Phil Wildlife BIO 141N Lecture Notes January 10, 2012

Amphibia (The origin of terrestrial vertebrates) 2 conditions that had to be met before vertebrates could evolve into terrestrial forms in addition to their possession of appropriate structural and physiological modification.1) a habitat suitable for occupancy and 2) ecological conditions that would make it advantageous to leave their existing habitat. (An organism that is superior to its competitors or is unmanaged by predators where it lives is unlikely to take advantage of mutations that might make it well adapted to another habitat. Theories about why some osteichthyes evolved into amphibians were based on this.) The droughts may have made it advantageous to be able to move out of drying ponds toward those holding more water, thus beginning terrestrial life. The second stress must have been ecological. With warm shallow waterways containing abundant life, two possibilities suggest themselves: 1- competition from numerous fishes existing in the same habitat, or 2- predation by larger sarcopterigians or other fishes that were present. But there were many adaptive changes in anatomy and physiology that were necessary to the evolving amphibian.oxygen must be in a solution, therefore respiratory membranes must be moist; must be able to support body outside of water, thus must have strong limbs and smaller in size.

THE LIVING AMPHIBIA 3 DISTINCT GROUPS of amphibians alive today under one group called LISSAMPHIBIA (smooth skin) 1. Caudata or URODELA (TAILED) salamanders with more than 350 species; from Late Jurassic; of the more than 350 species, about 200 are completely terrestrial, having direct development on land and without larval stage; 25 species a paedomorphic, or reproducing as larvae, or neotenic, retaining a number of larval traits as adults; 23 species reproduce as larvae. Fewer than 100 species of salamanders always have the typical amphibious life history. 2. Anura OR SALIENTIA (TAILLESS) frogs; with about 3,440 species; from Early Jurassic; few frog species have internal fertilization; the foam protect eggs from predators; amplexus-common clasping behavior; The exceptions to external fertilization are the tailed frog Ascaphus truei, of the Pacific Northwest, in which the tail is an extension from the cloaca and is used by the male as an intromittent organ, and some ovoviviparous species. 3. Gymnophonia or APODA (LEGLESS) caecilians with more than 160 species; from Late Jurassic; males have copulatory organ that can be exuded through the vent for internal fertilization; some are viviparous; the oviparous species remain coiled around the clutch of eggs until they hatch; Most frogs and some salamanders and caecilians have life histories involving an aquatic larval phase and a terrestrial adult phase.

All species of living amphibian are PREDACEOUS, i.e. there are no herbivores among them

Salamanders are exclusively temperate-zone order. These are not represented in the Philippines. Philippine amphibians comprise of only two groups: ANURA frogs and toads and APODA (caecilians) Class Amphibia is one of 6 classes of vertebrate animals. (2 fish classes, amphibian, reptiles, birds and mammals) - Cold-blooded or ectothermic - Skins are rich in glands, unlike fish and reptiles, and do not have scales, except in caecilians which have minute scales imbedded in the skin - Terrestrial animals occupying moist habitats - Most lay their eggs in or near water, but some in moist places away from water - Lack calcareous shell but are enclosed by layers of gelatinous materials - Most species develop into aquatic larvae or tadpole stages before attaining adult forms - Tadpoles depend upon small organisms for food and respire through external or internal gills which shed when they become adult through metamorphosis. Some species have direct development without larval stage - Adults respire through their lungs and skin - Lack the two extraembryonic membranes the amnion and the chorion - Available evidence makes it highly probable that amphibians descended from fish ancestors (e.g. lungfishes) while reptiles from amphibians. Amphibians arose from internal nared fish during the Devonian period some 350,000 to 400,000 years ago EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A FROG (for lab exercise) General Habits and distribution of Phil Amphibians - Caecilian is a gray worm-like burrowing amphibian without any indication of having limbs; has been found in Palawan and Mindanao (e.g. Malindang, Zamboanga Peninsula and Davao); in these localities, adult caecilian have been taken in original forests from shallow depths of humus soil and underneath rotting logs at altitudes varying from sea level to about 1,000 masl. Larval caecilians have been taken from pools of mountain streams both on Palawan and in Mt. Malindang. - The Anurans or frogs and the toads constitute the majority of amphibians in the Philippines; they belong to 7 families and 17 genera; they occupy variety of habitats on both big and small islands of the Philippines; they are found in many situation having adequate plant cover and moisture; near human habitations, in cultivated areas, and in various microhabitats of the original and secondary forests (mountain streams, humus soil, forest litter, aerial plants, holes in trees; some species appear to be limited to certain specific microhabitats while others seem to have broader ranges of distribution. The majority of Phil amphibians are inhabitants of the rain forests. Only a few species inhabit both forests and cleared areas. E.g. Polypedates leucomystax , Kaloula conjuncta and Kaloula picta. Other frogs like Rana cancrivora, Rana limnocharis and Rana erythrea seem to be limited to open cultivated areas such as ricefields, fishponds and streams.

Still other species adapt nicely to cultivated areas that have conditions which approximate those obtaining in forest (e.g. abaca and banana plantations) The forest species that seem to do well in these man-made habitats include Platymantis dorsalis and Platymantis corrugatus. The altitudinal range of amphians in Phil is from sea level to a little more than 2,000 masl in high mountain peaks. Frogs of the genus Ansonia and Rhacophorus reach altitudes of 2,000 meters in Mt Malindang. Two species of Platymantis reach altitudes of 1,675 meters in Mt Canlaon.

January 17, 2012 contn Phil anurans exhibit some variations in appearance and size. - Distinctions between frogs and toads are artificial e.g. not all frogs have slender build and smooth skin, nor only toads have stout appearance and warty skin. They have many characteristics in common. - Philippine toads for example: 1. Bufo biporcatus philippinicus (on Palawan and nearby islands); this species resembles in appearance the introduced Bufo marinus that is very widely distributed all over the country; have parotoid glands; skin full of prominent tubercles; size ranges from50mm to 85 mm SVL. 2. Ansonia muelleri and Ansonia mcgregori (on Mindanao) inhabit mountain streams; size ranges from 25mm to 35mm SVL. 3. Pelophryne sp. (on Palawan, Mindanao and Bohol) inhabits forest floor and vegetation, and usually not encountered by people; very small toads about 16mm to17mm SVL. - Philippine frogs, accord quite well with their habits. E.g., 1. Primarily surface ground dwellers dont have specialized structures on their feet and hands, like some species of Platymantis (formerly Cornufer), Leptobrachium hasselti, Megophrys monticola, Kalophrynus pleurostigma, Chaperina fusca and some Rana sp. These are small species with 40mm to 60mm in size. Our Leptobrachium hasselti has such weak legs that it is barely able to hop on forest floor. 2. Burrowers include the genus Kaloula, some of which are provided with blade-like turbercles on their feet that help push the soil particles during the digging process. Kaloula conjuncta is not only a burrower but also a climber. Rana cancrivora (aquatic sp.) apparently does burrow in the soft soil or mud under certain conditions, just like Occidozyga laevis. 3. Many Phillipine frogs Aquatic in habit and stay in water a great deal. E.g. Rana species the common frog, Occidozyga laevis, Staurois natator and Barbourula busuangensis (the most primitive Phil frog); all have

raniform bodies, powerful leg muscles, and well-developed foot webs all adaptations for swimming. In addition, tips of the fingers and toes in many species (e.g. Staurois natator) are expanded to afford them more surface area to attach to rocks in mountain streams. Some aquatic frogs (e.g. Rana everetti) are also arboreal and possess enlarged digit tips. The Phil largest frog Rana magna ( up to 120 mm long, is aquatic. (Rana goliath of Africa is the biggest frog in the world measuring 12 inches or 300mm+ SVL. 4. Arboreal Phil frogs range in size from 20mm to 80mm, but many are within 40mm to 50 mm. Tips of their fingers and toes are expanded and usually possess well developed webs in their hands and feet. E.g Philautus, Rhacophorus, Polypedates, and Platymantis contain several arboreal species. Their favorite microhabitats are the aerial ferns, climbing Pandanus, Alocasia sp., and Colocasia sp. Water collects in leaf axils, good for breeding and feeding. Many Rhacophorus species use exposed leaves of forest trees and shrubs but retire elsewhere during the day. The commensal Polypedates leucomystax or banana frog is a good climber and visit houses. Breeding season: - Some species have definite breeding seasons while others breed continuously throughout the year. Rana erythraea breeds continuously year round and also Occidozyga laevis. - Others breed seasonally depending on rainfall as stimulus for breeding on shallow ponds and egglaying sites. E.g. Rana cancrivora. Kaloula conjuncta seems opportunistic and breeds whenever there is rain. - Many forest species breed continuously throughout the year, e.g. Platymantis, Rana everetti, and Rana leytensis. Reproductive Modes and egg-laying: - 9 reproductive modes; - 1. eggs and larvae in temporary ponds; R. cancrivora, r. erythraea, Kaloula conjuncta, Occidoyga laevis - 2. eggs and larvae in pools of mountain streams and slow-flowing streams; many Rana species like Rana magna, r. everetti, R. signata, R. sanguine, R. microdisca. - 3. eggs in foam nest over temporary ponds or pools of mountain streams, larvae in ponds or pools; Polypedates leucomystax, Rhacophorus pardalis,

- 4. Oviposition over water-filled tree hole and larvae in the tree hole water; Philautus spinosus - 5. Eggs and non-feeding larvae in small volume of water collected in leaf axils in Pandanus; Pelophryne brevipes - 6. eggs in leaf axils of birds nest fern and Pandanus, direct development; Platymantis guentheri - 7. eggs on soil, direct development; Platymantis dorsalis - 8. eggs in aerial ferns, direct development; Philautus schmackeri - 9. eggs in leaf axils of screw pines (Pandanus), direct development; Philautus sp. In Malindang and Hilonghilong. Early Development: 4 patterns 1. Typical where eggs may be laid either in water or outside water after being fertilized..developmental stages of cleavageembryo hatches into larvae with external gills, and in most species with teeth and jaws and are freeswimming then undergo metamorphosis to become froglets 2. Modification of 1st. Pelophryne brevipes; eggs in leaf axils; larvae no functional mouth parts and without external gills. 3. Eggs are laid in non-awuatic situations and early development occurs entirely within the egg capsules; Platymantis spp. Which respire through absominal sacs instead of external gills and depend on their yolk for food. 4. Resembles 3rd pattern, but differs in respiratory structurePhilautus

January 24, 2012

Phil Reptiles Class Reptilia more numerous than amphibian, i.e., about 6,000+ worldwide Living species of reptiles: 1. Order Testudinata or Chelonia the turtles 2. Order Rhyncocephalia the tuatara (only in New Zealand, the only living representative) 3. Order Squamata Sub Order Lacertilia or Sauria (lizards), SubOrder Ophidia or Serpentes ( the snakes) and 4. Order Crocodilia the crocodiles and alligators Reptiles:

- Vertebrates with tough skins and covered with scales - Ectothermic like amphib - Lay their eggs (oviparous) with leathery or calcareous shell usually on land, or bear young alive (ovoviviparous) or viviparous which have placenta since they have extraembryonic membranes, the amnion and chorion that develop in reptiles; no larval stages in reptiles - Differ from amphibians in the structure and function of the circulatory system, and skeletal structure. External structure - Head, body two anterior limbs, and two posterior limbs and tails, but no neck - Head: nostrils, eyes with movable eyelids with a nictitating membrane at lower lid, mouth; jaws with teeth, tongue unlike amphibian in not attached to tip of lower jaw; tongue used to detect odor of objects like food; - Head with scales with constant arrangement for a species; external ears behind head on left and right; - Number of scale rows in body is used to separate species; - Cloacal opening on ventral body below the tail. - Tails in many lizards is easily broken off then tail is regenerated (autotomy) - With five fingers with claws - In Philippines: a) 90+ lizards in variety of habitats from human dwelling to forests b) 75 snakes in variety of habitats c) 2 or 3 land turtles in moist habitats, marshy areas and mountain streams d) 2 crocodiles - Tolerant to dry (xeric) conditions, thats why they are ubiquitous - In habit, lizards and snakes - primarily ground dwelling, burrowing, aquatic, or arboreal - E.g. Dasia smaragdina and Draco volans feed and seek cover in tree trunks but lay eggs on ground - Sphenomorphus arborens and snake Dendrelaphis caudolineatus both feed in both arboreal and ground situations - Varanus salvator is at home on land and water and in trees - Hydrosaurus pustulosus (sailfin water lizard) spends more time in water but lay eggs on land; - Natrix spilogaster are aquatic but lay eggs on land;

- Arboreal skinks: Leiolopisma and some geckonids Lepidodactylus and Pseudogekko sp.; now we have arboreal Varanus species which are vegetarian or herbivore - Ground dwellers with very well-developed limbs for running: Mabuya multifasciata, Gonyocephalus spp., and Varanus salvator and Elaphe erythrura. - Burrowing lizards: with degenerate eyes or covered with transparent scales; external ear openings partly hidden by scales; with degenerated or reduced limbs or stubs. E.g. Brachymeles and Dibamus argenteus (all skinks); blind snakes or Typhlops species, the Calamaria, Pseudorabdion, Cyclocorus and Oligodon burrow into humus thus concealed most of the time; many snakes hid under rocks and rotting vegetation - Many species of snakes under under Gekkonidae and Scincidae are arboreal species; the gekkonids have adhesive lamellae composed of brushlike bristles on underside of their hands and feet - Agamid Draco have flaps of skin for gliding - Agamid Calotes marmoratus, moderately big and blend with the green color of leaves or brown color of tree branches; - The flying lizards and Various species of Gonyocephalus have the ability to change their colors - Some arboreal snakes are greenish in color to blend with leaves e.g. Dendrelaphis caudlineatus, Ahaetulla prasina, Timeresurus flavomaculatus. - Aquatic lizards and snakes are not numerous: Hydrosaurus has paddle-like feet for swimming; Varanus and Natrix; other snakes without adaptation can swim; - Few reptiles are in high elevations: e.g. scincoid Sphenomorphus steerei up to 1,600 m masl; most are found in lowland TRF

January 31, 2012 - Some differences between lizard and snakes:

- vast majority of lizards have four limbs; snakes have vestigial spurs; lizards with movable eyelids; snakes with permanently covered eye by transparent cap continuous with skin (thus shed or molt with the skin); thus snakes dont close their eyes!; tongues of most lizards are broad with very few with forked tongues; long and deeply forked tongue is characteristic of snakes; practically all lizards have external ears; snakes dont have external ears; but both lizards and snakes have internal ears containing organs for hearing; lizards have two halves of bony portion of the lower jaw are united firmly in front; in snakes these are joint by ligament which can be stretched widely during swallowing of prey or large food. Life histories Reptiles practice internal fertilization, but do not form breeding congresses, and do not emit breeding calls; they have some phenomenon of delayed fertilization, and initiation of development before eggs are deposited; Some lizards and turtles are able to store sperm and therefore produce successive clutches after single mating; Sperm is introduced into female through copulation, where cloacal contact proceeds before the two hemipenes of males deliver sperm into the females reproductive tract Live bearers and oviparous species: most are skinks; some are ovoviviparous and some viviparous which have placentae; e.g. Mabuya multifasciata, Tropidophorus grayi, Brachymeles gracilis, B. tridactylus, Sphenomorphus sp. Or Leiolopisma auriculatum, L. rabori (see table 3 of Alcala); Mabuya multifasciata is a live bearer but Mabuya multicarinata is oviparous. Majority of lizards are oviparous; see tables 4 and 5 alcala. Agamid Hydrosaurus pustulosus buries eggs in humus; also Gekko monarchus, Lepidodactylus Christiana and L. herrei all with calcareous eggs.

Breeding season: - Some species breed all year round, e.g. skinks Dasia smaragdina, Emoia atrocostata, and Mabuya multifasciata. Also Draco volans, Sphenomorphus arborens, M. multicarinata. Are there venomous lizards in the Phils? NO! But some species have nasty bites --- Varanus and Gekko gecko); only2 sp are known in the world: 1. Heloderma

suspectum gila monster in Sonora, Mexico and Heloderma horridum in Western Mexico. Snakes -originated from lizards about 100 mya in Cretaceous period. Probably the ancestors are lizards related to monitors. Life Histories - Oviparous and live-bearing species in the Phils - most are oviparous; parents may or may not brood the eggs. E.g. Elaphe erythrura, Python reticulatus, Ophiophagus hannah, and Naja naja. - many sea snakes bear their young alive (viviparous) except some Laticauda which lay eggs on rocks. - the young of poisonous species are already poisonous and can bite. - breeding seasons of snakes need more research Many Phil snakes attain sexual maturity within one year. Breeding seasons: largely unknown, except for a few observations in specimens where eggs are found in the oviduct, e.g. Typhlops braminus in February, June, July and September; Elaphe erythrura in November Eggs and clutch number: - Eggs have leathery shell with much yolk; King cobra lays 21-40 eggs; Python about 100 eggs; King cobra builds a nest of leaves and vegetable debris and mother coils on top of eggs; Python lays eggs and deposits in hollow trunks of trees and broods its eggs; Incubation period: almost nothing is known; The common cobra incubates for 4969 days. Growth: largely no data; an Indian Python grows in captivity by about 3 inches per month in first 5 years; snakes grow faster when they are young than older; Sexual maturity and Longevity: largely unknown for Phil snakes Size: Phils has the largest snake in the world the reticulated Python can grow to as long as 32 feet! Typhlops braminus on of smallest snakes in the world (6 inches)

is found in Philippines; Anaconda (Eunectes murinus), the bulkiest snake is found in South America, grows to about 30 feet and heavier than Pyhton. The worlds largest venomous snake Ophiophagus hannah grows to about 18 feet. Venomous Phil snakes and their venom (from Werner and Keegan and Leviton): - Only 7 out of 74 species are venomous dangerous to man; all front-fanged and belong to Fam Elapidae (coral snakes and cobras) and Fam Crotalidae (pit vipers, 3 species Trimeresurus flavomaculatus, T. shultzei, and T. wagleri. - Snake venom: modified saliva that aid the snake in capturing and digesting its food; produced by venom glands at side of head and deliver by contracting muscles; fangs are shed off regularly or periodically and replaced by new ones - Pit vipers venom is predominantly hemotoxic and hemorrhagic (causes swelling and bleeding by destroying bloods cells and rupturing blood vessels); the apparatus for injecting the venom in pit vipers is well developed and very efficient; it consists of long needle-like fangs which are folded along sides of the palate when not in use to prevent lower jaw from being pierced. - Phil cobra causes more death than King Cobra because they are more common; - The venom of cobras and coral snakes is predominantly neurotoxic, i.e. it attacks the nervous tissues, depressing or stopping either lung or heart action or both. Of course, most venom is commonly a mixture of neurotoxic and hemotoxic elements; the cobra and coral snake fangs are grooved and are permanently erect and not capable of being folded like those of pit vipers - A few Phil species are rear-fanged with grooved fangs located at the back of the mouth; usually mild venom and less dangerous to man; e.g. Boiga spp, Dog-faced Hurria rynchops, the golden green snake Chrysopelea ornate, the bronzeback Ahaetulla prasina, and mock vipers Psammodynastes. Some rear-fanged species like the African boomslang (Dispholidus typus) not in the Philippines, killed a noted herpetologist! - The severity of snake bites DEPENDS ON: 1. Amount of venom injected; the snake may not discharge all of its venom when it bites; victim was able to withdraw it bitten part; or snake miscalculating the distance; also depending on size, age and physiological condition of the snake; old or young snake may not produce as those in their prime, or a snake just after hibernation or aestiviation may not have as much venom; 2. Site of the bite

 in fat tissues venom is absorbed more slowly than in muscles tissues with many blood vessels; 3. The victim himself those who have been bitten previously and survived will have antibodies to protect them. Relation of lizards and snakes to environment Physical factors - Light: most Phil lizards diurnal in habit; few are nocturnal e.g. Geckonids; among Phil snakes, diurnal genera include Ahaetulla, Dendrelaphis, Psammodydnastes, and Natrix. Burrowing snakes are not known! Varanus salvator, Dasia smaragdina and Mabuya multifasciata bask in the sun before becoming active - Heat: produced in the body of reptiles as a result of metabolism, but cannot maintain constant temperature unlike birds and mammals; ECCRETIC TEMPERATURE at which reptile carries on its metabolic activities at maximum or optimum rates. When the body is lower than eccretic temp, it may bask in the sun; when temp is higher as a result of activity, it stops activity until body temp goes down. - In general, lizards living in open habitats seem to have higher eccretic temperatures than those in forests. There is evidence that the parietal eye (the third rudimentary eye in the forehead of a lizard) helps regulate the duration of exposure to sunlight. Biotic factors - Food: lizards - many are insectivorous (very economically important) ; Emoia atrocostata feeds on crabs, shrimps, fish and insects; Gehyra and Hemidactylus when in houses take small pieces of food on the table; Hydrosaurus is omnivorous feeding on flower buds, shoots and insects; Varanus salvator is a scavenger and feeds also eats lizards, birds, chicken eggs, fish, toads and frogs. - Predators: lizards and snakes are preyed upon by birds and mammals e.g. Phil Eagle, Serpent Eagle, Hawks, Crows and owls including MAN! - Since many lizards and most frogs are insectivorous, they play an important role in keeping down the number of insects, some of which are mans competitors. This fact is a huge value to human February 21, 2012 Behavior of Phil Lizards and snakes - Movements: no much seasonal changes because of the tropical settings.

- Social behavior: well-developed in lizards in Family Agamidae. E.g. Draco volans and Hydrosaurus pustulosus e.g. threat display, assertion display, and submissive posture --- to resolve conflicts - Responses to sounds: most reptiles are voiceless, except Geckos and some snakes hissing sounds like Cobra perhaps to warn some intruders. - Sex recognition: there is sexual dimorphism in some lizards e.g. Dasia with yellow glandular heel pads in males; Mabuya males have brick red colors on sides. - Feeding behavior: as a rule lizards and snakes will take only live food! Their vision has evolved to recognize only moving objects as potential food. Caged animals have to be forced-feed sometimes. Sometimes they use smell to recognize food. Tongue of Varanus which is flicked continually is used for smelling! Pit vipers use their pit as infra-red receptor to locate the prey accurately. Venomous snakes and lizards use their venom to immobilize the preys to swallow them easily. Pythons constrict their prey before swallowing. Lizards just snap and swallow the prey. - Aestivation: Most snakes and lizards are active all year round. But in areas with marked dry season and rainy season, they may aestivate during dry season. - Defense: Threat display and combat posture are used in defense of territories or in competition for mates. The most common defense is to run away not to fight it out! Tails of skinks and geckos are easily broken when caught. Tails regenerate.

Philippine Turtles - Land turtles are represented by at least 4 species: Pelochelys cantorii in Luzon, Heosemys leytensis in Leyte, Cyclemys dhor in Palawan and Leyte and Cyclemys amboinensis the most common is widespread. - Lack of teeth and presence of shell are 2 characteristics that set them apart from other reptiles. Shells have horny scales and bony scutes (in plastron). Head, neck limbs are retractable. Respire through 1) lungs, 2) throat lining and 3) two sacs opening into the cloaca, which serve as gills., - Turtles appeared in the Triassic period 200 million years ago. - Cyclemys is omnivorous succulent leaves, boiled rice, coconut and frogs. - Young turtles are preyed upon by Varanus and some birds. - Turtle meat and eggs have been human delicacies, e.g. Green sea turtles (Cehlonia mydas) and Galapagos tortoise (Testudo sp.) Erethmochelys imbricata source to tortoise shell!

Philippine Crocodiles - Two species in the Philippines: 1) Salt-water or estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus and 2) Phil or Mindoro Crocodile Crocodylus mindorensis. - Lolong the largest; newly caught Valentino and Valentina. Juvenile estuarine crocs eat invertebrates but as they grow bigger they eat bigger preys (birds and mammals) including humans! - Estuarine crocodiles lay 25 to 65 eggs in a nest made up of vegetation. PHILIPPINE BIRDS CLASS AVES about 10,000 species in 28 Orders (19 Orders in Philippines) Possess feathers Endothermic (warm-blooded) Forelimbs modified into wings Reproduce by means of calcareous eggs, laid and incubated outside the body either by nature or sitting by either of the parents. - Embryos like those of mammals and some reptiles have extra-embryonic membranes - Characterized by ability to fly (though mammals like bats also fly and ratites dont fly unlike the carinates) - Because of flight, birds are extremely successful in occupying all places on earth! - They are called efficient flying machines (high power and low weight) because of possession of a) feathers b) wings, c) hollow and much reduced bones d) warm blood e) strong heart f) powerful breast muscles and g) unique respiratory system External Structure - Bill; large eyeballs cuz of reliance on vision; small ear openings covered by ear coverts without pinna; very flexible neck because of greater number of vertebrae than other animals with necks; Wings eveloved from primitive vertebrate forelimb. In the course of evolution, the small bones of wrist, hand and fingers have been fused into smaller number of vbony elements while the long bones of the upper arm (humerus) and forearm (radius and ulna) have been retained. - Breast characterized by rigidity for the support of flying movements - Legs bear at least 4 toes; toes like the shank of leg are covered with scales and not feathers. The shank bone developed froma combination of ankle and -

foot bones the tibia and the much reduced fibula which is clothed with feathers. The hips or pelvic girdle is another rigid part due to extensive fusion of the sacral vertebrae and different elements of the pelvic girdle. Tail has few caudal vertebrae; pygostyle is attached to the last caudal vertbebrae and supports the main tail feathers Skin is thin and flexible; oil gland is the only skin gland of birds Feathers or plumage are horny epidermal structures comparable to scales in reptiles.

Habitats and General distribution of Phil Birds - About 450+ species of resident breeding birds - About 150+ species of migratory species - Birds can be found in any habitat or vegetation types; tropical rainforests have the most birds species diversityfound - Types of adaptations bills, wings, feet, toes, tails - Breeding seasons generally at the onset of rainy season April-May when many fruit plants are flowering and insect species grow in abundance - Development of young: Precocial and Altricial - Incubation: shared by parents e.g. Phil Eagle; hornbills use holes with females inside+; Phil Eagle incubation period 60-61 days; Tabon bird 63 days; Zebra Dove 10-15 days; Treron vernans 11-16 days - Fledgling or nestling period: Phil Eagle 104-105 days Biotic factors - Food habits: carnivore, insectivore, frugivore, granivore, piscivore, carrion/scavenger, omnivore, (stenophagous- few kinds of food; euryphagous wide variety of food); - Predation: some birds feed on reptiles; some reptiles in return eat eggs and birds; some eat rats and rats eat eggs and birds - Movements: local migration, regular or periodic N-S migration Aug/Sept to Feb-March, or at end of summer and at start of fall. - Territoriality: well-developed eg. Phil Eagle, White-breasted woodswallow; - Songs and calls: each bird species has its songs (elaborate, for reproduction, social and individual functions) and calls (short)

- Courtship and mating habits: territory establishment, courtship, mate selection or betrothal, pair bond establishment, courtship, nest-building,, brooding of eggs and young, and feeding and leading of young. Feb. 28, 2012 Bird aggregations - birds form flocks of varying sizes at certain times of year usually to a) breed b) to feed, or c) to provide mutual protection from the elements and enemies. These are not usually permanent. Seabirds come together to nest on small rocky islands. (e.g. Tubattaha Reef Boobies and Noddy). Some birds huddle together to get warm.. e.g. Barn swallows on electric wires!! Migrating fly in flocks. Penguins flock for protection against extremely cold winds. In Phil., feedings flocks of: pick-necked green pigeon, Pink-bellied Imperial pigeon (Ducula poliocephala), Reddish Cuckoo Dove, chestnut munia, the coleto, phil glossy starling and the Philippine mallard. In the TRForests, small birds of 10 or more species (both frugivores and insecvtivores (white-eye Zosterops nigrorum, velvet-fronted nuthatch Sitta frontalis, elegant tit Parus elegans, blue-headed fantail Rhipidura cyaniceps, yellow-backed sunbird Aethopyga siparaja, gather in feeding trees e.g. Balete or dalakitFicus Balete, F. minahassae, etc.) Pecking Order in the wild birds establish social hierarchies, pecking order. Alpha pecks Beta pecks Omega pecks no one. Sometimes Omega pecks Alpha! to establish Order without resorting to fighting and waste energy. Reproductive behavior - activities involved a) territory establishment, b) courtship, c) mate selection or bethrothal, d) pair bond establishment, e) copulation, f) nest building, g) brooding of eggs, and young and h) the feeding or leading the young. Mammals - Most advanced among vertebrate classes
3,500+ species in 18 or19 Orders worldwide Latin mamma