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A case-study helps to illustrate how one might find the potential speed of a boat for a given propeller pitch.
PROPELLER HISTORY
Modern mariners are accustomed to seeing their boats driven through the water by propellers. This was not always the case. Development of the propeller was a relatively modern invention in marine engineering. It was only first around 1850 that the propeller became sufficiently developed that it outperformed the paddle wheel, which had previously been the preferred method of propulsion.
PROPELLER DIMENSIONS
The marine propeller is characterized by three fundamental measurements: number of blades, diameter, and pitch.
Blades
The number of blades is the most straightforward and easily understood parameter. The three-blade propeller has become the most common in recreational marine use. At very high speeds, the two blade propeller has shown advantages. Four-blade and five-blade props have also been used in applications where high power and weight are involved. As a general rule, as power and weight increase, so does the optimum number of blades on the propeller.
Diameter
Diameter measures the diameter of the circle needed to encompass the blades of the propeller. It can easily be deduced by observation of the propeller and physical measurement of its diameter. In outboard marine applications, the diameter of the propeller that can be used is limited by the dimensions of the outboard lower unit. Because of this limitation, for a given outboard motor the range of propellers available will only vary slightly in their diameter. The larger the diameter of a propeller the more horsepower needed to turn it at a given speed. Pitch Pitch is an easily understood concept but difficult to measure. The pitch of a propeller is the distance it would advance in one revolution when acting like a screw. There is no simple way to discern the pitch of a propeller from inspection of it, except that generally the maker has stamped or engraved a number on the hub which can be interpreted to find the pitch. If a propeller has a number it can either indicate the actual pitch or a part number which can be consulted to determine the pitch. Deduction of the pitch of a propeller by measurement of its blade shape is a complex task beyond the skill of most boaters. Since most outboards are limited to a small range of variation in diameter, most often it is the pitch of the propeller that is adjusted to suit the needs of a particular combination of boat, motor, load, and intended use.
Other Factors
There are many other parameters of a propeller which affect its performance (which we plan to explore in future articles), but they will just be briefly mentioned to give an idea of what other variables may be applied to propeller design and selection. The principal variable is the shape of the blade. Many designs for propeller blades have been invented, and each has its claimed advantages. The most common shape in use is the so-called "elephant ear" blade. The most common variation in shape is the cupped blade, which imparts a slight change in the blade surface near the edge which tends to improve the performance of the propeller. An almost infinite variety of blade shapes, thicknesses, tapers, rake angles, and other variations has been developed for marine use. In addition, there are variations in the materials used to manufacture the propeller. (Discussed in more detail in this artile.) The most common propeller material is aluminum. Stainless steel is also of requently used. Non-metallic materials, ranging from simple plastics to complex composite materials have also been used.
PERFORMANCE
In marine propulsion, the propeller is an extremely significant factor in determining the overall performance of the boat and motor combination. It is through the propeller that the power of the engine is converted to propulsion of the boat. Small changes in the dimensions of the propeller can have significant effect on the speed and acceleration of the boat. From a practical point, it is also much easier (and more economical) to experiment with changes in propeller dimensions than it is to undertake modification of the hull or powerplant of a boat. These two principles have lead to a tendency to experiment with propeller dimensions in the search for optimum boat performance. How does one know when the optimum performance has been reached? Two indices are used to calculate this: boat speed and engine speed.
position between two measured positions and assuming a straight line course between them. GPS speeds shown while turning or following curving course lines will not be as accurate.
Units Conversion
Speed is generally not familiar to us in units of inches per minute and therefore must be converted into more familiar units like miles per hour. A series of conversion factors are applied: 1 FT 1 MILE 60 MINUTE 1 MILE/HOUR _________ X _________ X ___________ = ________________ 12 INCH 5280 FT 1 HOUR 1056 INCH/MINUTE Using this newly calculated factor to convert our initial answer, the theoretical speed of advance of the propeller can be found in miles per hour: 35407.5 INCH/MINUTE 1 MILE/HOUR X _________________ = 33.5 MILE/HOUR 1056 INCH/MINUTE Now that the procedure has been demonstrated, the various terms and conversion factors can be aggregated into one formula: ENGINE SPEED (RPM) PROP PITCH (INCH) ____________________ X ___________________ = SPEED OF ADVANCE (MPH) GEAR REDUCTION 1056 Plugging in the numbers from the earlier example: 5,500 (RPM) 15 (INCH) ___________________ X ___________________ = 33.5 (MPH) 2.33 1056
Actual vs Calculated
It is unlikely the theoretical maximum speed of advance will be realized from a propeller due to imperfect coupling of the propeller to the water. Some slipping will occur, varying as a function many factors, including the weight of the boat, the design of the hull, the design of the propeller, and the density of the water. To gauge the effectiveness of a particular propeller, motor, and boat combination, it is interesting to make careful measurement of the boat's actual speed at various engine speeds, calculate the theoretical speed of advance that should have occured, and then compare the two. In any experiment, the more accurate the measurements and procedure, the more accurate and valid the results.
CASE STUDY
Having recently purchased a new (used) boat, I was curious to see how it performed and if the propeller(s) were properly sized. We made a series of speed runs and collected the data shown below. The boat is a Boston Whaler 20-Revenge, powered by twin 70-HP 2-cycle outboards with three blade "elephant ear" propellers. Initially we thought the propellers were aluminum, but I have since learned that this engine maker (Yamaha) sometimes includes steel propellers which are painted black. The SPEED OF ADVANCE was based on: the RPM observed on the engines' digital tachometers, the engine's reduction ratio of 2.33:1, and the claimed pitch of the propeller, 17-inches (as inferred by noting the stamped number "17" on the hub). These numbers and the formula described above were used to calculate the values for SPEED OF ADVANCE. The OBSERVED SPEED was measured using a GPS navigation instrument. During the time of these observations Selective Availability dither of civilian GPS accuracy was not in use. The GPS speed measurements are believed to be absolutely accurate to a few percentage points, but their relative accuracy may be much higher. The numbers recorded represent some averaging of instantaneously displayed speeds on the GPS instrument. The PERCENT EFFICIENCY was calculated by simply dividing the OBSERVED SPEED by the SPEED OF ADVANCE and expressing the result as a percentage. It should be mentioned that the engines were not run to maximum throttle during the test because of a slight problem with the tachometer on one of the engines which made synchronization difficult above 5000 RPM. Some additional throttle advance still remained, although most likely not more than 500 additional RPM would have been achieved. That places the estimated maximum throttle engine speed in the top of the specified range of engine speeds (4500-55000 RPM) that the maker advises is the "Operating Range." During the testing the boat had an approximate half-tank of fuel and two adults were aboard. Water conditions were calm and well suited
Interpretation of Results
The propeller tests show that the current configuration of boat, motor, load, and propellers are well matched. The engines achieved speeds at near Wide-Open-Throttle that are close to those suggested by the maker as being the "operating range." This is the desired condition, and therefore the propellers were judged to be well matched to the boat and motor. The observed top speed of the boat was approximately 32 MPH, which may be a bit on the low side for some, but was judged fast enough to be satisfactory for us. After all, we are former sailors! It is interesting to note how the efficiency seems to be rising as the speed rises. This is not totally unexpected. There are two factors that could contribute to this. First, as the speed increases there is less and less of the hull in the water, resulting in less drag working against the propeller's forward thrust. The progressive removal of the hull drag would tend to increase the efficiency of the propeller. A second factor may also contribute. At higher speeds the characteristics of water change from those of a liquid to properties more like a solid. This would tend to improve the efficiency of the propeller which is trying to advance through the water by screwing itself forward. The result would be the rise in efficiency with speed, as observed. Of course, as the speed increased this same factor (the tendency of the water to act more like a solid at high speed) would tend to produce greater drag from those parts of the boat remaining in the water, i.e., the lower unit and propeller At some speed an equilibrium would be reached or efficiency might begin to reduce. In Part 2 of this article I will explain in more detail why the propeller become more efficient as boat speed increases. Different materials for making propellers will be discussed, and an speed prediction formula will be presented.
CONCLUSION
Following the procedure described in this article, a boater can measure and predict the potential top speed of his boat for a given propeller pitch. If careful measurements are made of boat speed at various engine speeds an analysis of the propeller efficiency and its suitability can be made. Rather than simply offer a "plug-in" formula for this process, this article has attempted to explain the concept involved and to demonstrate by an example. This tends to produce a deeper understanding of the principles involved and of the process described.