Plate Tectonics and Associated Hazards

Plate Tectonics movement of plates, loadfroms and submarine features and hazards
Structure of earth: The core is approx. the size of Mars and is the most dense part of the planet being made from rocks rich in iron and nickel, the inner core is around 6,000C Surrounding the core is the mantle, outer layer being the asthenosphere, which are rocks rich in iron and magnesium, temperatures can reach 5,000C and contain the convection currents The crust is the thinnest, coolest and least dense piece of rock. They are rich in silicon, oxygen, aluminium, potassium and sodium. The crust is separate from the mantle by the Mohorovijic (Moho) discontinuity. Crust and upper mantle make lithosphere Plate tectonics theory: Plate tectonics theory made properly in 1960, even though in 1620, people such as Francis Bacon thought about the continental fit. Geologist Alfred Wegener published theory in 1912 suggesting all continents used to fit together in a super continent called Pangaea, and slowly drifted apart over time. Evidence for continental drift/plate tectonics theory: Fit of continental coastlines continental shelves fit very well into each other Matching of geological structures across oceans rocks of same type and age are found on different continents Matching of climactically controlled rock formations across oceans various places have same coal deposits from old tropical conditions, yet are now in different places Matching of species across oceans similar fossils are found in different locations and Australia only has marsupials since they drifted away from the predators. Palaeomagnetism Oceanic ridges, strips parallel to the plate boundary and are identical either side, changed pole attraction around every 400,000 years, found in 20th century. Sea floor spreading backed up by continental, geographical, climatogical and biological evidence and palaeomagnetism. Mid-ocean ridges (mid-atlantic is the words longest, being 60,000km long and moves 1-10cms a year) How plates move:

EARTH DIAGRAM: SHOWING PLATE MOVEMENT

Type of plate boundaries: Constructive plate boundary (Iceland located on this boundary between Eurasian and North American plate) two plates moving apart through convection currents, creating new crust. Huge rift valleys normally appear on sea floor, magma rises to fill any gaps and a submarine volcano can be produced, if this keeps happening, then volcano may arise above sea level to create an island such as Surtsey in Iceland, which is on the midAtlantic ridge. Destructive plate boundary (Nazca sinks under South American plate) They either collide together or one is subducted under the other into the asthenosphere. Oceanic meets continental plate, oceanic goes under and deep ocean trench formed, sediments are folded and faulted into a range of Fold Mountains along the edge of the continental plate, 80% of volcanoes formed in these areas. Oceanic meets oceanic plate, both go under,

results in deep ocean trench and a line of volcanic islands called an island arc. The Benioff Zone is where the basaltic crust (Oceanic) is melted into magma, which rises upwards through the volcano or into new land. Collision plate boundary (Indian plate colliding with Eurasian plate, forming Himalayas) two continental plates meet, forced together as similar density and lighter than asthenosphere, so no subduction. Both plates forced upwards into some of the largest mountains (collision zone). Conservative plate boundary (Pacific plate in same direction as North American, San Andreas fault) plates being dragged past each other and no crustal material is being created or destroyed (can be moving in opposite directions, or same direction but one with more speed). Usually transform faults found in these areas which are at right angles to boundary and earthquakes are a major hazard in these locations, particularly the main boundary. The Crust: Oceanic Crust (sima) almost continuous around the earth, relatively dense at 3-3.3gm per cc, mainly consists of basaltic rocks and is less than 250 million years old. Thinner layer at 6-10 km thick. Continental Crust (sial) only occurs where there are continental land masses, bit lighter at 2.7 gm per cc, consists mainly of granitic rocks and is much older, possibly up to 3500 million years old. The oldest, most stable, and most eroded areas of this type of rock are called the cratons or shield areas. Thicker layer at 35-70 km thick.

DIAGRAMS OF VOLCANOES WITH LABELS SUCH AS FISSURE, SHEILD, COMPOSITE ETC.

Volcanicity forcing of solid, liquid or gaseous material into or onto the surface of the earths curst. Intrusive when into the crust, extrusive when on the surface
Intrusive landforms: Far more magma goes into the crust than on to the surface. It cools and solidifies and after many centuries of denudation (weathering and erosion), various forms of intrusion are exposed as landforms. These vary in shape and size but come in: Batholiths: The area in which the magma collects to be then injected through the bedrock Dykes Vertical intrusion of magma with horizontal cooling cracks, cools on colder rocks. E.g. West coast of Scotland, Calgary Bay. Sills Horizontal intrusions with vertical cooling cracks, cools on rock. E.g. North eastern counties of England, Whin Sill. The existing crust can be affected from the temperature and pressure from the injected magma, the rocks that are affected are called metamorphic aureole. They only really become visible after centuries of denudation and overlaying rock has been removed. Intrusive volcanic events are only hazardous through the earthquakes which accompany such intrusions. Extrusive landforms: Major landforms Volcanoes are the most common landform that result from the extrusive volcanic activity and they may be classified in a number of ways: Characteristics of the extruded material (acidic or basic) Opening or vent through which the lava has emerged (fissure or vent) Frequency of the eruption (regular or infrequent) Violence of the eruption (explosive or gentle)

They are then classified according to the name of a well known volcano which has erupted in a similar way. These are as in order (Basaltic lava/runny/no pyroclastic fragments/reduced viscosity/little silica/regular or continuous) Icelandic, Hawaiian, Strombolian, Vulcanian, (Andestic lava/thicker) Vesuvian, Krakatoan, Pelean and Plinian (Rhyolitic lava/thick/lots of pyroclastic fragments/increased viscosity/rich in silica/long dormant periods/acid lava dome) The primary effects are: Tephra solid material which varies in size E.g. 29,000 killed at Mount Pelee, 1902

Pyroclastic flows up to 1000C, gas charged, moving at high velocity of up to 450mph from volcano, possibly through efficient lava tubes Lava flow flow of runny or thick lava, the thicker the more destructive Volcanic gases carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide and chorine E.g. 1,700 and 3,500 livestock killed at Lake Nyos by CO2 The secondary effects are: Lahars mud flows caused by a mixture of ash and rain/snow/water Flooding melting of ice caps or glaciers Tsunamis landslide from collapsing volcano or high debris E.g. 36,000 killed by Krakatau tsunami, 1893 Volcanic landslides some of the larger volcanoes may collapse partially or fully due to pressure Climatic change debris in atmosphere E.g. 80,000 killed by famine in Tambora, Indonesia, 1815 These effects only really become hazardous when people are involved except maybe climatic change.

Where volcanoes are found: Spreading Mid-Ocean ridges Continental rift valleys Island arcs at destructive plate margins In fold mountain ranges Isolated locations known as hot spots - These are anomalies which do not integrate with the plate boundary pattern. They can form a chain if the land above it is moving fast enough in one direction (Hawaii) and that the continental crust is relatively thin. This leaves lots of new islands being formed and becoming inactive once leaving the hot spot. This movement helps prove continental drift. Minor landforms: Boiling Mud hot water from magma mixes with mud to create surface deposits (New Zealand) Solfatara (Italy) when gases, mainly sulphurous, escape on to the surface Geyser water lower in the crust is heated by rocks and turns into steam, the pressure increases until it explodes on to the surface Fumaroles/Hot springs (Pamukkale, Turkey) superheated water turns into steam as pressure drops from when it emerges from the ground Predicting Volcanoes: 25% of inactive volcanoes arent monitored 75% of eruptions have been a surprise since 1980, due to them not have erupted before

Earthquakes mini earthquakes happen before a volcanic eruption, which can affect the shape of the volcano as well. Techniques such as ground surveying and levelling and electronic distance movement are sued. Simple techniques involve measuring cracks and water levels, as well as using demolitions to check if there is magma inside the volcano. Magma movement underground gases such as sulphur dioxide can appear or appear in water vapour, also magnetic fields in rocks can decrease. Subterranean magma movements groundwater temperature and flow may change. More water melting may be more hazardous due to melting glaciers etc. Ground temperature this usually changes, and infra-red images from satellites can monitor movement of magma. Extinct volcano: Not erupted in record history (estimate 500 years), look eroded and show no signs of activity. Dormant volcano sleeping volcano: less eroded and shows signs of activity. Active volcano: Erupted recently, can see gases/earthquakes/groundwater steaming

Case Study: Mount Etna, Italy (MEDC) Location: East of densely populated Sicily (Decade volcano by UN), on top of plate boundary of African plate under Eurasian plate (destructive). Nature: Composite stratovolcano erupting runny + fast basaltic lava, horse-shoe-shaped, several collapsed calderas and alternating eruptive vents, minimum 60 flank/fissure eruptions, making it well-monitored and actively managed due to mystery. Fertile soil on sides with hornitos (small parasitic cones which splatter lava). Potential hazards: seismic activity, gas plumes, volcanic dust and ashfalls, flank collapsing, phratic explosions (water explosions) due to high magnitude explosions, causing destruction of roads, buildings, pipe lines, road/air traffic, agriculture. Impact: 77 deaths in total but reducing each year, mainly visitors going into hazardous areas, 9 tourists killed in phratic explosion, last 20 years, all deaths by lightening strikes or accidents. In 2002, eruption destroyed one whole tourist station and a bit on the other side in which it took 2 weeks to reach, this caused the closure of the closest airport while the runway was being cleared of ash. Winter tourism affected due to safety concerns. In 2007, 400m high spout of lava, sending ash and smoke over the towns below from strong winds, caused the closure of airport again. Management and Response: Much experience over eruptions, government rarely intervene and so people just rebuild from scraps or move elsewhere. But they did in 1991-1993 when Zafferana was threatened by lava flow, initial attempts unsuccessful as lava went over earth barriers, so explosives at source of lava to break lava tube system 7km, main explosion blew it off course down another channel. During 2002, dams of soil and rock used to protect tourist base at Rifugio Sapienza, armies heavy earth moving equipment brought in, damage to agriculture and tourism trade, $8 given as tax breaks to villagers. Monitoring: INGV monitored for 20 years with lots of sensors (seismic, magnetic) connected to real time and responds to centre in Catania. Data continuously recorded. Geochemical monitoring programmes test gas and fluid emissions to predict eruptions and warn of dangerous gas emissions all around the volcano. SO2 monitored continuously from vehicle and helicopter to see how much magma is inside volcano.

Case Study: Chaitn, Chile (LEDC) Date + Location: 1st/2nd May 2008, South-Eastern Chile, South American plate over Pacific Ocean plate, 4,200 pop. Background + Timeline: First eruption in around 9,400 years, produced plume of volcanic ash and steam that rose 17km high, winds went east, Chaitn town 10km south-west blanketed in ash. 4,000 evacuated by boat + 1,000 others people from nearby town Futateufu. Some other close towns got heavy ash fall too. Some airports, highways and schools forced to shut. One of the largest volcano chains in the world, 40 active out of 122. Lava dome within a caldera, 2.5km by 4km, viscous rhyolitic lava pyroclastic, magma rise through Fold Mountains in Andes. Started Midnight 1/5/08 First 6 hour ash cloud 18km high

Next 6 day 30km high with explosions Lava dome made Nature: Not accurately monitored, rhyolitic lava meant pyroclastic flows, lava generated a new dome, 20 30km ash column, and ash coated and asphyxiated some animals as well as blocking roads, triggered thunderstorms, which lead to flooding. Impact: USGS came in, lahars everywhere, cut communication and access, some rivers blocked and contaminated supplies, 90% ended up flooded through rain and rivers. 1 death from stress, some farm animals and wild animals killed, breathing difficulties at local hospitals, 80% of town damaged, 20% destroyed, damage to airport and marine facilities made rescue operation harder. 3 planes damaged from ash, quite a few airport closures, several hundred flights cancelled. Management and response: not actively monitored because believed dormant and low population. Only one volcano observatory in Chile, and USGS arrived 16th May. May 3rd, 3,900 evacuated by Navy and some forcible evacuations made. Emergency measures included not drinking water as reservoirs contaminated with ash, masks and bottled water give out, 50km exclusion around town, government gave approx. $1,800 per month per family to rebuild, financial aid to small businesses and 90 day freeze on bank fines. Volcano Disaster Assistance Program (VDAP) to aid monitoring and prediction of future eruptions, real-time seismic monitoring began on 17th May, Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI measure explosiveness from 0 8) made this a 5, it was important to government as it was a big one and many other volcanoes like that in the area, small gas plumes and ash for rest of 2008.

Case Study: Eyjafjallajokull, Iceland 2010 (MEDC) Location: April and May 2010, Southern Iceland on Mid-Atlantic Ridge bit of a hot spot (thin crust), Eurasian to the east and North American to the west Nature: Only a 2 on the VEI (Volcanic Explosivity Index), but its mixture of lava and ice from ice-cap and caused ash plumes 10km high, but very little damage. Only erupted 3 times on record. Impact: April and May 2010, magma melted ice and mixed causing huge bellows of ash, 700 people primarily evacuated, thousands of flights cancelled all over Northern Europe, the UK and the Scandinavian countries. Plume then went down to 2km and some airports opened, but this ash plume rose again and more cancelled, but finally went. Livestock taken to shelter inside buildings, small local flooding, fish exports industry heavily effected, glassy silica gas damaged airplanes, airlines lost millions and millions, Europe lost $2.6 billion in GDP and drop of 11% in passenger numbers, 400,000 Britons left stranded worldwide, deliveries not carried out, people buddied up on social networking sites like Facebook to hire a car back to England, national trust gave free entry to visitors, Barack Obama couldnt attend Polish funeral Positives included extra business on channel tunnel boats, reduction in aircraft noise for a while, and 2.8 million tonnes of CO2 not emitted during period. Management and response: Looking at other volcanoes to erupt in Iceland, learning more about flight during ash clouds, sensors on aircraft to avoid ash clouds.

Earthquakes and Tsunamis Inconvenience to MEDCs, devastating to LEDCs.

Earthquakes: They happen when the stress in the rocks reaches to a critical level and break apart or move past each other suddenly. They occur more than volcanoes and generally appear in the same areas, with an aftershock. That point in the rock is known as the focus, which is usually on a fault line. Shallow Focus: 0 70km deep (strongest) Intermediate Focus: 70 300km deep Deep Focus: 300 - 700km deep (weakest) The epicentre is the area directly above it on the earths surface which receives the most vibration. Energy is released a number of different waves: P waves (primary) are the fastest and shake the earth backwards and forwards, they move through solids and liquids S waves (secondary) are slower and move from side to side, they cannot travel through liquids but do more damage Surface waves travel close to the surface and are the slowest waves, but the most destructive. These include L (long) waves which move sideways and Rayleigh waves with move up and down These have helped scientists to learn more about the internal structure of the earth. As many earthquakes happen under the sea, tsunamis are formed a lot of the time. Minor earthquakes also occur at volcanic eruptions, old fault lines and stress with the filling of valleys with heavy loads of water for reservoirs Measuring Earthquakes: The Richter scale is a logarithmic scale, which increasing 10 fold every one scale of 0-10 it goes up. The Mercalli scale is a measurement from 1-12, measuring the actual amount of destruction. A seismometer measures and records shockwaves, which follow patterns and can help predict future earthquakes. Effects: The severity is dependant on earthquakes distance, strength and shallowness from humans, and the underlying geology. Tsunami triggered by earthquakes and submarine landslides e.g. Indonesia, 26th Dec 2004. Liquefaction violent shaking cuasing soil to fail at holding moisture, so groundwater rises to make weak muddy water. Can destroy foundations and pipes/buildings etc. e.g. San Francisco, 1989, $100,000 million in damage. Landslides/Avalanches ground shaking leads to slope failure. Human Impact - Primary effects are buildings destroyed, collapsing bridges, electricity cuts, broken gas pipes. Secondary effects are fires, contaminated water supplies, loss of trade etc. but economic strength determines this. Predictions: Seismic records look at the pattern to determine next patterned strike Radon gas emissions measure the gas which is released when the ground cracks (before quake) Groundwater The rise and fall of water (liquefaction) Remote sensing there can be electromagnetic disturbances in the area of the atmosphere Low-frequency electromagnetic activity watching the correlation between seismicity and electromagnetic activity of an area. None of these can predict an earthquake fo sho but theyre pretty good and can help a few days to evacuate. Protection: Buildings/cities more earthquake resistant (building shape, foundations (pendulum bearing) and fire-resistant)

Raising public awareness and education programme Improving earthquake prediction Better evacuation routes Case Study: Sichuan, China 2008 (LEDC)

Location: 12th May 2008, 90km north west of Chengdu, Sichuan in south eastern China. Northward movement of the Indian plate against Eurasian plate Nature: 7.9 magnitude, worst Chinese earthquake since 1976 when 242,000 people were killed in Tangshan. Mainly rural area but nearly 70,000 dead by June 2008. Caused by plates rubbing together. Epicentre highly destructive breaking up mountains. More than 12,600 aftershocks recorded, one being 5.4 magnitude killing another eight people, injuring 927 and destroyed 400,000 homes. Impact: One of the deadliest to strike China and affected many other areas. 70,000 killed, 18,000 missing presumed dead, 375,000 injured. 46m people affected. 15m evacuated. 5m buildings collapsed. 21m damaged. 5m people left homeless. Some towns completely destroyed. Total economic loss estimated at $86bn. Landslides and rock falls damaged roads and railways. One landslide causing 700 deaths. Huge flooding threatened lives of 700,000 people downstream. 2,500 dams fractured. Eight schools destroyed and killing all students. Management and response: Earthquake not predicated even though area prone to earthquakes. Largely neglected land untouched Chinas economic rise, most buildings not fit to building regulations and so destroyed. 80,000 troops sent for rescue efforts but mountainous terrain proved difficult. Secondary threats built from growing barrier dams. Chinese government gave $13.6bn in relief and received $10bn in aid.

Case Study: Northridge Earthquake, LA, USA, 1994 (MEDC) Location: 4:30am on 17th January 1994, On Pico thrust fault (previously unknown) off of San Andreas Fault, North-west of Downtown LA Nature: 6.7 magnitude, strongest of the 5 in last 80 years, focus at 18.4km, highest ground acceleration for North American quake. Impact: 57 killed and 5,000-15,000 injured, 12,500 buildings damaged, 11 major roads seriously damaged up to 32km away from epicentre, more than 11,000 landslides damaging roads, water lines and houses, 20,000 made homeless, 11 hospitals damaged and unable to help neighbourhood, 600 aftershocks including 5.6 magnitude earthquake just 11 hours after, tens of thousands of homes with no gas, electricity or water, $30 billion in damage with 700,000 applications of assistance made. Management and response: new building codes put in place tor reinforce current buildings and for new buildings in the future - particularly hospitals

Tsunamis: These are mainly caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions or large landslides, but also include meteorite impacts and underwater explosions. They mainly occur in the Pacific Ocean. They are devastating because:

They can travel up to 950km/hr over open seas and difficult to detect from air because the wave at that point will only be 0.5 5m high. The height increases and speed decreases as the water they are travelling through gets shorter. They usually hit the shore up to 50m tall and around 50km/hr. Waves are so strong they can uproot trees and buildings. Usually affect 1-2kms inland mainly and areas below 10 metres above sea level.

Other Characteristics:

Wave length is around 150m-250m out at sea 4th/5th wave is the largest and strongest usually

The approach of a tsunami can be told by alternating high and low water levels up to several minutes apart, an earthquake beforehand. Also all shoreline is in danger as the tsunamis reflect around in the water and off of land, but normally weaker at the normal of the plate. Severity: Population density Economic status Geological location/topography/water depth Warning/evacuation systems Protection system Aid Strength Distance

Case Study: Great Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake, 2004 (LEDC) Location: 26th December 2004, Sunda Trench, south-west coast of Indonesia, Australia plate under Burmah plate Nature: 9.1 magnitude, third biggest since 1900 loss of life all the way to South Africa. 15-20 metre slip along 1,600 km of faultline in two phases. Epicentre approximately 160 km off shore just north of islands. Focus 30 km below sea level, plate lift of several metres, cause 20m high waves penetrating 800 metre inland, 5001,000 km waves, some areas having waves 30m high. Waves travel mainly west to east, close places such as Bangladesh missed out major damage due to being located north whereas South Africa being west 8,500 km away even had tides 1.5 m high, 16 hours after the earthquake. Aftershocks continued several months afterwards and hampered rescue attempts. Impact: Large number of countries experienced casualties and other damage, no warning systems in place and heavily populated, many countries unaware of tsunami. LEDCs had incomplete records of deaths and missing, many children drowned under intensity, many women also killed waiting for returning fishermen and protecting children. 9.000 foreign tourists killed. Coastal fishing communities destroyed causing major economic disadvantage. 60% fishing fleet destroyed. Contamination of drinking water and farming ruined by saltwater in coastal regions. Tourism badly hit. Severe damage to ecosystems such as coral reefs and forests. Management and response: No tsunami warning systems in place due to being LEDC although it was very close and no chance of warning anyway. Main concern was sanitation facilities, fresh drinking water, coping with spread of disease from dead bodies. World food programme provided food for more than 1.3 m people. Worldwide $7bn in aid mainly from richer countries, although $4bn reported as never being given. Worldwide publicity gave considerable donations for example the British public gave 330m more than donated by the British government. Warning system: UN in Japan make an Indian ocean tsunami warning system. Construction of 25 seismographic stations, completed in June 2006. Indonesia suffered another small tsunami in July 2006 although 530 people died due to the warning system not actually being ready.