RAIN WATER HARVESTING

INTRODUCTION:
Rainwater harvesting is the gathering, or accumulating and storing, of rainwater. Rainwater harvesting has been used to provide drinking water, water for livestock, water for irrigation or to refill aquifers in a process called groundwater recharge. Rainwater collected from the roofs of houses, tents and local institutions, or from specially prepared areas of ground, can make an important contribution to drinking water. In some cases, rainwater may be the only available, or economical, water source. Rainwater systems are simple to construct from inexpensive local materials, and are potentially successful in most habitable locations. Roof rainwater is usually of good quality and does not require treatment before consumption. Household rainfall catchment systems are appropriate in areas with an average rainfall greater than 200mm per year and no other accessible water sources (Skinner and Cotton, 1992) .There are a number of types of systems to harvest rainwater ranging from very simple to the complex industrial systems. Generally, rainwater is either harvested from the ground or from a roof. The rate at which water can be collected from either system is dependent on the plan area of the system, its efficiency, and the intensity of rainfall.

TRADITIONAL WATER HARVESTING PRACTICES PREVAILING IN INDIA: ARTIFICIAL GLACIERS:

A great example of how decentralised approaches to water harvesting boost innovation comes from Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir. Chewang Norphel, retired engineer of the department of rural development, has found a way to make 'artificial glaciers'. In the cold desert that is Ladakh, the only source of water is met from glaciers. But this comes in late in the summer. Norphel has developed a way to bring glaciers closer to villages, which is a bonus for farmers as water reaches their fields in

spring. Norphel's innovation involves channelizing water to the shadow area of a mountain close to a village. After going through metal pipes, the water freezes, creating a glacier close to the village.

CHAUKA SYSTEM:
The people of Laporiya of Dudu block, Jaipur, Rajasthan have dyked degraded pastures to harvest rain. In the 1970's the pastures of Laporiya were barren and degraded. In 1990, the Gram Vikas community to undertake the revival of its ecology. Navuyak Mandal Laporiya (GVNML), a civil society group of Laporiya mobilised the village

A gram sabha (village assembly) consisting of 11 village elders were formed. Four years later, work was initiated on 50 hectares (ha) of pastures to integrate the denuded land into a single project unit. result was a system of chaukas. To complete the project, the villagers contributed labour as shramdaan (voluntary labour) and the Chaukas are rectangular plots in a dyked pasture and store rainwater. They are 66 metres (m) long high are built along the three sides that lie towards the lower part of the land/gradient. Trees are planted on these dykes to give them additional support to withstand rain.

and 132 m wide enclosures arranged in a zigzag pattern and lie along small gradient. Dykes, 1.5 m

When it rains, water collects in the dyked lower half of the chauka. As the amount of water stored in the enclosure rises, it flows into the neighbouring chauka, and so on, gradually seeping over the entire pasture. This means that fields are never inundated with water. Grasses can grow. After reaching the last chauka, the water flows into a monsoon drain. This system not only provides adequate water for villagers, but also promotes the recharge of groundwater.

The key to the success of the project is its adaptability. The dykes have been built keeping in mind the pathways that the people use. There was no restriction on grazing in the chaukas earlier as the emphasis was on impounding water and improving the soil. Now the people of the village plan to restrict grazing to alternate chaukas.

TUDUM OR MONGA:
Tudum or monga are mechanisms used to draw water from Kohli tanks for irrigation. Different mechanisms are used depending on the size of the tank. For a small tank or a bori, a straight tunnel across the base of the bund is constructed using stones. A required.

log is pitched at the mouth of the tunnel and plastered with clay. It is removed when water is

For a medium or large tank, a straight tunnel across the base of the bund is constructed using stones stopped with a stone slab or a wooden log carefully plastered with clay.

over which a stair-like structure (monghad) is built, with a opening (dachcha) on each side. This is Sometimes, a hollow tree trunk is also placed across the base of a tank, to which another hollow tree

trunk with holes at regular distances is placed vertically. These holes are plugged with cogs, which are removed to draw water. This system requires frequent repairs as tree trunks rot quickly. Besides, there are stringent forest laws, which make it difficult to obtain wooden logs.

NETWORKING OF FARM PONDS:

The Institute for Rural Development of the Bharatiya Agro-Industries Foundation has undertaken the excavation of 330 farm ponds in Adihalli watershed, spread over an area of 700 hectares in where structures were dug out in strategic locations, locally known as kalyani. This overcomes the Arasikere taluka of Hassan district in Karnataka. The approach is based on a traditional concept shortcomings of constructing check dams, which cannot be constructed in all terrain and the contour lines and connected to one another, allow easy access to water and a better soil moisture an NGO, has also worked on farm ponds. It has promoted the idea of leaving a small part of the farm for water harvesting.

benefits of which are not available to upstream communities. A series of ponds, constructed along regime. In the Chotanagpur plateau in Orissa, the Professional Assistance for Development Action,

METHODS OF RAIN WATER HARVESTING:

In ancient days itself, people, especially Indians, know the methods of conservation of rainwater. There are evidences that, even during Harappan period, there was very good system of water period, the people use to manage water resources considering it as part of the nature which is

management as could be seen in the latest excavation at Dholavira in Kachch. During independence essential for their survival. This could be seen from the rain water harvesting structures in the low percolation ponds and tanks in southern India.

rainfall areas of Rajasthan, harvesting springs in hilly areas and mountainous region and In Tamil Nadu, the ancient people stored rainwater in public placed separately one for drinking

purposes and another for bathing and other domestic purposses and called them as Ooranies. They also formed percolation tanks or ponds, for the purpose of recharging irrigation or domestic wells. They periodically clean the water ways so as to get clean water throughout the year. These are instances in the history that people constructed crude rubble bunds across river courses either for harvesting are classified below under two category, Traditional and Modern methods. diversion of water or for augmenting the ground water. The various methods of rainwater

TRADITIONAL METHODS:

Traditional rainwater harvesting, which is still prevalent in rural areas, was done in surface storage bodies like lakes, ponds, irrigation tanks, temple tanks etc. In urban areas, due to shrinking of open spaces, rainwater will have to necessarily be harvested as ground water, hence harvesting in such places will depend very much on the nature of the soil viz., clayey, sandy etc. The below listed are the various kinds of traditional rainwater harvesting methods. Click for more detailed info Kunds of Thar Desert Bamboo Method

Kul Irrigation Method Temple Tanks of India

MODERN METHODS:
The Modern methods of rainwater harvesting are categorised into two, they are Artificial Recharging and Rain Water Harvesting. The former is classified into Absorption Pit Method, Absorption Well Method, Well cum Bore Method and Recharge trench cum injection well. The later is categorised into Individual Houses and Grouped Houses which are further classified into Percolation Pit Method, Bore Well with Settlement Tank, Open Well Method with filter bed Sump and Percolation Pit with Bore Method. Artificial Recharging

Absorption Pit Method

Absorption Well Method Well cum Bore Method Recharge trench cum injection well Rain Water Harvesting Percolation Pit Method Individual Houses

Grouped Houses

Bore Well with Settlement Tank

RWH in Grouped Houses(Flat)

Open Well Method with filter bed Sump Percolation Pit with Bore Method

MODERN METHOD: PERCOLATION OR ABSOPTION PIT:

A percolation / absorption pit is a hand bore made in the soil with the help of an augur and filled up with pebbles and river sand on top. The depth of these pits will be anywhere between 4 and 8 meters depending on the nature of the soil. If the soil is clayey, the pit has to be dug to a depth till a reasonably sandy stratum is reached. The diameter of these pits will be 25 cm (10 inches). A square / circular collection chamber with silt arrester is provided at the top Size " 1m x 1m x 1.5m (depth)

Filled with broken bricks / pebbles Suitable for sandy sub - soil area One unit for 300 sq.ft area (approx.)

PERCOLATION PIT WITH BORE METHOD:

A borehole to be drilled at the bottom of the percolation pit. Bore hole size : 150 - 300 mm dia with 10 -15 ft depth (approx.)Filled with broken bricks. Suitable for clay area.

PERCOLATION OR ABSORPTION WELL:

These wells are constructed using cement rings readily available in the market. The diameter of the soil and the diameter depends on the number of roof top pipes that are likely to be connected to thickness to facilitate free pedestrian and vehicular movement on the ground.

these rings range from 2 ft to 6 ft. The depth to which these wells are dug depends on the nature of each one of these wells. These wells are left unfilled and are covered with RCC slabs of suitable

Rainwater from the terrace is diverted to the existing open well using PVC pipes through a filter chamber. The minimum size of the filter chamber is 2" x 2" x 2" filled with broken bricks in the bottom and sand on the top. The chamber may be covered with RCC slab.

RAIN WATER HARVESTING IN GROUP HOUSES:

Utilise the open well if any, within the complex to divert the rainwater from the terrace into it. If

not, construct a well for this purpose. The rainwater falling on the open space around the complex can be collected near the gate by providing a gutter with perforated lid. The collected water can be led through necessary piping arrangements into a recharge well of 1 metre dia and 5 metre deep.

TRADITIONAL METHOD: BAMBOO METHOD:

In Meghalaya (one of the seven northeastern states in India), an ingenious system of tapping of stream and springwater by using bamboo pipes to irrigate plantations is widely prevalent. It is so perfected that about 18-20 litres of water entering the bamboo pipe system per minute gets site of the plant. The tribal farmers of Khasi and Jaintia hills use the 200-year-old system.

transported over several hundred metres and finally gets reduced to 20-80 drops per minute at the

The bamboo drip irrigation system is normally used to irrigate the betel leaf or black pepper crops

planted in arecanut orchards or in mixed orchards. Bamboo pipes are used to divert perennial

springs on the hilltops to the lower reaches by gravity. The channel sections, made of bamboo, divert and convey water to the plot site where it is distributed without leakage into branches, again made and laid out with different forms of bamboo pipes. Manipulating the intake pipe positions also

controls the flow of water into the lateral pipes. Reduced channel sections and diversion units are used at the last stage of water application. The last channel section enables the water to be dropped near the roots of the plant.

Bamboos of varying diameters are used for laying the channels. About a third of the outer casing in length and internodes of bamboo pieces have to be removed while fabricating the system. Later, the bamboo channel

is smoothened by using a dao, a type of local axe which is a round chisel fitted with a long handle. Other sizes used for diversion and distribution of water from components are small pipes and channels of varying the main channel. About four to five stages of diversion to the application point. distribution are involved from the point of the water

The system is found in the war areas of Meghalaya but is more prevalent in the war Jaintia hills

than in the war Khasi hills. This system is also widely prevalent in the Muktapur region bordering

Bangladesh. The region has very steep slopes and a rocky terrain. Diverting water through ground channels is not possible. The land used for cultivation is owned by the clan, and is allocated for cultivation by the clan elders on payment of a one-time rent. The clan elders have the prerogative to

decide who should get what and how much land. Once the rent has been paid and the land taken on

lease for cultivation, the lease period operates as long as the plants last. In case of betel leaf harvest. But once the plants die, for whatever reason, the land reverts back to the clan, and can only be leased out again after paying new rent.

cultivation, the lease can last for a very long time since the plants are not lopped off after one

The water for betel leaf plants is diverted from streams by temporary diversions into very intricate bamboo canal systems. Betel leaf is planted in March before the monsoon. It is only during winter that irrigation water is required, and the bamboo pipe system is used. Hence, these bamboo systems them. Maintenance of the pipes and supports is done by the farmers themselves. A cooperative has

are made ready before the onset of the winter, and during the monsoon no water is diverted into been formed, and each farmer provides his skill and labour to maintain the system. Repair work is undertaken as and when required. Distribution of water is carried out by diverting water from one field to another at fixed timings.

To divert the water, a short bamboo with a hole at the bottom is placed across the main lines. This pipe systems but farmers prefer to use their indigenous form of irrigation. The new systems have met with suspicion. Local farmers do not trust the new materials nor the people who supply them.

blocks the main water pipe and diverts the water. Attempts have been made to introduce modern

DESIGN & CONSTRUCTION OF A RAIN WATER HARVESTING SYSTEM: Simple Water Harvesting System Design and Construction:
By observing your landscape during a rain, you can locate the existing drainage patterns on your water from catchment areas to planted areas. If you are harvesting rainwater from the roof, extend is needed. Take advantage of existing sloped paving to catch water and redistribute it to planted areas. The placement and slope of new paving can be designed to increase runoff. If sidewalks, planting areas and utilize the runoff for irrigation. Bare dirt can also serve as a catchment area by grading the surface to increase and direct runoff.

site. Identify low points and high points. Utilize these drainage patterns and gravity flow to move downspouts to reach planted areas or provide a path, drainage, or hose to move the water where it

terraces, or driveways are not yet constructed, slope them two percent (1/4 inch per foot) toward

Next locate and size your landscape holding areas. Locate landscape depressions that can hold water or create new depressions where you want to locate new plants. Rather than digging a basin around existing plants, construct berms or moats on the existing surface to avoid damaging roots. Do not beyond the "drip line" to accommodate and encourage extensive root systems. The more developed a

mound soil at the base of trees or other plants. Holding areas around existing plants should extend plant's root system, the more droughts tolerant the plant becomes because the roots have a larger area to find water. For new plantings, locate the plants at the upper edge of concave holding areas to landscapes you may want to connect several holding areas with spillways or channels to distribute the water throughout the site. encourage extensive rooting and avoid extended inundation (flooding). With either existing or new

Selecting Plant Material: Proper plant selection is a major factor in the success of a water harvesting irrigation. Some plants cannot survive in the actual detention area if the soil is saturated for a long 9

project. Native and desert-adapted plants can be grown successfully using harvested rainwater for

period of time. Careful plant selection for these low lying areas is important. Select plants that can withstand prolonged drought and prolonged inundation--native plants or plants adapted to the Sonoran Desert. If plants are going to be planted in the bottom of large, deep basins, low water use, mesquite). native riparian trees may be the most appropriate choice (hackberry, desert willow, acacia,

To take advantage of water free-falling from roof downspouts (canales) plant large rigid plants where the water falls or hang a large chain from the downspout to the ground to disperse and slow the water. Provide a basin to hold the water for the plants and also to slow it down. It may be necessary to use rocks or other hard material to break the fall and prevent erosion. If this is a sloped site, large, connected, descending holding areas can be constructed for additional plants.

Tree dripline and basin edge.

Seeding is another alternative for planting holding basins. Select seed mixes containing native or

desert-adapted wildflowers, grasses, and herbaceous plants. Select annual plants for instant color the soil and preventing erosion and soil loss.

and perennial plants for extended growth. Perennial grasses are particularly valuable for holding

Pervious paving block with grass.

10

Construction Hints: If you are going to dig, particularly if you are going to be using a bobcat, small into your property. This will eliminate leaks and breaks. Even if you are constructing a simple should not be compacted because this inhibits the water moving through the soil. If the soil is compacted, loosen it by tilling. If the soil is too sandy and will not hold water for any length of time,

tractor, or rototiller, call Arizona Blue Stake (1_800_782_5348) to locate where utility lines come system with a rake and shovel, be aware of utility line locations. Soils in the landscape holding areas

you may wish to add composted organic matter to the soil to increase moisture holding potential (This is not necessary with native or desert-adapted plants). After planting apply a 1 1/2 _ 2 inch layer of mulch to reduce evaporation.

System Maintenance: Developing a water harvesting system is actually an on-going process that can be improved and expanded over time. Water harvesting systems are always in a state of "construction". It is necessary to reality test your system during rain events. Determine whether the

water is moving where you want it, or whether you are losing water. Also determine if the holding areas are doing a good job of containing the water. Make changes as your system requires. As time goes on you may discover additional areas where water can be harvested and where water can be channeled. Water harvesting systems should be inspected before each rainy season and ideally after every rain event to keep the system operating at optimum performance.

Parking lot curbs cut-out directing water into planted area.

Maintenance Checklist

Keep holding areas free of debris. Clean, repair channels.

Control and prevent erosion, block erosion trails. Clean, repair dikes, berms, moats

Keep gutters and downspouts free of debris

Flush debris from the bottom of storage containers, if possible. Clean and maintain filters, including drip filters. Expand the area of concentration as plants grow.

11

Monitor Water Use: Now that you have your system operating, it is a good idea to monitor your landscape water use. If you have constructed water harvesting basins in an existing landscape, use last year's water bills to compare your pre-water harvesting use to your post-water harvesting use. If you have added new plants to a water harvesting area, the water savings begins when they are planted. Every time they can be irrigated with harvested rainwater there is a water savings!

Gabion in a stream bed.

COMPONENTS OF A RAINWATER HARVESTING SYSTEM:

A rainwater harvesting system comprises components of various stages- transporting rainwater through pipes or drains, filtration, and storage in tanks for reuse or recharge. The common components of a rainwater harvesting system involved in these stages are illustrated here.

1. Catchments: The catchment of a water harvesting system is the surface which directly receives the rainfall and provides water to the system. It can be a paved area like a terrace or courtyard of a building, or an unpaved area like a lawn or open ground. A roof made of reinforced cement concrete (RCC), galvanised iron or corrugated sheets can also be used for water harvesting. 2. Coarse mesh at the roof to prevent the passage of debris.

12

3. Gutters: Channels all around the edge of a sloping roof to collect and transport rainwater to the storage tank. Gutters can be semi-circular or rectangular and could be made using:

Locally available material such as plain required shapes.

galvanised iron sheet (20 to 22 gauge), folded to

Semi-circular gutters of PVC material can be readily prepared by cutting those pipes into two equal semi-circular channels.

Bamboo or betel trunks cut vertically in half.

The size of the gutter should be according to the flow during the highest intensity rain. It is

advisable to make them 10 to 15 per cent oversize. Gutters need to be supported so they do not sag or fall off when loaded with water. The way in which gutters are fixed depends on the construction of the house; it is possible to fix iron or timber brackets into the walls, but for houses having wider eaves, some method of attachment to the rafters is necessary.

4. Conduits: Conduits are pipelines or drains that carry rainwater from the catchment or rooftop area to the harvesting system. Conduits can be of any material like polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or galvanized iron (GI), materials that are commonly available.

5. First-flushing: A first flush device is a valve that ensures that runoff from the first spell of rain is flushed out and does not enter the system. This needs to be done since the first spell of rain carries a relatively larger amount of pollutants from the air and catchment surface.

6. Filter: The filter is used to remove suspended pollutants from rainwater collected over roof. A

filter unit is a chamber filled with filtering media such as fibre, coarse sand and gravel layers to can be added for additional filtration.

remove debris and dirt from water before it enters the storage tank or recharges structure. Charcoal

(i) Charcoal water filter: A simple charcoal filter can be made in charcoal, all of which are easily available.

a drum or an earthen pot. The filter is made of gravel, sand and

(ii) Sand filters: Sand filters have commonly available sand as

13

filter media. Sand filters are easy and inexpensive to construct. These filters can be employed for treatment of water to effectively remove turbidity (suspended particles like silt and clay), colour and microorganisms.

In a simple sand filter that can be constructed domestically, the gravel followed by another 5-25 cm layer of gravel and boulders.

top layer comprises coarse sand followed by a 5-10 mm layer of

(ii.a) Dewas filters:

Most residents in Dewas, Madhya Pradesh, have wells in their houses. Formerly, all that those wells would do was extract groundwater. But then, the district

administration of Dewas initiated a groundwater allowed to pass through a filter system called the Dewas

recharge scheme. The rooftop water was collected and fillter, designed by Mohan Rao , district collecter of

Dewas, and engineers of the rural engineering services. The water thus filtered is put into the service tubewell.

The filter consists of a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe 140 mm in diameter and 1.2m long. There are

three chambers. The first purification chamber has pebbles varying between 2-6 mm, the second 12-20 mm pebbles. There is a mesh at the outflow side through which clean water flows out after passing through the three chambers. The cost of this filter unit is Rs 600.

chamber has slightly larger pebbles, between 6 and 12 mm and the third chamber has the largest -

Filter for large rooftops: When rainwater is harvested in a large rooftop area, the filtering system should accommodate the excess flow. A system is designed with three concentric circular chambers most layer with pebbles. in which the outer chamber is filled with sand, the middle one with coarse aggregate and the inner-

This way the area of filtration is increased for sand, in

relation to coarse aggregate and pebbles. Rainwater it is treated with few tablets of chlorine and is made ready for consumption.

reaches the centre core and is collected in the sump where

14

Varun:

S Vishwanath, a Bangalore water harvesting expert, has developed a rainwater filter "VARUN". According to him, from a decently clean roof rainfall from a 50 square metre roof area. This new house builders we therefore can recommend the number of downpipes they have to optimise on and the number of filters they will need. 'VARUN' can handle a 50 mm per hour intensity means the product is relatively standardised. For

'VARUN' is made from a 90 litre High Density Poly Ethylene (HDPE) drum. The lid is turned over and holes are puched in it. This is the first sieve which keeps out large leaves, twigs etc. Rainwater coming out of the lid sieve then passes through three layers of sponge and a 150 mm thick layer of coarse sand. Presence of sponge makes the cleaning

bucket of water (which you then don't waste but use it for plants). The sand needs no cleaning at all. The basic cost of the filter is about Rs 2250/-

process very easy. Remove the first layer of sponge and soak /clean it in a

(ii.b) Horizontal roughing filter and slow sand filter:

The introduction of horizontal roughing filter and slow safe drinking water available in coastal pockets of described below.

sand filter (HRF/SSF) to treat surface water has made Orissa. The major components of this filter are

1) Filter channel : One square metre in cross-section and eight m in length, laid across the tank embankment, the filter channel consists of three uniform compartments, the first packed with broken bricks, the of filter material like gravel and coarse sand that successively decreases in size from 25 mm to 4 mm. The bulk of solids in the incoming water is separated by this coarse filter media or HRF. At

second with coarse sand, followed by fine sand in the third compartment. The HRF usually consists

every outlet and inlet point of the channel, fine graded mesh is implanted to prevent entry of finer for the sump.

materials into the sump. The length of a channel varies according to the nature of the site selected

2) Sump: A storage provision to collect filtered water from the tank through the filter channel for storage and collection.

15

While HRF acts as a physical filter and is applied to retain solid matter, SSF is primarily a biological natural purification process of harvested surface water and do not require any chemicals.

filter, used to kill microbes in the water. Both filter types are generally stable, making full use of the

iii. Rain PC: AcquaSure, a consortium of three specialist conversion of rainwater to drinking water in the form of a Rainwater Purification Centre (RainPC).

Netherlands-based companies, has developed a system for the

RainPC is developed by scaling down the multi-staged water treatment method (MST), which involves screening, flocculation sedimentation technologies like upward flow fine filtration, absorption and ion exchange. Coming in a small compact 26 kg unit, the RainPC and filtration and incorporating existing

offers an affordable solution by converting rainwater into drinking water. RainPC is made of ultra

violet resistant poly-ethylene housing and cover, stainless steel rods and bolts, a nickel-brass valve and an adapter for maintaining constant volume. Xenotex-A and activated carbon catridges along with ultra membrane filtration or micro-membrane filtration modules incorporated in the RainPC has the capacity to deal with E-coli and the potential of meeting the Dutch as well as World Health individually to be assembled at the site. Three product types are available based on their microbial blessing particularly for those who have little or no access to regular safe drinking water. The salient features of Rain PC are:

Organisations (WHO) water regulation standards. The components can also be transported contaminant removal capacity. This technology is ideally suited for virtually any situation and is a

Simple straight-forward installation Easy to operate and maintain Needs no power and operates at low gravity pressure (0.1 bar upward).

The system is capable of providing a constant flow of about 40 liters of rainwater per hour, enough for a family of five for drinking, cooking and bathing purposes. Maintains nearly constant volume irrespective of water pressure. regenerated up to 10 times.

The Xenotex-A and activated carbon cartridge processes up to 20,000 liters and can be Cost per 1000 litres is as low as US$ 2 to 3.

iv. Rainwater harvester: EA Water Pvt Ltd has launched a unique Rainwater Harvester, which filters runoff water from roads, which generally contains oil and grease. This system has been installed in 16

the Gymkhana club, Sector-15, Faridabad, Haryana. Rajit Malohtra, project in charge, of this company explained that the water harvesting system installed at the club has a sand filter, which filters silt from runoff harvested from roof, lawns and parking area. The cost of the filter is around Rs 60,000.

(i) Filters developed by WISY: Private companies such as WISY, based in Kefenrod in Germany, are improve water quality. WISY has developed a simple filter system, which can be attached to a

playing an important role in promoting rainwater use by developing pumps and filter devices to standard household downpipe. Under conditions in Germany (assuming a mean annual rainfall of square metre.

650mm/year), this can divert and filter 90 per cent of the runoff from a roof area of up to 200

storage tank through a 0.17 mm stainless steel mesh filter.

(fig a). A filter collector diverts 90 per cent of rainwater to a

filter can cope with run-off from roof areas of up to 500 square metres.

(fig b). A larger vortex fine

(a)

(b)

(fig c). A floating fine suction filter for ensuring that the water pumped from the tank is extracted from the cleanest part of the tank and is free of particulates has also been developed.

(ii) Filters developed by MALLBETON: Another company, MALLBETON, a manufacturer of concrete tanks and filters, (c) based in Germany, is marketing a tank design which manages any overflows (Konig, 1998). This is done by constructing the

top half of a sub-surface tank from a porous concrete ring, which allows water to gradually seep into the ground. While this reduces the volume of water available, it does make householders eligible for waivers on their rainwater drainage fees. These fees are already applied to householders

and businesses in about 25 per cent of Germany. The charges that are levied on each square metre 17

of roof area and sealed surroundings can be substantial, such as in Bonn, so waivers often provide significant savings

7.Storage facility: There are various options available for the construction of these tanks with respect to the shape, size and the material of construction. Shape: Cylindrical, rectangular and square. ferrocement, (galvanised masonry, iron) plastic

Material of construction: Reinforced cement concrete, (RCC), sheets are (polyethylene) commonly or

Position of tank: Depending on space availability these tanks could be constructed above ground, partly underground or fully underground. Some maintenance measures like cleaning and disinfection are required to ensure the quality of water stored in the container.

metal (A storage tank made of galvanised used. iron sheets)

8. Recharge structures: Rainwater may be charged into the groundwater aquifers through any suitable structures like dugwells, borewells, recharge trenches and recharge pits.

Various recharge structures are possible - some which promote the percolation of water through soil strata at shallower depth (e.g., recharge trenches, permeable pavements) whereas others locations, existing structures like wells, pits and tanks can be modified as recharge structures, eliminating the need to construct any structures afresh. Here are a few commonly used recharging methods: conduct water to greater depths from where it joins the groundwater (e.g. recharge wells). At many

1. Recharging of dugwells and abandoned tubewells: In alluvial and hard rock areas, there are thousands of wells which have either gone dry or whose water levels have declined considerably. the building is diverted by drainpipes to a settlement or filtration tank, from which it flows into the recharge well (borewell or dugwell). These can be recharged directly with rooftop run-off. Rainwater that is collected on the rooftop of

If a tubewell is used for recharging, then the casing (outer pipe) should preferably be a slotted or

perforated pipe so that more surface area is available for the water to percolate. Developing a borewell would increase its recharging capacity (developing is the process where water or air is permeable). forced into the well under pressure to loosen the soil strata surrounding the bore to make it more

If a dugwell is used for recharge, the well lining should have openings (weep-holes) at regular intervals to allow seepage of water through the sides. Dugwells should be covered to prevent annually to maintain the intake capacity. mosquito breeding and entry of leaves and debris. The bottom of recharge wells should be desilted

18

Providing the following elements in the system can ensure the quality of water entering the recharge wells:

1. Filter mesh at entrance point of rooftop drains 2. Settlement chamber 3. Filter bed 2. Settlement tank: Settlement tanks are used to remove silt

and other floating impurities from rainwater. A settlement for inflow (bringing water from the catchment), outflow A settlement chamber (carrying water to the recharge well) and overflow. A

tank is like an ordinary storage container having provisions

standing water to percolate into the soil.

settlement tank can have an unpaved bottom surface to allow

In case of excess rainfall, the rate of recharge, especially of borewells, may not match the rate of rainfall. In such situations, the desilting chamber holds the excess amount of water till it is soaked up by the recharge structure. Thus, the settlement chamber acts like a buffer in the system.

Any container, (masonry or concrete underground tanks, old unused tanks, pre-fabricated PVC or ferrocement tanks) with adequate capacity of storage can be used as a settlement tank.

3. Recharging of service tubewells: In this case the rooftop runoff is not directly led into the service tubewells, to avoid chances of contamination of groundwater. Instead rainwater is collected in a recharge well, which is a temporary storage tank (located near the service tubewell), with a borehole, which is shallower than the water table. This borehole has to be provided with a casing pipe to prevent the caving in of soil, if the strata is loose. A filter chamber comprising of sand, gravel and boulders is provided to arrest the impurities.

4. Recharge pits: A recharge pit is 1.5m to 3m wide and 2m to 3m deep. The excavated pit is lined be covered with a perforated cover. Design procedure is the same as that of a settlement tank. 5. Soakaways / Percolation pit:

with a brick/stone wall with openings (weep-holes) at regular intervals. The top area of the pit can

Percolation pits, one of the easiest and most effective means of

harvesting rainwater, are generally not more than 60 x 60 x 60 cm pits, (designed on the basis of expected runoff as described for settlement tanks), filled with pebbles or brick jelly and river necessary. sand, covered with perforated concrete slabs wherever

19

6. Recharge trenches: A recharge trench is a continuous trench excavated in the ground and refilled wide and 1 m to 1.5 m deep. The length of the recharge trench is decided as per the amount of

with porous media like pebbles, boulders or broken bricks. A recharge trench can be 0.5 m to 1 m runoff expected. The recharge trench should be periodically cleaned of accumulated debris to maintain the intake capacity. In terms of recharge rates, recharge trenches are relatively less effective since the soil strata at depth of about 1.5 metres is generally less permeable. For recharging rainfall runoff. Runoff from both paved and unpaved catchments can be tapped. 7. Recharge troughs

through recharge trenches, fewer precautions have to be taken to maintain the quality of the

To collect the runoff from paved or unpaved areas draining out of a compound, recharge troughs

are commonly placed at the entrance of a residential/institutional complex.These structures are similar to recharge trenches except for the fact that the excavated portion is not filled with filter materials. In order to facilitate speedy recharge, boreholes are drilled at regular intervals in this structure is capable of harvesting only a limited amount of runoff because of the limitation with regard to size.

trench. In design part, there is no need of incorporating the influence of filter materials. This

8. Modified injection well: In this method water is not pumped into the aquifer but allowed to percolate through a filter bed, which comprises sand and gravel. A modified injection well is generally a borehole, 500 mm diameter, which is drilled to the desired depth depending upon the geological conditions, preferably 2 to 3 m below the water table in the area. Inside this hole a slotted casing pipe of 200 mm diameter is inserted. The annular space between the borehole and the pipe is filled with gravel and developed with a compressor till it gives clear water. To stop the suspended solids from entering the recharge tubewell, a filter mechanism is provided at the top.

20

COST ESTIMATION:
How much will it cost to catch rain?

When community come together to harvest rain,

the per-capita investment goes down. For instance,

Panchsheel Park Colony about 1000 residents million litres of water annually.

pooled in Rs 4.5 lakh to harvest more than 170 harvesting methods are site specific and hence it is difficult to give a generalised cost. But first of all, system - rain and catchment area - are available free of cost. A good proportion of the expenses would be for the pipe connections. By judiciously fixing up the slopes of roofs and location of depending on the availability of existing structures like wells and tanks which can be modified and used for water harvesting. rainwater outlets, this could be brought down considerably. However the cost varies widely

Rainwater

the major components of a rainwater harvesting

Typically, installing a water harvesting system in a building would cost between Rs 2,000 to building. For instance, water harvesting system in the CSE building in Tughlakabad Institutional ranged between Rs 70, 000 and Rs 8 lakh. The costs would be comparatively less if the system construction activities and materials have been given here, which may be helpful in calculating meant to provide a rough estimate of the cost. a. Unit cost of construction activities. Item Excavation in soils Excavation in rock Brickwork with cement mortar (1:6) Plain cement concrete (1:3:6) Reinforced cement concrete (1:2:4) cu. m. 4700.00Including steel bars, shuttering etc. PVC piping for rainwater Unit cu. m. cu. m. cu. m. cu. m. cu. m. Rate (Rs.) 90.00 150.00 1400.00 1500.00 4700.00

30,000 for buildings of about 300 sq. m. The cost estimate mentioned above is for an existing Area, Delhi, was set up with an investment of Rs 30,000 whereas those in the model projects were incorporated during the construction of the building itself. Some basic rates of the total cost of a structure. The list is not comprehensive and contains only important activities

- 110 mm diameter - 200 mm diameter

pipes

Metre metre

165.00 275.00

21

Making borehole in metre 165.00Soft soil (with 150 mm diameter PVC casing)

metre

180.00

b. Ferrocement tanks with skeletal cage Capacity of rooftop water harvesting system in litres 5,000 Total in rupees cost 12,430 6,000 12,975 7,000 13,970 9,000 14,380 10,000 15,800

CASE STUDIES: RURAL CASE STUDY:

GANDHIGRAM: Kachchh, Gujarat

Population: 400 Initiation of water harvesting: 1995

Gandhigram is today experiencing reverse migration. "When I learnt our village has enough water

and agricultural work, I decided to return and work in my own fields," said Mohanbhai, a villager, who returned from Muscat. Since 1995, Gandhigram has consistently built its water harvesting and contributions from the DRDA, government of India and private donors. infrastructure with the help of the Shri Vivekanand Research and Training Institute (vrti), an NGO

In 2000, when the dte team visited the village there were 4 big dams, 30 small ones and 31 nullah Premji Chowdhry, president, Gram Vikas Mandal .

plugs. "Today, we have 5 big dams, 72 small ones and 72 nullah plugs in the village" says Bhimji

These structures have helped in drought proofing this village. During 2001, although the village received only 165 mm rainfall as against the average of 340 mm, the reservoirs were brimming with water. Groundwater was recharged and villagers received an uninterrupted piped water 22

supply from their well. The distribution of this water is managed by a pani sanchalan samiti , a local

body that collects Rs 3 per month from each household, towards operation and maintenance costs. supply system.

Villagers prefer to pay and get water rather than depend on the government's unreliable water

Villagers have also set up the Pani Vitharan Samiti (PVS), a village institution to manage water. "After the rains, we visit reservoirs to assess the quantity of water harvested and the extent of land that can be irrigated with it. Accordingly, villagers discuss the crop pattern and individual requirement," informs Mohanbhai, president, PVS. This local body also prepares a time schedule for farmers to

irrigate their fields. Farmers pay Rs 250 per ha for irrigation water. "These deposits are earmarked

for maintenance of the structures," informed Arvindbhai, secretary, PVS. For instance, this fund was practices have yielded results. "This year we were able to grow groundnut in nearly 121 ha and 50 ha of land was brought under rabi cultivation," says Gangaram Lalji Chowdhary, a villager.

used for repairing cracks caused by the earthquake in January 2001. Sensible water management

Gandhigram's success does not stop here. It topped in groundnut production in Mandvi district this

year. The villagers also introduced new crops like wheat, onion and jeera (cumin) and increased their agricultural yield. Profits flowed in. Work availability has also benefited landless labourers. These riches were channelled back into the village. In April 2002, farmers repaid Rs 2.5 lakh out of

the Rs 5 lakh loan from Mandvi Gramin Bank for the construction of the Lokshakti dam. They also invested Rs 2 lakh in fencing the village to protect their crops from wild animals. "Another indicator of economic growth is the increase in the number of tractors from two in 2000 to 14 in 2001," says Arvindbhai.

"The village is now planning a cooperative for processing and marketing agricultural products," says Kanzariah, director, VRTI. Rainwater harvesting is paying dividends.

URBAN CASE STUDY: Advantages in urban areas: Rainwater harvesting in urban areas can have manifold reasons. Some
of the reasons rainwater harvesting can be adopted in cities are to provide supplemental water for the city's requirements, to increase soil moisture levels for urban greenery, to increase the ground water table through artificial recharge, to mitigate urban flooding and to improve the quality of groundwater. In urban areas of the developed world, at a household level, harvested rainwater can water for this. It can also be used for showering or bathing. It may require treatment prior to use for drinking

be used for flushing toilets and washing laundry. Indeed in hard water areas it is superior to mains

In New Zealand, many houses away from the larger towns and cities routinely rely on rainwater the case for many holiday homes.

collected from roofs as the only source of water for all household activities. This is almost inevitably

23

TEX CORP LIMITED'S RAINWATER HARVESTING SYSTEM RAINWATER AVAILABLE FOR HARVESTING

Total rooftop area - 4,000 square metres (Sq m) (mm)

Average annual rainfall in Gurgaon - 577.8 millimetre

Total volume of water harvested - 1962 cubic metre (m) or rainwater harvesting potential. 1962,000 litres. This represents 85 per cent of the total

WATER SUPPLY SOURCE: The daily water requirement of about 90,000 litres for potable and
non-potable purposes is met by two borewells and by private water tankers.

RAINWATER HARVESTING SYSTEM: The rooftop rainwater from the factory building is
channelised through a network of pipes linked through chambers to a settlement tank measuring 4.5m x 2m x 3m. The silt-free water from this settlement tank is diverted to three storage tanks,

each with a capacity of 40,000 litres. The rainwater stored in the sub-surface tank along with storage tanks is diverted to another settlement tank through a network of pipes and chambers. The The rainwater harvesting system was completed in August 2002. The water level as on February was Rs 5.5 lakh.

groundwater from the borewell is used for industrial purposes. The overflow water from these silt-free water from the settlement tank is diverted to a borewell, which yields non-potable water. 2003 was around 12 m below ground level (bgl).The cost of the entire rainwater harvesting system

IMPACT:
Water level data: This project clearly shows that rainwater can be stored and used for industrial purposes. Ground water is highly saline on the factory premises. The quality is so bad that it is neither fit for drinking nor for industrial purposes. There is no municipal supply in the area. The

water requirements were met by private water tankers. Keeping in view that water quality was very rainwater harvesting on the factory premises. The water level in the factory measured 12.2 m below ground level (bgl) in April 2003. After implementing the rainwater harvesting system, the water level in July 2003 rose to 10.2m (bgl), representing a net rise of 2.0m, or 6.65 feet.

poor and levels were rapidly declining in the area, Texcorp's authorities decided to take up

QUALITY:
As rainwater may be contaminated, it is often not considered suitable for drinking without drinking following suitable treatment.

treatment. However, there are many examples of rainwater being used for all purposes including

24

Rainwater harvested from roofs can contain animal and bird feces, mosses and lichens, windblown Cl, SO4), and dissolved gases (CO2, NOx, SOx). High levels of pesticide have been found in rainwater in Europe with the highest concentrations occurring in the first rain immediately after a dry spell the concentration of these and other contaminants are reduced significantly by diverting the initial flow of water to waste as described above. The water may need to be analysed properly, and used in a way appropriate to its safety. In Gansu province for example, harvested rainwater is boiled in

dust, particulates from urban pollution, pesticides, and inorganic ions from the sea (Ca, Mg, Na, K,

parabolic solar cookers before being used for drinking. In Brazil alum and chlorine is added to disinfection, provide low-cost disinfection options for treatment of stored rainwater for drinking.

disinfect water before consumption. So-called "appropriate technology" methods, such as solar water

AROUND THE WORLD:

Currently in China and Brazil, rooftop rainwater harvesting is being practiced for providing

drinking water, domestic water, water for livestock, water for small irrigation and a way to have the largest rooftop rainwater harvesting projects ongoing.

replenish ground water levels. Gansu province in China and semi-arid north east Brazil In Rajasthan, India rainwater harvesting has traditionally been practiced by the people of the Thar Desert. In Bermuda, the law requires all new construction to include rainwater harvesting adequate for the residents. The U.S. Virgin Islands have a similar law.

In the Indus Valley Civilization, Elephanta Caves and Kanheri Caves in Mumbai rainwater harvesting alone has been used to supply in their water requirements. homebrew rainwater harvesters made from local, organic material. which is then used to water the garden. In Senegal/Guinea-Bissau, the houses of the Diola-people are frequently equipped with In the United Kingdom water butts are oft-found in domestic gardens to collect rainwater In the Ayerwaddy Delta of Myanmar, the groundwater is saline and communities rely on mud lined rainwater ponds to meet their drinking water needs throughout the dry season. Some of these ponds are centuries old and are treated with great reverence and respect.

CONCLUSION:
Historically, people relied on harvested rain water to provide water for drinking, landscape

watering, and for agricultural uses. Once urban areas started to develop, large, centralized water

supply systems replaced the need to harvest water. More recently, people have become reacquainted lawns, and commercial landscapes featuring desert-adapted plants.

with water harvesting, using it to provide water for home gardens, parking lot trees, multi-housing

25

Homes, schools, parks, parking lots, apartment complexes, and commercial facilities all provide sites where rainfall can be harvested. Many methods are available to harvest rain water for landscape use. Some of them inexpensive and easy to construct, for example, storing water in a barrel for later use or constructing small berms and drainages to direct water to a row of trees. All you need to get

started is rainfall and plants that require irrigation. Even the simplest methods provide benefits. The water customer benefits from lower bills and the community achieves long-term benefits which reduce groundwater use and promote soil conservation.

26