such as its dipole moment and its allowed spectroscopic transitions (based on selection rules such as the Laporte rule). Virtually every university level textbook on physical chemistry, quantum chemistry, and inorganic chemistry devotes a chapter to symmetry.[1][2][3][4][5] While various frameworks for the study of molecular symmetry exist, group theory is the predominant one. This framework is also useful in studying the symmetry of molecular orbitals, with applications such as the Hckel method, ligand field theory, and the Woodward-Hoffmann rules. Another framework on a larger scale is the use of crystal systems to describe crystallographic symmetry in bulk materials. Many techniques for the practical assessment of molecular symmetry exist, including X-ray crystallography and various forms of spectroscopy. Spectroscopic notation is based on symmetry considerations.

Contents
[hide]

1 Symmetry concepts o 1.1 Elements

o 1.2 Operations 2 Point groups o 2.1 Group theory o 2.2 Common point groups o 2.3 Representations 3 Character tables 4 Historical background 5 See also 6 References 7 External links

[edit] Symmetry concepts

The study of symmetry in molecules is an adaptation of mathematical group theory.
[edit] Elements

The symmetry of a molecule can be described by 5 types of symmetry elements.

Symmetry axis: an axis around which a rotation by results in a molecule indistinguishable from the original. This is also called an n-fold rotational axis and abbreviated Cn. Examples are the C2 in water and the C3 in ammonia. A molecule can have more than one symmetry axis; the one with the highest n is called the principal axis, and by convention is assigned the z-axis in a Cartesian coordinate system. Plane of symmetry: a plane of reflection through which an identical copy of the original molecule is given. This is also called a mirror plane and abbreviated . Water has two of them: one in the plane of the molecule itself and one perpendicular to it. A symmetry plane parallel with the principal axis is dubbed vertical (v) and one perpendicular to it horizontal (h). A third type of symmetry plane exists: If a vertical symmetry plane additionally bisects the angle between two 2-fold rotation axes perpendicular to the principal axis, the plane is dubbed dihedral (d). A symmetry plane can also be identified by its Cartesian orientation, e.g., (xz) or (yz). Center of symmetry or inversion center, abbreviated i. A molecule has a center of symmetry when, for any atom in the molecule, an identical atom exists diametrically opposite this center an equal distance from it. There may or may not be an atom at the center. Examples are xenon tetrafluoride (XeF4) where the inversion center is at the Xe atom, and benzene (C6H6) where the inversion center is at the center of the ring. Rotation-reflection axis: an axis around which a rotation by , followed by a reflection in a plane perpendicular to it, leaves the molecule unchanged. Also called an n-fold improper rotation axis, it is abbreviated Sn. Examples are present in tetrahedral silicon tetrafluoride, with three S4 axes, and the staggered conformation of ethane with one S6 axis. Identity, abbreviated to E, from the German 'Einheit' meaning unity.[6] This symmetry element simply consists of no change: every molecule has this element. While this element seems

physically trivial, its consideration is necessary for the group-theoretical machinery to work properly. It is so called because it is analogous to multiplying by one (unity). [edit] Operations

The 5 symmetry elements have associated with them 5 symmetry operations. They are often, although not always, distinguished from the respective elements by a caret. Thus, n is the rotation of a molecule around an axis and is the identity operation. A symmetry element can have more than one symmetry operation associated with it. Since C1 is equivalent to E, S1 to and S2 to i, all symmetry operations can be classified as either proper or improper rotations.

[edit] Point groups

A point group is a set of symmetry operations forming a mathematical group, for which at least one point remains fixed under all operations of the group. A crystallographic point group is a point group that is compatible with translational symmetry in three dimensions. There are a total of 32 crystallographic point groups, 30 of which relevant to chemistry. Their classification is based on the Schoenflies notation.
[edit] Group theory

A set of symmetry operations form a group, with operator the application of the operations itself, when:

the result of consecutive application (composition) of any two operations is also a member of the group (closure). the application of the operations is associative: A(BC) = (AB)C the group contains the identity operation, denoted E, such that AE = EA = A for any operation A in the group. For every operation A in the group, there is an inverse element A1 in the group, for which AA1 = A1A = E

The order of a group is the number of symmetry operations for that group. For example, the point group for the water molecule is C2v, with symmetry operations E, C2, v and v'. Its order is thus 4. Each operation is its own inverse. As an example of closure, a C2 rotation followed by a v reflection is seen to be a v' symmetry operation: v*C2 = v'. (Note that "Operation A followed by B to form C" is written BA = C). Another example is the ammonia molecule, which is pyramidal and contains a three-fold rotation axis as well as three mirror planes at an angle of 120 to each other. Each mirror plane contains an N-H bond and bisects the H-N-H bond angle opposite to that bond. Thus ammonia molecule belongs to the C3v point group that has order 6: an identity element E, two rotation operations C3 and C32, and three mirror reflections v, v' and v".

[edit] Common point groups

The following table contains a list of point groups with representative molecules. The description of structure includes common shapes of molecules based on VSEPR theory.
Point group C1 Cs Ci Cv Dh Symmetry elements E E h Ei E 2C v E 2C i i 2S C2 Simple description, chiral if applicable no symmetry, chiral Illustrative species CFClBrH, lysergic acid

mirror plane, no other thionyl chloride, hypochlorous acid symmetry Inversion center linear linear with inversion center anti-1,2-dichloro-1,2-dibromoethane hydrogen chloride, dicarbon monoxide dihydrogen, azide anion, carbon dioxide

C2 C3 C2h C3h C2v C3v C4v D2 D3 D2h

E C2 E C3 E C 2 i h E C3 C32 h S3 S35 E C2 v(xz) v'(yz) E 2C3 3v E 2C4 C2 2v 2d E C2(x) C2(y) C2(z) E C3(z) 3C2 E C2(z) C2(y) C2(x) i (xy) (xz) (yz)

"open book geometry," hydrogen peroxide chiral propeller, chiral planar with inversion center propeller angular (H2O) or seesaw (SF4) trigonal pyramidal square pyramidal twist, chiral triple helix, chiral planar with inversion center triphenylphosphine trans-1,2-dichloroethylene Boric acid water, sulfur tetrafluoride, sulfuryl fluoride ammonia, phosphorus oxychloride xenon oxytetrafluoride cyclohexane twist conformation Tris(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III) cation ethylene, dinitrogen tetroxide, diborane

D3h

E 2C3 3C2 h 2S3 3v E 2C4 C2 2C2' 2C2 i 2S4 h 2v 2d

trigonal planar or trigonal bipyramidal square planar

boron trifluoride, phosphorus pentachloride

D4h

xenon tetrafluoride ruthenocene, eclipsed ferrocene, C70 fullerene benzene, bis(benzene)chromium allene, tetrasulfur tetranitride ethane (staggered rotamer), cyclohexane chair conformation dimanganese decacarbonyl (staggered rotamer) ferrocene (staggered rotamer) methane, phosphorus pentoxide, adamantane cubane, sulfur hexafluoride

D5h

E 2C5 2C52 5C2 h 2S5 2S53 pentagonal 5v E 2C6 2C3 C2 3C2' 3C2 i 3S3 hexagonal 2S63 h 3d 3v E 2S4 C2 2C2' 2d E C3 3C2 i 2S6 3d 90 twist 60 twist

D6h D2d D3d

D4d

E 2S8 2C4 2S83 C2 4C2' 4d 45 twist E 2C5 2C52 5C2 i 3S103 2S10 36 twist 5d E 8C3 3C2 6S4 6d tetrahedral

D5d

Td

Oh

E 8C3 6C2 6C4 3C2 i 6S4 8S6 octahedral or cubic 3h 6d E 12C5 12C52 20C3 15C2 i 12S10 12S103 20S6 15 icosahedral

Ih

C60, B12H122-

[edit] Representations

The symmetry operations can be represented in many ways. A convenient representation is by matrices. For any vector representing a point in Cartesian coordinates, left-multiplying it gives the new location of the point transformed by the symmetry operation. Composition of operations corresponds to matrix multiplication. In the C2v example this is:

Although an infinite number of such representations exist, the irreducible representations (or "irreps") of the group are commonly used, as all other representations of the group can be described as a linear combination of the irreducible representations.

[edit] Character tables

Main article: List of character tables for chemically important 3D point groups

For each point group, a character table summarizes information on its symmetry operations and on its irreducible representations. As there are always equal numbers of irreducible representations and classes of symmetry operations, the tables are square. The table itself consists of characters that represent how a particular irreducible representation transforms when a particular symmetry operation is applied. Any symmetry operation in a molecule's point group acting on the molecule itself will leave it unchanged. But, for acting on a general entity, such as a vector or an orbital, this need not be the case. The vector could change sign or direction, and the orbital could change type. For simple point groups, the values are either 1 or 1: 1 means that the sign or phase (of the vector or orbital) is unchanged by the symmetry operation (symmetric) and 1 denotes a sign change (asymmetric). The representations are labeled according to a set of conventions:

A, when rotation around the principal axis is symmetrical B, when rotation around the principal axis is asymmetrical E and T are doubly and triply degenerate representations, respectively when the point group has an inversion center, the subscript g (German: gerade or even) signals no change in sign, and the subscript u (ungerade or uneven) a change in sign, with respect to inversion. with point groups Cv and Dh the symbols are borrowed from angular momentum description: , , .

The tables also capture information about how the Cartesian basis vectors, rotations about them, and quadratic functions of them transform by the symmetry operations of the group, by noting which irreducible representation transforms in the same way. These indications are conventionally on the righthand side of the tables. This information is useful because chemically important orbitals (in particular p and d orbitals) have the same symmetries as these entities. The character table for the C2v symmetry point group is given below:

C2v E C2 v(xz) v'(yz) A1 1 1 1 A2 1 1 1 B1 1 1 1 B2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 z Rz x2, y2, z2 xy

x, Ry xz y, Rx yz

Consider the example of water (H2O), which has the C2v symmetry described above. The 2px orbital of oxygen is oriented perpendicular to the plane of the molecule and switches sign with a C2 and a v'(yz) operation, but remains unchanged with the other two operations (obviously, the character for the identity operation is always +1). This orbital's character set is thus {1, 1, 1, 1}, corresponding to the B1 irreducible representation. Likewise, the 2pz orbital is seen to have the symmetry of the A1 irreducible representation, 2py B2, and the 3dxy orbital A2. These assignments and others are noted in the rightmost two columns of the table.

[edit] Historical background

Hans Bethe used characters of point group operations in his study of ligand field theory in 1929, and Eugene Wigner used group theory to explain the selection rules of atomic spectroscopy.[7] The first character tables were compiled by Lszl Tisza (1933), in connection to vibrational spectra. Robert Mulliken was the first to publish character tables in English (1933), and E. Bright Wilson used them in 1934 to predict the symmetry of vibrational normal modes.[8] The complete set of 32 crystallographic point groups was published in 1936 by Rosenthal and Murphy.[9]

In a tetrahedral molecular geometry a central atom is located at the center with four substituents that are located at the corners of a tetrahedron. The bond angles are cos1(1/3) 109.5 when all four substituents are the same, as in CH4. This molecular geometry is common throughout the first half of the periodic table. The perfectly symmetrical tetrahedron belongs to point group Td, but most tetrahedral molecules are not of such high symmetry. Tetrahedral molecules can be chiral.

The square planar molecular geometry in chemistry describes the stereochemistry (spatial arrangement of atoms) that is adopted by certain chemical compounds. As the name suggests, molecules of this geometry have their atoms positioned at the corners of a square on the same plane about a central atom.

Cl2CO Lewis structure

A covalent bond is a form of chemical bonding that is characterized by the sharing of pairs of electrons between atoms. The stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces between atoms when they share electrons is known as covalent bonding.[1] Covalent bonding includes many kinds of interaction, including -bonding, -bonding, metal-tometal bonding, agostic interactions, and three-center two-electron bonds.[2][3] The term covalent bond dates from 1939.[4] The prefix co- means jointly, associated in action, partnered to a lesser degree, etc.; thus a "co-valent bond", in essence, means that the atoms share "valence", such as is discussed in valence bond theory. In the molecule H2, the hydrogen atoms share the two electrons via covalent bonding. Covalency is greatest between atoms of similar electronegativities. Thus, covalent bonding does not necessarily require the two atoms be of the same elements, only that they be of comparable electronegativity. Although covalent bonding entails sharing of electrons, it is not necessarily delocalized. Furthermore, in contrast to electrostatic interactions ("ionic bonds") the strength of covalent bond depends on the angular relation between atoms in polyatomic molecules.