ENGINEERING LAB - MATERIALS ABRAHAM AUDU Group A2 abdb109@city.ac.

uk

INTRODUCTION

The objective of this experiment is to perform tensile tests on Mild steel, Aluminium alloy (Duralumin) and Copper test The tensile test is conducted to determine the basic stress-strain response of a material. The tensile test consists on the application of a tensile stress on a chosen specimen from which the force applied on it and the elongation can be calculated. The tensile tests will be performed using a tensile testing machine Serial number 26587 and a Lindley extensometer serial number MH206. A brief description of the 3 specimens is given below. A more extensive measurement will be made for the Mild steel specimen. Mild steel - is iron containing approximately 0.050.29% carbon; therefore it is neither brittle nor ductile. It has a relatively low tensile strength but it is cheap and malleable. Copper - is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is rather soft and malleable. Copper is easily worked, being both ductile and malleable. Copper has good corrosion resistance. Aluminium alloys (duralumin) - The main alloying constituents in wt. % are 4.4% copper, 1.5% magnesium, 0.6% manganese and 93.5% aluminium. Therefore it has ductility, strength and good wear resistance. The mechanical properties of metals determine the range of usefulness of the metal and establish the service that can be expected. Mechanical properties are also used to help specify and identify metals. The following properties will be determined for all 3 specimens. YOUNGS MODULUS: it is the ratio of stress to stain within elastic limit of the material. It is a physical quantity that describes its stiffness. It is define as the ratio of the uniaxial stress over the uniaxial strain . Its units are Pa or Nmm-2. YIELD STRESS: it is the point of stress at which onwards the specimen under consideration starts deforming plastically. 0.1%PROOF STRESS: it is the value of stress which causes some level of permanent deformation. The stress-strain curve above is typical of a material that has a well-pronounced yield point. However, it should be noted that only annealed carbon steel exhibit this sort of behaviour.

TENSILE STRENGTH: is the ability of a material to withstand stress without fracture it is also called ultimate strength, is the maximum load divided by the original cross-sectional area of the specimen. PERCENTAGE ELONGATION %: The material is stretches in the direction of the applied force but as its volume is fixed, the material increases in length. (Gauge length at fracture - original gauge length) / Original gauge length as a percentage PERCENTAGE REDUCTION IN AREA AT FRACTURE %: The material is stretches in the direction of the applied force but as its volume is fixed therefore the area perpendicular to the applied force gets affected and starts to decrease. (Gauge cross-sectional area at fracture - original gauge cross-sectional area) / Original gauge cross-sectional area as a percentage FRACTURE STRESS: The stress coordinate on the stress-strain curve at the point of fracture. Mild Steel the one specimen that well make extensive measurements for is a material that obeys Hooke` s law which states that provided the elastic limit of a material is not exceeded, the extension produced is directly proportional to the force applied. This gives the youngs modulus of the material. Stress at any point below the proportional limit is divided by the corresponding strain. It can also be calculated as the slope of the straight line portion of a stress v strain graph. Youngs modulus = Stress /Strain Stress is defined when a force is applied to per cross-sectional area of the material.
Stress = Force Area

Where
Area =

d 2
4

Strain is defined as change in length (due to the applied force) over original length of the material.
Strain = L L0

Where L0= Original Length.

The Experiment 1. Tensile testing machine diagram 1

The tensile testing machine pulls the sample from both ends and measures the force required to pull the specimen apart and how much the sample stretches before breaking.

2. Lindley Extensometer diagram 2

The extensometer is used for measurement in uni-axial extension of the specimen for determination of proof stress in tensile test.

Apparatus: - Tensile testing machine Serial No. 26587 - Lindley extensometer Serial No. MH206 1 division measures 0.001 mm extension 1 revolution measures 0.1 mm extension

- Micrometer - Compass & ruler Specimens Mild steel (Low Carbon) - Aluminium alloy (Duralumin) - Copper

RESULTS The readings and detailed calculations for the specimens can be found in the appendix. To reduce measurement error the mean diameter is calculated from an average of 3 readings, this is true for all 3 specimens. GRAPH 1 This graph shows the linear relationship between Force and extension. From this stress and strain can be deduced and ultimately mechanical properties such as Youngs modulus can be calculated. It can clearly be seen at 0.08mm the yield stress of the Mild steel specimen has been reached. Beyond this plastic deformation occurs.

1 1. 0.1% Proof strain = 0.001 Strain 2.0.1% Proof Force (Offset yield point)

Strain is defined as change in length (due to the applied force) over original length of the material.
Strain = L L0

Therefore extension is =

For 0.1% Proof strain Extension = 0.001 x 50 = 0.05

L = S tra in L0 .

Therefore at extension 0.05 a straight line of gradient equal to that of graph 1 will be drawn. Where this new line makes contact with the original graph will provide the value of 0.1% Proof force.

Thus, Proof stress = proof force / original Cross-sectional Area d 2 Area = 4

Change diameter 10.01mm = 0.01001m Area = ( x 0.010012) / 4 = 7.87 x 10-5 m2 Proof Stress = 30000/7.87 x 10-5 = 381.19 MPa GRAPH 2 This graph we shows the whole transition from the specimen behaving elastically on the linear part of the graph to the region where plastic deformation occurs, onset of necking and ultimately the breaking load.
5 4

3. 4. 5. 6.

Proportionality limit Yield Force Ultimate Tensile Force Fracture Force

TABLE 1 This table shows a Comparison table of mechanical properties for the 3 specimens tested Mild Steel, Copper, Aluminium alloy (Duralumin) Mechanical Properties Table
Specimen Young modul us GPa 189 110* 69* Yield Stress MPa 355 250#
0.1% proof stress

(MPa) 381.19 -

ultima te tensile stress

total elongation

(ductility) (%) 24 14 10

Reduction in area at fracture (%)

Fracture Stress

MPa

MPa

Mild Steel Copper Aluminiu m Alloy (Duralumi n)

473.65 369.65 486.41

65.9 71 28

338 223.82 441.70

* Values from Material Selection from Mechanical design (Ashby, 2005) # Technological Studies Data Booklet , www.sqa.org.uk

TABLE 2 Design exercise table. This table shows a Comparison table for Mild Steel and Aluminium alloy (Duralumin) Material Density kg/m3 Cost as Bar /kg 2.00 4.50 Elastic Limit (yield Strength) MN/m2
355

Mild Steel Aluminium Alloy

7800 2700

250#

Elastic Modulus (youngs modulus) GN/m2 189 69*

* Values from table C6. Appendix C, Material Selection from Mechanical design (Ashby, 2005) # Technological Studies Data Booklet , www.sqa.org.uk

DISCUSSION MILD STEEL:

Graph 1 shows the extension of the mild steel material from 0mm to 0.4mm when subjected to an increasing tensile load from the tensile testing machine. This graph shows that the mild steel behave elastically up to about 0.08 millimetres of extension when about 28000N of load is applied on it. The section of the curve of graph 1 located between the origin of the graph and the yield force is called the elastic region. It appears that the force increases simultaneously or linearly with the displacement in this region where when the force is removed, the material returns to the dimension it had before the loading. This phenomenon is called the reversibility of a material where there is no permanent deformation where if the applied force or load is removed the specimen will regain its original shape and length. Some metals do not show any well-defined yield points. For such materials the "0.1% offset" is used. The proof force is measured by drawing a line parallel to the elastic portion of the stress/strain curve at a specified strain, this strain being a percentage of the original gauge length, hence 0.1% proof.

Graph 2 shows the extension of mild steel from 0mm to 16mm. This graph shows that when a load approximately 30000N is applied our specimen is no longer elastic and it now enters the plastic region where permanent deformation occurs which means even when the applied load has been removed the specimen will fail to regain its original shape. During yielding stage between points 3 and 4 on graph 2 the material deforms without an increase in applied load but during the strain hardening stage between points 4 and 5 the material undergoes changes in its atomic and crystalline structure, resulting in increased resistance of material to further deformation.

At point 5 when the load applied is approximately 37576N the ultimate tensile strength has been reached and necking begins and from this point

the reduction in the cross-sectional area of specimen begins and this continues until point 6 where fracture occurs.

Its clearly evident that the material experienced a necking due to the elongation and the reduction in area which means that the diameter decreased significantly compared to the original reading of the diameter. Also the Youngs modulus is close to the theoretical value of the material 207 GPa.

COPPER:

Copper has a tensile strength value of 369.6 MPa compared with the other specimen it has the lowest value meaning that when a load is applied to the material it starts to deform quickly it also has a high value of 70% reduction in cross-sectional area giving a corresponding low value for fracture force and subsequently translates to low fracture stress.

DURALUMIN:

The relatively similar values of 486.41MPa for tensile strength and 441.70MPa for fracture stress from table 1 suggest that Duralumin is a brittle material. However these values laso show how strong a material it is compared to the other two specimens. OVERALL: If we are designing a component that must support a force during use, we must be sure that the component does not plastically deform. We must therefore select a material that has high yield strength, or we must make the component large enough so that the applied force produces a stress that is below the yield strength. In contrast, the tensile strength is relatively unimportant for ductile materials selection and application since too much plastic deformation takes place before it is reached. However, the tensile strength can give some indication of the materials, such as hardness and material defects. The ductility of the material is determined by the percentage reduction in area of the specimen and percentage elongation of specimen. From Table 1, the mechanical properties table it can be seen that Copper has the highest value for percentage reduction in cross-sectional area with a value of 70% and relatively big percentage elongation compared to the other

specimens. This means it is the most ductile of the 3 specimens followed by Mild Steel then Duralumin.

The Duralumin is the toughest material among the three specimens. However its the most expensive material of the specimens compared. From table 1 it can be seen that Mild steel is the strongest and with high stiffness this is because it has the highest value for youngs modulus at 189 GPa followed by Copper at 110GPa and finally Duralumin at 69GPa.

For general engineering applications, the yield stress is considered to be a more important mechanical property than the tensile strength, since once that is passed the structure has deformed beyond acceptable limits.

Mild Steel Predominantly used in the construction industry as nuts, bolts, screws and girders etc. Copper used in electrical applications, Copper plumbing fittings and compression tubes Roofing, guttering, and rainspouts on buildings and Coinage. Duralumin used for large parts, forging and automotive components. its lightness makes it for use in the aircraft industry.

Design Exercise using test results Information relating to table 2

Facts: -

tie bar is 2 m long tensile force applied 100kN factor of safety is 2

To support a load of 100 kN and a factor of safety of 2 is applied to the design then the tie bar should be able to support 200 kN. 1) Weight to be kept to a minimum. Since both materials are design to occupy the same volume and it is known Weight = density x volume It is also known Stress = Force / Area Area mild steel = Force / Stress = 200kN / 355MPa (from table 2) Cross-sectional Area mild steel = 5.63 x 10-4 m2 or 563.38 mm2 Area alum = Force / Stress = 200kN / 250MPa (from table 2) Cross-sectional Area alum = 8 x 10-4 m2 or 800 mm2 Therefore Volume mild steel = 2 x 5.63 x 10-4 = 1.13 x 10-3m3 Volume Alum = 2 x 8 x 10-4 = 1.6 x 10-3 m3 Mild Steel Weight = 7800 x 1.13 x 10-3 = 8.79kg Aluminium Alloy weight = 2700 x 1.6 x 10-3 = 4.32kg The material with the lowest weight is the best. Aluminium Alloy would be best for this criterion. 2) Cost to be kept to a minimum. Cost per weight of material = weight x cost as bar Mild Steel cost= 8.79 kg x /kg 2 = 17.58 Aluminium Alloy cost = 4.32kg x /kg 4.50 = 19.44 The material with the least cost is the best choice. Mild Steel would be best for this criterion. 3) Extension under load to be a minimum. Youngs modulus = Stress /Strain
Stress = Force Area
L L0

Strain =

Young' s.Modulus=
Rearranging L =

Force L0 x Area L

Force L0 x Area Young' s.Modulus

 L mild steel = 355MPa x (2m/189 GPa) = 355 x (2/189000) =3.76 x 10-3 m L Alum = 250MPa x (2m/69 GPa) = 250 x (2/69000) =7.25 x 10-3m The material with the smallest extension under load is best. Mild Steel would be best for this criterion. Using the 3 criteria above it has been found Mild steel will be best material to use since it scored 2 out of 3 for the design criteria compared to 1 out of 3 for Aluminium. A point of note is if there are sources of error present in the experiment that were not accounted for in the estimate of uncertainty. If such an error source is one that could reasonably have been quantified but was simply omitted due to an oversight, the uncertainty calculations should be redone to include that source of error. However, in many cases there are sources of error that can be observed or deduced by the experimenter that are difficult or impossible to quantify. This includes the exact values for mechanical properties relating to the specimen tested. CONCLUSION Overall, the results obtained during the experiment were fairly successful. Duralumin was the strongest yet most brittle material. Lightest and most expensive compared to the other two specimen tested. A good knowledge of the materials properties is crucial in mechanical engineering. Having a better understanding of the materials properties helps engineers to complete their project according to the safety and financial constraints. As illustrated by the design exercise there are many criteria which make one material more suitable than another.

APPENDICES

TENSILE TEST
Table 1a Table of Results for Mild Steel Specimen: Mild Steel (Low Carbon) Original Diameter (mm) Minimum diameter at fracture Maximum Load (Lb) Breaking Load (Lb) Gauge Length (mm) Elongation (mm) Inches to millimetres = 0.23 1st 2nd reading reading 9.98 10.05 0.230 (inches) 5.842 mm 8380 5980 50 12 x 25.4 = 5.842 3rd reading 10.01 Average 10.01

Table 1b Table of Results for Mild Steel (data) Extension( mm) 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05 0.055 0.06 0.065 0.07 Load(LB) 0 1540 2020 250 2940 3440 3840 4360 4640 4940 5380 5720 6000 6140 6320 Extension( Load(LB) Extension( Load(LB) mm) mm) 0.075 6400 2 7080 0.08 6500 3 7880 0.085 6600 4 8090 0.09 6680 5 8250 0.095 6700 6 8310 0.1 6700 7 8360 0.2 6700 8 8380 0.3 6740 9 5980 0.4 6800 10 0.5 6820 11 0.6 6840 12 0.7 6840 13 0.8 6840 14 0.9 6880 15 1 6930 16 -

Table 1c Table of Results for Mild Steel (unit conversion table) Newtons = Pounds x 4.44822162 Extension( Load(L 0.1 % proof extension 0.1% proof load mm) B) Load N (mm) N 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05 0.055 0.06 0.065 0.07 0.075 0.08 0.085 0.09 0.095 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 12 0 1540 2020 2500 2940 3440 3840 4360 4640 4940 5380 5720 6000 6140 6320 6400 6500 6600 6680 6700 6700 6700 6740 6800 6820 6840 6840 6840 6880 6930 7080 7880 8090 8250 8310 8360 8380 5980
0.00 6850.26 8985.41 11120.55 13077.77 15301.88 17081.17 19394.25 20639.75 21974.21 23931.43 25443.83 26689.33 27312.08 28112.76 28468.62 28913.44 29358.26 29714.12 29803.08 29803.08 29803.08 29981.01 30247.91 30336.87 30425.84 30425.84 30425.84 30603.76 30826.18 31493.41 35051.99 35986.11 36697.83 36964.72 37187.13 37276.10 26600.37

0.05 0.055 0.06 0.065 0.07 0.075 0.08 0.085 0.09 0.095 0.1 0.105 0.11 0.115 0.12 0.125 0.13 0.135 0.14

0 1678.595 3357.19 5035.785 6714.38 8392.975 10071.57 11750.165 13428.76 15107.355 16785.95 18464.545 20143.14 21821.735 23500.33 25178.925 26857.52 28536.115 30214.71

Table 2 Table of Results for Copper

Specimen: Copper

1st 2nd reading reading Original Diameter (mm) 9.99 10.01 Minimum diameter at 0.210 (inches) fracture 5.334mm Maximum Load (Lb) 6540 Breaking Load (Lb) 3960 Gauge Length (mm) 50 Elongation (mm) 7 Inches to millimetres = 0.21 x 25.4 = 5.334 Table 3 Table of Results for Aluminium Alloy Specimen: Aluminium Alloy (Duralumin) Original Diameter (mm) Minimum diameter at fracture Maximum Load (Lb) Breaking Load (Lb) Gauge Length (mm) Elongation (mm) Inches to millimetres = 0.318 1st 2nd reading reading 9.56 9.51 0.318(inches) 8.0772mm 7800 7080 50 5 x 25.4 = 8.0772

3rd reading 10.02

Average 10.01

3rd reading 9.52

Average 9.53

Youngs modulus = Stress /Strain

Stress at any point below the proportional limit is divided by the corresponding strain. It can also be calculated as the slope of the straight line portion

Stress is defined when a force is applied to per cross-sectional area of the material.
Stress = Force Area

Where
Area =

d 2
4

Strain is defined as change in length (due to the applied force) over original length of the material.
Strain = L L0

Where L0= Original Length.

Mild steel

Youngs modulus = Stress /Strain

Stress = force / cross sectional area Strain = extension/original length Stress = 29803.08/ 7.87 x 10-5 m2 Strain =0.1/50

Youngs modulus = 189 Gpa

Yield Stress, Re = Tensile force at yield point / Original cross-sectional area of specimen Yield Stress, Re = 28000N / 7.87 x 10-5 m2 Yield Stress, Re = 355 MPa

Proof stress = proof force / original Cross-sectional Area From graph 1 proof force = 30000N
Area =

d 2
4

Change diameter 10.01mm = 0.01001m Area = ( x 0.010012) / 4 = 7.87 x 10-5 m2 Proof Stress = 30000/7.87 x 10-5 = 381.19 MPa Max load = 8380 lb max load N = 8380 x 4.44822162= 37276.10N Ultimate Tensile strength = Maximum tensile force in test / original Cross-sectional Area Ultimate Tensile strength = 37276.10N/7.87 x 10-5

=473647994.6 N/m2 =473.65 MPa

PERCENTAGE ELONGATION = (Gauge length at fracture - original gauge length) / Original gauge length as a percentage Percentage Elongation = ((62 50)/50)*100 = 24%

PERCENTAGE REDUCTION IN AREA AT FRACTURE = (original gauge cross-sectional area - Gauge cross-sectional area at fracture) / Original gauge cross-sectional area as a percentage
d 2
4

Area =

5.842mm = 0.005842m Area at Fracture = ( x 0.0058422) / 4 = 2.68 x 10-5 m2

Percentage reduction = (original area min area)/original area = (7.87 x 10-5 - 2.68 x 10-5)/ 7.87 x 10-5 = 65.9%

FRACTURE STRESS= breaking force /cross sectional area Breaking force = max breaking/ original cross-section area Max breaking = 5980lb x 4.44822162 Fracture stress = 26600.37/7.87 x 10-5 = 338MPa =26600.37N

Copper
Max load = 6540 lb max load N = 6540 x 4.44822162= 29091.37N
Area =

d 2
4

Change diameter 10.01mm = 0.01001m

Area = ( x 0.010012) / 4 = 7.87 x 10-5 m2 Ultimate Tensile strength = Maximum tensile force in test / original Cross-sectional Area Ultimate Tensile strength = 29091.37 / 7.87 x 10-5

=369648912.3 N/m2 =369.65 MPa

PERCENTAGE ELONGATION = (Gauge length at fracture - original gauge length) / Original gauge length as a percentage Percentage Elongation = ((57 50)/50)*100 = 14%

PERCENTAGE REDUCTION IN AREA AT FRACTURE = (original gauge cross-sectional area - Gauge cross-sectional area at fracture) / Original gauge cross-sectional area as a percentage
d 2
4

Area =

5.334mm = 0.005334m Area at Fracture = ( x 0.0053342) / 4 = 2.23 x 10-5 m2

Percentage reduction = (original area min area)/original area = (7.87 x 10-5 - 2.23 x 10-5)/ 7.87 x 10-5 = 71%

FRACTURE STRESS= breaking force /cross sectional area Breaking force = max breaking/ original cross-section area Max breaking = 3960lb x 4.44822162 Fracture stress = 17614.96/7.87 x 10-5 = 223.82MPa =17614.96N

Duralumin

Max load = 7800 lb max load N = 7800 x 4.44822162= 34696.13N

Area =

d 2
4

Change diameter 9.53mm = 0.00953m Area = ( x 0.009532) / 4 = 7.13 x 10-5 m2 Ultimate Tensile strength = Maximum tensile force in test / original Cross-sectional Area Ultimate Tensile strength = 34696.13/7.13 x 10-5

=486413201.9 N/m2 =486.41 MPa

PERCENTAGE ELONGATION = (Gauge length at fracture - original gauge length) / Original gauge length as a percentage Percentage Elongation = ((55 50)/50)*100 = 10%

PERCENTAGE REDUCTION IN AREA AT FRACTURE = (original gauge cross-sectional area - Gauge cross-sectional area at fracture) / Original gauge cross-sectional area as a percentage

Area =

d 2
4

8.0772mm = 0.0080772m Area at Fracture = ( x 0.00807722) / 4 = 5.12 x 10-5 m2

Percentage reduction = (original area min area)/original area = (7.13 x 10-5 - 5.12 x 10-5)/ 7.13 x 10-5 = 28%

FRACTURE STRESS= breaking force /cross sectional area Breaking force = max breaking/ original cross-section area Max breaking = 7080lb x 4.44822162 Fracture stress = 31493.41/7.13 x 10-5 = 441.70MPa =31493.41N

Design Exercise using test results

Material

Density kg/m3

Cost as Bar /kg 2.00 4.50

Elastic Limit (yield Strength) MN/m2

355

Mild Steel Aluminium Alloy

7800 2700

250#

Elastic Modulus (youngs modulus) GN/m2 189 69*

# Technological Studies Data Booklet, www.sqa.org.uk