Calculus

Cornell UntDetsitg iCibtatg
JItltaca,
Ntw f orb
BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE
SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND

THE GIFT OF
HENRY W. SAGE
1891
Cornell University Library
arV19569
Elementary calculus
3 1924 031 220 811
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original of
tliis
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is in
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ELEMENTARY CALCULUS
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

NEW YORK
BOSTON CHICAGO DALLAS ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO

MACMILLAN &
LONDON
CO., Limited
BOMBAY CALCUTTA MELBOURNE

CO. OF TORONTO
THE MACMILLAN
CANADA,
Ltd.
ELEMENTARY CALCULUS
BY
WILLIAM
F.
OSGOOD,
Ph.D.,
LL.D
PEKKIN8 PK0FBS80K OF MATHEMATICS IN HABVAKD UNIVERSITY
Wetogorft
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

1921
AU HgMe
5
reeemeel
COPTBIGHT, 1921,
bt the macmillan company.

Set
up and
electrotyped.
Published January, 1931.
J. S.
Berwick & Smith Co. Gushing Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
PREFACE
The
object of this book
is
to present the elements of the
Differential Calculus in a
form easily accessible for the undergraduate. It is possible, from the very beginning, to illustrate the ideas and methods of the Calculus by means of applications to physics and geometry, which the student can readily grasp, and which will seem to him of interest and value. To do this, the stress in the illustrative examples worked in the text must be laid first of all on the thought which underlies the method of solution, in distinction from the exposition of a process, reduced in the worst teaching to rules, whereby the answer can be obtained. The 'treatment of maxima and minima. Chapter III, 2, 3, and curve tracing, Chapter III, 5 and Chapter VII, 10, will serve to show what is here meant.
It
is,
however, also essential that the student receive thorough
training in the formal processes and the technique of the Calthis side has been treated with care and completeNote, for example, the differentiation of composite functions in Chapter II, 8, and the exposition of the use of differentials in differentiating in Chapter IV, 4, 5.
culus,
ness.
and
An
important application of the graphical inethods, with

is
which the Calculus

solving
so intimately associated,
is
that of
approximately numerical equations which do not come under the standard rules of algebra and trigonometry. Hitherto, however, little attempt has been made to present
is, in any systematic and elementary In Chapter VII the common methods in use by physicists and others who apply the Calculus are set forth
this subject, simple as it
manner.
and
illustrated by simple examples. The book might have included a
brief treatment of curva-
ture
and evolutes, and the
cycloid.
But probably most
VI
PREFACE
up integration
and
teachers of the Calculus will prefer to take

next,
so the closing chapter is devoted to the last of the
elementary functions, the inverse trigonometric functions, with

special reference to their one great application in the elements
of mathematics, namely, their application to integration.
The book an abridged

first
is
so written that
it
can be adapted,
if desired, to
course, in which, after the fundamentals of the
three chapters have been covered, any of the remaining
topics can be treated briefly,
and thus a wide scope in subject

is
matter
is possible,
even when the time
short.
Cambridge, Massacbusbtts,
January, 1921.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
1.
INTRODUCTION
PAGE
2.
Functions Continuation.
General Definition of a Function
10
CHAPTER
II
DIFFERENTIATION OF ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS.
GENERAL
13 16
THEOREMS
1.
Definition of the Derivative

Differentiation oi x"
Differentiation ot '^x
.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Differentiation of a Constant
.
20
21 22
8. 9.
Three Theorems about Limits. Infinity General Formulas of Differentiation General Formulas of Differentiation, Continued General Formulas of Differentiation, Concluded
Differentiation of Implicit Algebraic Functions
29 32 35 39
CHAPTER
Tangents and Normals
III
APPLICATIONS
1.
.46
49 53 60 64
.
.
2. 3. 4.
5.
Maxima and Minima

Continuation
:
Auxiliary Variables
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
Curve Tracing
Relative
...
6. 7.
Maxima and Minima.
Points of Inflection
67
71
8.
Necessary and Sufficient Conditions Velocity; Rates

vii
72
VUl
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
Infinitesimals
IV
INFINITESIMALS AND DIFFERENTIALS

1.
2. 3. 4. 5.
Continuation.
Differentials
Fundamental Theorem
... ....
.
PAGE
Technique of Differentiation
Continuation.
Differentiation of Composite Functions
81 87 91 95 100
CHAPTER V
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
1.
Radian Measure
....
2. 3. 4.
5.
Differentiation of sin x
Certain Limits Critique of the Foregoing Differentiation

Differentiation of cos x, tan x, etc
.... ....
105 110 112

116
117 118
121
6. 7. 8.
9.
Shop Work Maxima and Minima

.
Tangents
in Polar Coordinates
128 134 138
Differential of
Arc
10.
Rates and Velocities
CHAPTER
Logarithms
Differentiation of Logarithms
1
VI
LOGARITHMS AND EXPONENTIALS

1.
146
151
2.
3.
The Limit
hm
(1+0'
Interest
155
4. 5. 6.
7.
The Compound
Law
Differentiation of e^
156 167
to
Graph of the Function x" The Formulas of Differentiation
Date
VII
....
160
161
CHAPTER
The Problem
of Niunerical
APPLICATIONS
1.
Computation
2.
Solution of Equations.
Known Graphs
.... ....
166 166
CONTENTS
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
IX
PAGE
Interpolation
9.
Newton's Method Direct Use of the Tables Successive Approximations Arrangement of the Numerical Work in Tabular Form Algebraic Equations Continuation. Cubics and Biquadratics
...
....
. . .
170
172 176
180 184
187 189 195
10.
Curve Plotting
CHAPTER
VIII
THE INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

1. 2. 3.
4.
5.
Inverse Functions The Inverse Trigonometric Functions
...
...
.
Shop Work
Continuation.
Applications
Numerical Computation
....
206 209 215 218 221
CALCULUS
CHAPTER
The
was invented
I
INTRODUCTION
Calexilus
in the seventeenth century
the mathematician, astronomer, and physicist, Sir Isaac

in England, and the philosopher Leibniz in
by Newton Germany. The
reaction of the invention on geometry and mathematical physics
was most important. In fact, by far the greatest part of the mathematics and the physics of the present day owes its
existence to this invention.
1.
first
Functions. The word function, in mathematics, was applied to an expression involving one or more letters
;
which represent variable quantities

expressions
(a)
a?,
as,
for example, the
23?-Z'x
Va'^
+ l;
;
(6)
V,
x^
x^
,.
xy
x^
ax
Va;2
+ by
a
(d)
+x
sin
a;,
+ y^
logs;,
^yijê2
tanîsc.
In the second example under (6), two letters enter but a thought of as chosen in advance and then held fast, x alone being variable. A quantity of this kind is called a constant.
;
is
Thus
is
ax
+o
6.
1
a function of x which depends on two constants, a and
'
CALCULUS
Such expressions are written in symbolic, or abbreviated, form as f(x), f(x, y) (read "/ of x," "f of x and y " etc.) other letters in common use being F, $, etc.* Thus the
:
<f>,
equation
(1)
f{x)
= 2a?-'&x + l =
defines the function /() in the present case to be 2a!' 3a;+l.
Again,
(2)
is
<j,{x,
y, e)
x"-
+ y'
-\-
an equation defining the function
<j>{x,
y, z) as x^
+ y^ +
z*.
We shall be concerned for the present

single variable, as illustrated
by
(1)
with functions of one above. Here, x is called
the independent variable, since

like.
is
we
The value
of the function, or
called the dependent variable,
it any value we more briefly, the function, and is often denoted by a
assign to
single letter, as
^ =/() y = 23? Zx + l.
Graphs.
or
function
of a single variable,
y =/(<), can
be
represented
geometrically
by
its
graph, and this representation is of great aid

in studying the properties
of
the
function.
vari-
The independent
able
is laid off
as the
as-coordinate,
scissa,
or
ab-
and the dependx"
ent variable, or funcfirst
* To distinguish between /(x) and F(x), read the and the second, " Uuê Fotx."
" small/
of
INTRODUCTION
tion, as the yôordinate, or ordinate.
Thus the graph of the
function
is
the curve
Illustrations from Geometry and Physics. The familiar formulas of geometry and physics afford simple examples of
functions.
Thus the
area,
A, of a
circle is
given by the
formula
A = jtr\
where r denotes the
radius, n being the fixed number 3.1416. Here, r is thought of as the independent variable, it may have any positive value whatever, and is the function, or
dependent variable.
Again, for the three round bodies, the volumes are
(a)
(6)
(c)
F=
firr^,
sphere
cylinder;
cone.
F=irr%, V='^r%,
(6)
In
and
;
(c),
the base
is
h denotes the altitude and r, the radius of here a function of the two independent
variables, r
and
h.
The
(a)
(/8)
surfaces of these bodies are given
by the formulas
(y)
I,
S = Attt^, S = 2Trrh, S=
tttI,
sphere
cylinder
cone
in the last formula, denotiag the slant height.
Thus we
have three further examples of functions of one or of two

variables.
The formula
for a freely falling

s
body
is
= \gt\
t
where
denotes the distance fallen and
the time
$>
is
constant, for it has just one value after the units of time
and
4
length liave been chosen.
CALCULUS
Here,
If,
t
is
and
for
f
8 is
the function.
however,
,
the independent variable we solve this equation
then s becomes the radependent variable and t, the function. Sometimes two variables are connected by an equation, as
pv
c,
where p denotes the pressure of a gas and v

temperature remaining constant.
its
volume, the
Here, either variable can
be chosen as the independent variable, and when the equation is solved for the other variable, the latter becomes the de-
pendent variable, or function.
Thus,
c
if
we
write
P
p
is
the independent variable, and v
is
expressed as a function
of p.
But
if
we
write
-, P=V
the rSles are reversed.

variable
The Independent Variable Bestricted. Often the independent is restricted to a certain interval, as in the case of the
y
function
= Vo^ x\
and a
:
Here, x must
lie
between
a<^ x<â.
since other values of x
make
a^
x^
negative,
and the above
expression has no meaning.
This was also the case with the geometric examples above There, r, h, I were necessarily positive, since there is no such thing, for example, as a sphere of zero or negative
cited.
radius.
The independent
variable
may
also be restricted to being a
positive whole number, as in the case of the
sum
of the first
INTRODUCTION
terms of a geometric progression
s
:
'
= a + ar + ar^ +
1
+ ar'-K
Here,
a ar"
r
Suppose a
= 1, r = ^, the progression thus becoming

1
1+.. .+J-. + 1 + 22 ^ 2"-i

2
Then
-i.-^
2
and we have an example of a function with the iadependent

variable a natural number,
i.e. a positive integer. In the case of ihe functions treated in the calculus, the domain of the independent variable is a continuum, i.e., for functions of a single variable, an interval, as
a-^x<b,
or
<
as.
Ordinarily, the later letters of the alphabet, particularly

X, y, z,
are used to represent variables, the early letters denot-
ing constants.
pression as
Thus
it will
aad'
be understood, when such an ex-
+ OX + C
and x
is
is
written down, that
o, 6, c
are constants
the variable.
Multiple-Vahied Functions;
Principal Value.
The
expres-
sions above cited are all examples of single-valued functions

i.e. to each value of the independent variable x corresponds but one value of the function. A function may, however, be
muUiple-valued ; as in the case of the function y defined the equation

a,2
by
+ ^2 _ a\
Here
y=
Va^ x^,
6
and
CALCULUS
so is a double-valued function. This function is, however, completely represented by means of the two single-valued
functions,
= â^x^
and
y = Va* iC*.
Graph of
Oraphofy,when
INTRODUCTION
is
often called the principal value of the double- valued function
defined
by the equation
Since multiple-valued functions are studied

single-valued functions,
less
it -will
,
by means
of
be understood henceforth, un-
the contrary
is
explicitly stated, that the
word function
means
single-valued function.
Absolute Value.
It
is
frequently desirable to use merely
the numerical, or absolute value of a quantity, and to have a
notation for the same.
The notation
is:
|a!|,
read " absolute
value of X."
Thus
|-3| = 3
and
|3|=3.
We
stated
can
now
write in a single formula what was formerly

(1),
by the two equations
namely the
definition of the
radical sign,
(2)
V^ = |a|.
we
often
Again, by the difference of two numbers

value of the larger less the smaller.
mean
the
and 10
is
difference of
and the difference a and 6, in this sense, can be expressed
Thus the difference of 4 of 10 and 4 is also 6. The

as either
Continuous Functions. function, /(), is said to be continuous if a slight change in x produces but a slight change in
the value of the function.
shown
tions
to be continuous
cf.
Thus the polynomials are readUy Chap. II, 5, and all the func-
with which we
shall
have to deal are continuous, save at
exceptional points.
As an example
certain point
may
of a function which is discontinuous at a be cited the function (see Tig. 3)
/(.)=i.
CALCULUS
approaches the value
0,
When X
the function increases nuof the function has the
merically without limit.

axis of y as
The graph
an asymptote.
The
fractional rational functions are continuous except at
the points at which the denominator vanishes.
y=
1^
Thus the function
^'-'-^
is
a;
continuous except at the points
=1
function
and a; = becomes
the curve
1.
Here,
the
Its
infinite.
graph
is
x'^
+1
=l
y~{x-l)Qc + iy
which evidently has the lines x and a = 1 as asymptotes.
The function
Fig. 3
is
/(a;)
= tan
a;
continuous except
when x
^ X
is
an odd midtiple of
TT.
ir/2,
+l ^ 2w -r
EXERCISES
1.
If
f{x)
/(1)
=x^-4:X + 3,
show that
= 0,
/(2)=-l,
/(3)
= 0.
Compute /(0),/(4).
2.
Plot the graph of the function.

^(a;)
If
"
= 4a!'
2,x-Z
x
compute ^(2) and ^(V3).

3.
If
F(x):
+7
'
compute F{-\/2) correct to three
significant figures.
Ans. -.0204.
INTRODUCTION
4.
If
$()
(a;'
a;)siii x,
find all the values of x for -whicli
*(0)=0.
5.
If
^(a!)=a!^
a;"^,
findi/-(8).
6.
Solve the equation

3^
xy
-\-
= By
x.
for y, thus expressing ^ as a function of

7.
If
f(x)=ci^,
/(a')/(2/)
show tlmt
8.
=/( + y)^
If
a;
y=
as a function of
y.
+ ^,
express
9.
Draw
the graph of the function

/(a;)=cB2
+ 4a! + 3,
taking 1 em. as the unit.
Suggestion
10.
Write the function in the form, (x
+ l)(a; + 3).
Draw

f[x)
= a^ 4
a;.
11.
Draw
and hence
tion has.
12.
illustrate the
two
discontinuities
which
this func-
Draw

f( ^^^'
X
1
a?
{x-lf
10
13.
CALCULUS
For what values of x are the following functions
dis-
continuous ?
(a) /()
(6)
= cot f(x) = sec

a;
= esc (d) /() = tan |(c)
f(x)
a;
14.
Express the double-valued function
defined
by the
equation
in terms of
15.
a?-f = -l
two single-valued functions.
Express the quadruple-valued function defined by the

y*
equation
- 2j/^ +
x''
=
n terms of the arithmetic
in terms of four single-valued functions.

16.
Express the sum
of the first
progression
a+{a + b)+(a + 2b)+

as a function of n.
+(a + n
lb)
Thus obtain the sum of the

function of n.
17.
first
n positive integers as a
If
dollars are put at simple interest for one year at
r per cent, (a) express the amount

as a function of
(principal
and
interest)
Express the amount A at the end of n years, the interest being compounded annually, as a function of P, r, and n. (c) Express the amount at the end of one year, if the interest is compounded m times in the year at equal intervals, as a function of P, r, m.
r.
P and
(b)
2.
Continuation.
ception of the function

cal formulas
General Definition of a Function. The conis broader than that of the mathemati-
the definition in
mentioned in the last paragraph. its most general form.

77ie variable
Let us state
Definition of a Function.
is given,
is
said to be a
function of the variable x if there eadsts a law whereby, when x
is determined.
INTRODUCTION
11
Consider, for example, a quantity of gas confined in a chamber,
for instance, the charge of the mixture of gasolene and

compressed in the cylinder of an automobLle.
this pressure varies
air as it is being
The charge
many
and
exerts at each instant a definite pressure, p, of so pounds per square inch on the walls of the chamber,
with the volume, v, occupied by the In the small fraction of a second under consideration, presumably but little heat is gained or lost through the walls of the chamber, and thus p is a function of v,
charge.
In this
ease, the function is
given approximately by the math-
ematical formula
where
C denotes a certain constant.
But that which
is
of first
importance for our conception is not the formula, but the fact that to each value of v there corresponds a definite value of p. In other words, there is a definite graph of the relation be-
tween V and p. The representation of the relation by a mathematical formula is, indeed, important; but what we must first see clearly is the fact that there is a definite relation to
express.
As another
pen of a
cal
illustration take the curve traced out
by the
self-registering
meteorological station.
thermometer of the kind used at a The instrument consists of a cylindri-
drum turned
at uniform
slowly by clock-
work
speed
about
of
vertical
axis,
sheet
a a paper
^la. 4
being
wound
firmly round the drum.
A pen is held against the paper, and pen above a certain level is proportional to the height of the
the height of the temperature above the temperature corre-
12
CALCULUS
when
sponding to that level. The apparatus is set in operation, and the drum has been turning for a day, the paper is taken off and spread out flat. Thus we have before us the graph of the temperature for the day ia question, the independent variable being the time (measured in hours from midnight) and the dependent variable being the temperature, represented by the other coordinate of a point on the curve. One more illustration, that of the resistance of the atmosphere to a rifle bullet. This resistance, measured in pounds, depends on the velocity of the bullet, and it is a matter of
physical experiment to determine the law.

is is
But that which

the fact that there
of first importance for our conceptions
is
law, whereby,
when
the velocity,
v, is
given an arbitrary
value withia the limits of the velocities considered, there cor-
responds to this V a definite value, B, of the resistance. is a, function of v and write say, then, that
We
B = fiv).
In
this connection, ef. the chapter
on Mechanics,
7,
Graph
of the Resistance, La the author's Differential
and
Integral
Gdkulus.
CHAPTER
II
DIFFERENTIATION OF ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
GENERAL THEOREMS
1.
Definition of the Derivative.
The Calculus
deals with
varying quantity. If j/ is a function of x, then x is thought of, not as having one or another special value, but as flowing or growing, just as we think of time or of the expanding circular ripples
made by a
stone dropped into a placid pond.
And y
ing.
varies with x, sometimes increasing, sometimes decreas-
Now if we
consider the change in x for a short interval,

x',
say from
x=:Xotox=
y',
the corresponding change in y,a,sy

ratio of these changes is
goes from y^ to the change in x.
will be iu general almost proportional to
For the
x'
Xa
when
x' is
and
this
quantity changes only slightly

Xq.
nearly
equal to
Let us study this
last
statement minutely.
Fig. 5
The above
ratio has a simple geometric meaning, if

;
we draw
for
PM=x'-Xa;
13
MP' = y'-y^,
14
CALCULUS
aj'-OTo
where
t'
denotes the angle which the secant

x.
PP
makes with
approach ojq as its limit. Then r' approaches as its limit the angle t which the tangent line of the graph at makes with the axis of x, and hence
the axis of
let x'
Now
lim y x'^ x'

(
~yo = tan r
!Cd
read
"limit, as x' approaches
Xg,
of ^
X'
~^
Xf,
J
of
its
The determination of
this limit
and
the discussion
mean-
ing is the fundamental problem of the Differential Calculus. Such are the concepts which underlie the idea of the derivative of
the definition.
(1)
a function. Let
We
turn
now
to
a precise formulation of
y=f(')
x,
be a given function of x. Let Xq be an arbitrary value of and let ô ^^^ corresponding value of the function
(2)
2/0
=/(ai)).
;
Give to X an Lucrement,* Ax i.e. let x have a new value, and denote the change in x, namely, a/ aj^, by Aa;
a;'
x',
a!o
= Aa;,
a;'
= a^ + Aa;.
The
(3)
function, y, will thereby have changed to the value

2/'
=/('')
and hence have received an iucrement. Ay, where
y'-yo = Ay,
y'
= yo + %
The student must not think of this symbol as meaziing A times x. used a single letter, as h, to represent the difference in question x'=Xo + h; hut h would not have reminded us that it is the
We might have
:
increment of
is
x,
and not
of y, with
which we are concerned. The notation
read " delta x."

Equation
(4)
'
15
(3) is
equivalent to the following

yo
+ Ay =/(a'o + Aaj).
we
obtain
From
equation
equations (2) and (4)
by subtraction the
A2/=/(a!o
+ Aa;)-/(a!o),
Aaj
and hence
C5-V ^ ^
Ay^ /(a!o+Aa!)-/(a;o)
Ak
oi"
Definition
(5),
a Dbeivativb. Ax
The
limit
which the ratio
namely
approaches when
approaches zero
(6)
lim^
tixÂx
or
li^/^^Mr^M,
AxiO
Ax
is called the derivative
of y with respect to x and is denoted by
Bjy or DJioi) (read

(J)
"D x oiy"):
oxÂx
In
this definition
Ax may be
negative as well as positive, and
from the the limit (6) must be the same when Aa; approaches negative side as when it approaches from the positive side.
To
differentiate
is
a
y
in-
function
to find its
derivative.
The geometrical
terpretation
of
the
to
analytical process of
differentiation
is
find the slope of the
graph of the function.

Por,
tanr'=^
16
2.
it is
CALCULUS
Differentiation of x".
Suppose n has the value
3,
so that
required to diEEerentiate the function
(1)
a?.
by step. Begin, which is to be held fast during the, rest of the process, and compute from equation (1) the corresponding value yoofy:
then,
We
must follow the definition of by assigning to a; a particxilar
1 step
value,
a^,
(2)
2/0
= XgK
Next, give to x an arbitrary increment. Ax, denote the corresponding increment in y by Ay, and compute it. To this end we first write down the equation
(3)
ya
+ Ay={xo+As:y.
expanded by the
:*
The right-hand
side of this equation can be

(3)
binomial theorem, and hence

(4)
can be written in a new form

-(-
yo+Ay = 00o^ + 3 x^Âx + 3 xÂx^

:
Aa?.
Subtract equation (2) from equation (4)
Ay = SxgÂx
+ 3 XgAx'^ + Aa^.
Next, divide through by Ao;
Ax
^ = SV + 3xJ^x +
lim (3 a;2
Ax''.
We are now ready to let Ax approach

lim
as its limit
M=
+ 3 xÂx + Ax^).
come
*It
to
is
at this point that the specific properties of the functional
into play.
Here,
will
it is
compute the
it
limit.
the'binomial theorem that enables us ultimately In the differentiations of later paragraphs and
h.e
chapters
always
some
characteristic property of the function in
hand which
will
make
possible
a transformation at
this point.

The
17
limit of the left-hand side is, by definition, D,y. On the right-hand side, each of the last two terms in the parenthesis
approaches the limit
0, and so their sum approaches 0, also. term does not change with Aw. Hence, the whole parenthesis approaches the limit Swo^. We have, then, as the
The
first
final result
0,2/
= 3 V-
The
subscript has
Xq is
now
remind us that
dropped.
served its purpose, which was, to not to vary with Ax, and it may be
Thus
d^^=3xK
that
The n
differentiation of the function x" in the general caseis
cisely the
(6)
any positive integer can be carried through in presame manner. As the result of the first step we have
'
2/0
aso"-
Next comes
(6)
y
+ Ay = (Xo + Aa;),
to the expression
and we now apply the binomial theorem the right-hand side. Thus
(7) yo
on
+ ^y = xo" + mVÂk + '^^^~J'^ a;o-2Aa;2 H

we have
h
Aa;".
Aa;.
On
subtracting (6) from (7)
Ay = nXo"-Âx
+ ^^"' ~J'^ x^^-^-Ax"- H 1 ^
Now divide
through by Ax
nxo"-^
^= Ax
and
let
+ '^^"'~'^\ --Âx 1 '2

the limit zero
++
Ax--^
Ax approach
Arm Ax
lim
^ = lim
/âsiO
f a!o"-i
+ "^" ~ ^^ V'Âw -H 1-2
-I-
Aa!-i\
J
is
Each term
of the parenthesis after the first
the product
of a constant factor
and a positive power of
Aa;.
This second
18
factor approaches zero
CALCULUS
when
Aa;
;
approaches zero consequently There is only a fixed number of these terms, and so the whole parenthesis approaches the limit waso""". Hence
the whole term approaches zero.
On
(8)
dropping the subscript we obtain the

Z),B
final result
raa!-i.
In particular,
(9)
if
= 1,
we have
D,x
= l.
EXERCISES
Differentiate the following seven functions, applying the
process of 1 step
1.
by
step.
,
19
Plot the curve accurately for values of x from a; = to x = 5, taking 1 cm. as the unit, and draw the secants* in each of the three foregoing cases.
What
{xq, yo)
9.
= (l> 4)?
In Ex.
appears to be the slope of the curve at the point Prove your guess to be correct.
7, let
a!o
= 1- H
Ax
is
given successively the
values .01 and

10.
.01,
compute Ay and
^
Ax
Complete the following table
Ax
20
3.
CALCULUS
Derivative of a Constant.
The function
where
lel
c denotes a constant, has for its

x.
graph a right
it is
line paralis
to the axis of
Since the derivative of a function
repre-
sented geometrically by the slope of its graph, the derivative of this function is zero
clear that
Dji
It
is
= 0.
instructive, however, to obtain this result analytically
by the
process of
1.
We have here
2/o=/(9i))=c,
yo + Ay =/(a!o4- Aa;)= c;
hence
Aw "
Aa; to
its
and
0.
2 =
Aa;
0.
Now allow
0,
approach
:
The value
of Ay/Aa;
is
always
and hence
limit * is
lim^=0,
Ax^ Aa;
*
or
Z),c
= 0.
" a variahle JT
We note here an error
frequently
made
in presenting the subject of
limits in school mathematics.
It is there often stated that
approaches a limit Ait comes indefinitely near to A, but never reaches A." This last requirement is not a part of the conception of a variable's
approaching a
tion, the ratio
limit.
It is true that
it is
often inexpedient to allow the
independent variable to reach

sion
its limit.
Thus, in differentiating a func-
by
is
value of
Ay/Ax ceases to have a meaning when As = 0, since diviThe problem of differentiation is not to find the AyI Ax, when Ax = such a question would be absurd. What
is
impossible.
we do
to allow Aa; to
that limit.
ario6ie.
We
its limit without ever reaching can do this for the reason that Az is the iTidepemdent
approach zero as
it is Ay or Ay/Ax that is under consideration, we have do with dependevi variables, and we have no control over them, as to whether they reach their limit or not. Thus in the case of the text both Ay and Ay/ Ax are constants (=0). When Aa; approaches 0, they always have one and the same value, and so, under the correct concei>tion of approach to a limit each approaches a limit, namely 0.
When, however,
to
21
We
4.
can state the result by saying
The derivative of a con-
stant is 0.
Differentiation of Va;.
Let us differentiate
y=-\/x.
Here,
2/0
= V0)
+ % = Va;o + Aa;, Ay _ Vgp + Aa; VajQ

2/o
Ax
when
Aa;
Aa;
We cannot as yet see what limit the right-hand

approaches
0, 0, for
side approaches both numerator and denominator
approach
and - has no meaning.
We
can, however, trans-
form the fraction by multiplying numerator and denominator by the sum of the radicals and recalling the formula of Elementary Algebra
=
_ 52 =( _ 6)( + j).
_
Thus
%
â;
V^'o
+ Aa; Vajp
Aa;
Vxg +
Va;o
Aa;
-j-
Vxp
^^
and hence lim ^ = lim
+ Aa!+V% (xg + Aa;) 1 Vxo + AX + Vwo -Vxq + Aa; V^'
a^ Ax
i^ Va!o
^
-(-
a;o
-|-'
^=
^^
Aa; -H Va;o
2 VaJo
Dropping the subscript, we have
2Vm
EXERCISES
1.
Differentiate the function'^/
=
Vx
Ans. Dj)
=
2-\/a?
2.
If
2/=V2-3a;,
Z)j
show that
2V2-3a;
=^=r
22
3.
CALCULUS
Prove:
D,Vl x =
2)^Va
2Vl-a!
6
4.
Prove:
6a;
2 Va
+ bx
In the further 5. Three Theorems about Limits. Infinity.* treatment of differentiation the following theorems are needed.
the
Theobem I. The limit sum of their limits:

Urn
of the
sum of two
variables is equal to
{X+Y)= lim X + lim T.
variables,
In this theorem we think of and each of which approaches a limit
as
two dependent
limX=^,
limr=JB.
We
do hot care what the independent variable
may
be.
In
the applications of the theorem to computing derivatives, the
independent variable will always be Ax, and it will be allowed to approach 0, without ever reaching its limit. approaches A, it comes nearer and nearer to this Since
Let the difference between the variable and be denoted by then the limit of e is
value.
; :
its limit
(1)

It will be convenient to think of these
23
sented geometrically
t
A
and
by
points on the scale of numbers, thus
nt
Fig. 7
0.
r,.
numbers as repre:
r-te
Of
course,
may be
negative or
0.
and
(1)
rj
may
be
negative as well as positive, or even
Consider the variable
X+Y.
Its value
from
and
(2) is
,.
X + T=A + B + +
Hence
lim (X+Y)
^,
rj).
=lim(A
+B+ e+
But since lim e
and lim 17
is
= 0,
the limit of the right-hand
side of this equation
Consequently,
A + B, or lim{X + Y)=A + B. lim (X+Y)= lim X + lim P,

The
limit
q. e. d.
CoBOLLAKY.
of the
sum of any
fined
number of
variables is equal to the sum, of the limits of these variables :
lim (Xi
+ X2+-+X,)= lim Xi + lim Xj Suppose n = 3. Then Xi + X2 X3 = (Xi X2) -f X3.

-1-
-1-
lim X.
-I-
-f-
From Theorem
it
follows that
lim (Xi
-f-
X2 + X3)
= lim (Xi
-|-
X2) -1- lim Xs-
Applying the Theorem again, we have

lim (Xi
+ Xj) = lim Xj
is
-|-
lim Xj.
It can
Hence the
lished for
ji
corollary
;
true for
= 3.
how be
estab-
and so on. By the method of Mathematical Induction it can be proven generally. Or, the proof of the main theorem may be extended directly to the present
theorem.
=4
24
CALCULUS
II.
Tlie limit
Theorem
of the product of two variables
is
equal to the product of their limits
lim
(XF) = (limX)(lim
it
T).
From
equations (1) and (2)
follows that
or
XT= AB + B + Ari +
lim 'XT= lim
Since
erj.
Hence
(AB + B + A7i + eq).

each of the last three terms in 0, and so the limit of the
A and B are constants,

is
the parenthesis approaches the limit

parenthesis
AB.
Hence
lim{XY)= AB,
or
lim
{XT) = (lim :X)(lim
T),
is
q. e. d.
Corollary.
to the
The limit of the product of n variables product of the limits of these variables :
lim (XiXj
...
equal
X) = (lim Xi)(lim X^)
(limX).
The proof
Remark.
is
similar to that of the corollary under

particular case under
Theorem
I.
As a
Theorem II we have
lim(C'X) = C(limX),
where
O is
a constant.
III.
Theobbm
divisor is not
The
limit
of the quotient of two variables
is
equal to the quotient of their limits, provided that the limit of the
;
^
we have
t
7,
_
From
equations (1) and (2) above
X^ A +
Y B+

Subtract
25
AfB from
each side of this equation and reduce
X A_ A-^ A_ Bt Ar]
Y B B+
Hence
7]
B'
+ Br,'
26
CALCULUS
where
(7 is
a constant and lim
XÔ.
as its limit, Remark. If the denominator approaches no general inference about the limit of the fraction can be drawn, as the following examples show. Let have the
values
F=i 10'
(1) If
J- -J100' 1000'
'
-^ 10"'
the corresponding values of
X are
'
102' 1002'
10002'
10""'
then
lim
X - = lim
T
(2)
If
X=
Vip' vioo' viooo'
111
'
=
1 10-
0.
^^'
then
X/F=10"/^
If
approaches no limit, but increases beyond
all limit.
(3)
X = ^, 10'
any
100' 1000'
'
10"'
'
where
c is
arbitrarily chosen fixed
number, then
lim
1
= Y
1
c.
fA\ Tf
*
''
"V^
J-
1
""10,000'
~io' ~ioo' iooo'
"'
then
X/ Y
assumes alternately the values
+1
and
1,
and
hence, although remaining finite, approaches no limit.
To sum
or it
up, then,
increase
we
see that
when
X and Y both approach

limit whatever, although remain-
as their limit, their ratio
may approach any

limit, or finally,
may
beyond all
DIFFERENTIATION OP ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS

ing finite,
i.e.
27
always lying between two fixed numbers, no matin value,
ter
how widely tlie latter may differ from each other it may jump about and so fail to approach a limit.
If limX=^:?t=0 and limF=0, then X/ Finbeyond all limit, or becomes infinite. A variable Z is said to become infinite when it ultimately becomes and remains greater numerically than any preassigned quantity, however large.* If it takes on only positive values, it becomes
Infinity.
creases
positively infinite; if only negative values, it becomes negatively

infinite.
We express its behavior by the notation or lim^ = -|-oo limZ = or limZ = oo.
oio
But
this notation does
not imply that infinity
is
a limit
the
variable in this case approaches no limit.
And
so the notation
should not be read " Z approaches infinity" or

infinity
"Z
equals
but " Z becomes infinite.'' Thus if the graph of a function has

;
its
tangent at a certain
shall
point parallel to the axis of ordinates,
we
,
have for that
point
lim
read
"
^ = 00
Ay/Ax becomes
writers find
it
infinite
when Ax approaches
0."
convenient to use the expression "a variable approaches a limit " to include the case that the variable becomes infinite.
Some
We
shall
pression, but shall understand the
not adopt this mode of exwords " approaches a limit
in their strict sense.

'*T!f
a function f(x) becomes
infinite
when x approaches a
cer-
tain value a, as for
example
/(a;)=for
= 0,
* Note that the statement sometimes made that " Z becomes greater than any assignable quantity" is absurd. There is no quantity that is greater than any assignable quantity.
28 we denote
this
CALCULUS
by writing
/(a)=oo
(or
/(a) =+00
or
= oo,
if this
happens to be the case
and we wish
It
is
to call attention to the fact).
in this sense that the equation
tan 90 =00
is
to be understood in Trigonometry.
mean
so.
The equation does not that 90 has a tangent and that the vcdue of the latter is It means that, as x approaches 90 as its limit, tana;
exceeds numerically any number one may name in advance, and stays above this number as x continues to approach 90
without ever reaching
its limit, 90.
Definition of a Continuous Function.

explicit the definition given iu
We can now make more

is
Chapter I by saying: f(x)
continuous at the poiut
a;
= a if
lim/(a!)=/(a).
From
Exercises 1-3 below
it
follows that the polynomials

x,
are continuous for all values of
and that the fractional
rational functions are continuous except

va.nishes.
when
the denominator
EXERCISES
1.
Show
that, if
is
any positive
integer,
lim(Z) = (limX).
2.
If
O (x) = Co + C^X + C2X^

lim
x=a
-\
+ cjif,
ofl,^
then
Q{x)= G(a)=
(^
+ CiU +
+ - + cjn".
if
3.
If Q{x)
and F(x) are any two polynomials and
F{a)^0,
then
lim^M = ^(^.

4.
29
show
If
X remains finite and

that
Y" approaches
as its limit,
^^"-^
lim(Xr)=0.
Show
^^^
a^
5.
x3a;2
Suggestion.
_1 + + 2a; 1~3"
Begin by dividing the numerator and the dex^.
nominator by
Evaluate the following limits

6.
^ + W-'^^, lim ^^''< ;=a!3-7a; + 3
7.
Km
.=
4:afi
12^!+5
+ 3x*-+7 x^-1
-^T
8.
lim?^^^'././. '''
x=a cx
+ da;"'
X
9.
*-^,
A\
lim^^^. ^^ x^ ex + dx~^
lim
="
10.
lim *-"
11.
^ VS + 5a;2-|- 4^
'
12.
lim
^^ + ^' + '^
X
13.
limX=o<,
VI + a*
6.
General Formulas of differentiation.

I.
Theorem
a function
tive
(I)
is
The derivative of
the product
of a constant and
equal to the product of the constant into the deriva-
of the function
30
The
CALCULUS
limit of the left-hand side is
D^.
On
approaches
D^
as its limit.
is
limit of the right-hand side
Hence by 5, Theorem cD.tt, and we have
the right, Aw/Aa; II, the
X>,(cm)=cD,m,
q.e.d.
equal to the
Theorem II. sum
Tim derivative of of their derivatives
the
sum of two
functions
is
(H)

Polynomials.
31
We
are
now
in a position to differentiate
any
polynomial.
For example:
= 7D,3^ - 5Dji? + 1 = 280)3 - 153? + 1.

EXERCISES
Differentiate the following functions
1.
2.
3.
4.
= 2x^ Zx + l. y=a + bx+ cx\ y = x^-3<jfi + x l. y = a + bx + CO? +

y
Ans. D^y Ans.
= ix 3.
D^ b + 2cx.
x'-
Ans.
D^ = ia^ 9 + 1.
6a!' 1.
ax
dsfi.
5.
y ^
jr^.
=
2
ax--^2hx
Ans.
3a:^
6.
+c
^^^
+b
h
2h
7.
n-!B*-3|a;2+V3.
Differentiate
(a) Vot
(6)
(c)
Ans. inafi-T^x.
8.
16^2 with, respect to a + bs+ cs^ with respect to s .Qlly^ 8.15m2/^ .'dim with respect to y.
t
;
9.
Find the slope of the curve

42/
a;^
Bk 1
Ans.
at the point (1,

10.
2).
^y
1.
At what angle does the curve
= AiX a?
cut the negative axis of
a;
32
11.
CALCULUS
At wtat
angles do the curves y
= 3? and y =
oi?
intersect ?
7'-
Ans. 0 and 8
12.
At what
angles do the curves y
intersect?
= a? Zx and y = x Ans. ges-BC and 38 40'.
7.
General Formulas of Differentiation, Continued.

III.
Theorem
formula :
(III)
The derivative of a product
is
given by the
Dûv) = uD^v
2/
+ vDû.
r
Let
=^ Mv.
Then
2/0
2/o
= Mo^)
(''o
+ % = (mo + ^) + î>), Ay = UyAv + VqAu + AmAv,

Av = -^ Ax
Av
Wo
Aa;
,
Am
""o
1-
1-
Aa;
Am Au Ax
.
Am
and, by
Theorem
I,
lim^=
^lioAa;
lim(
Ax^\
?to
|+ Hmf )+ Ax Ax
-Wo
lim(
Axiio\
i^3:^\
Ax
J
0, since
By Theorem
lim Am
II,
5,
the last limit has the value
and lim (Av/Asc) = Dj). The first two limits have the values UgD^v and VgDû respectively.* Hence, dropping
the subscripts,
we have
D^y = uD^v
+ vDji,
differentiated.
liere,
q. e. d.
By
a repeated application of this theorem the product of
any number of functions can be

* More
strictly,
:
When more
Theorem
I, II,
the notation sliould read

etc.
before the subscripts
are dropped
[DiO]js=5||,
Similarly in the proofs of
andV.

than two' factors are present, the formula
ten in the form
is
33
conveniently writ-
D^(uvw)
(1)
_Dji
^
D^v
^
Djjo
uvw
w
is
For a reason that will appear

rithmic derivative of uvw.
later, this
called the loga-
Theokem
formula :*
(IV)
IV.
The derivative of a quotient
is
given by the
34
Example
1.
CALCULUS
Let
_ 2 3a;
^~l-2a!'
Then
i}y- a-2x)DJ2-3x)-(2-3x)DAl-2x) '^

(1
- 2xy
^ (l-2a!)(-3)-(2-3a!)(-2) ^
(l-2a;)2
(l-2xy'
Example
2.
To prove
that the theorem

X>j.a;"
= ma;""' = m.
Here
is
true
when
n.
is
a negative integer, n
a!"
1
a;"
wia!"""i
TT
Hence
n Djc"
^- = a!"i)^l liJjB" =
= nuc__1 \
""
On
proof
replacing
is
m in this last expression by its value, n,

EXERCISES
the
complete.
-^.^
4-
'^ -v
"
+ x^
a^
^
a;
'^
^y^
_-
v+
r.
+ x^y 32 2' (1
0'
a!)2
5.
=
1
Ans. Dfi
t
' '
t^. +a
Ans
'
= ~ (i + ty ^^ + 208-0" f? + 2az-ira?'

2 ay
a2-2/2
9.
35
ax+b
:lslji..
10.
36
The
letters
CALCULUS
truth of the theorem does not depend on the particular
by
vrhich
the variables are denoted.
We may replace,
for example,
xhj t and yhj

DfU
x:
= Dû D,x.
we
thus
Dividing through by the second factor on the right, obtain the formula
(V")
Â = D,x
1.
Example
In
4 we differentiated the function Va;, and
we saw
manner.
that other radicals can be differentiated in a similar
But each new differentiation required the evaluation by working through the details of a limiting process. Theorem V enables us to avoid such computations, as the following example will show.
of lim Ay/Aa;
To
differentiate the function
u = Va^
Let
y
'.
= a^ x*.
u
Then
and the
if
= Vy,
comes directly under Theorem V,
differentiation thus
we
set
/(y)
^y>
D,u
^ (') =
a^
a;^-
Hence we have
(1)
= D^y/y Dâ^ - x^).

jy
Now,
the formula
-^~_
does not
mean
that the independent variable must be denoted

If the independent variable
_
D,-s/~y
is y,
by the
reads
letter x.
the formula
= -^2V^
DIFFERENTIATION OF ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS 37

Consequently
(2) (1)
can be written in the form
D^ri
= -!-(- 2 x) =
2V2/
"^
-
V02-
We have, then,
as the final result

D,-\/a?
x^ =
Va^
Exam/pie
2.
x'^
To
Let
Then
- x/ z=:l X. y = z~K
(1
To apply Theorem V in the present case, the letters u and y must be replaced respectively by y and z. Thus Theorem V
reads here:
or
= D^Dj^, = D^^Dâ-x). Dj)

D^y
Since Formula (8) of

tegral values of
2 has been extended to negative in-
n by
7,
Ex.
2,
we have
Z)^==-3-*.
Hence
or
D,y
= -Zz-\-l)=-.
z
D,
=
(l-a!)8
(1-a;)*
x-'
EXERCISES
Diiferentia|e A^^lowing functions

.-
'
1.
(f'i
v=Va2 +
2/
a;
a;''.
^ras,
P>
2.*
Va2
a;2
=
1.
a;
Va2
.dns.
a;2
V(a2
shown
a;^)^
* Note that case
Formula
4,
(8) of 2 has also been
to hold for the
= ^
Ex.
38
3.
CALCULUS
2/=Vl + a! + ai2.
y
Ans.
2 VI
<
, .
+
"^
"^
iB
4-
A 4.
A Ans.
V3-2a; + 4a!2
2a; VS 2 + 4
1
a;
a;^
~
6.
x^ + 1 u
(1
a;)'
Ans.
.6
a;)3
(1
- x)* + 4a!
{2-3a!)2
^
(2-39!)'
^
(l+2a!)*
10.
(2
9.
y=(-^Y.
-(r^T
M
2a; +
(1
"^
ai2
11.*
12. 13.
= a;(l M = a;(a + te)". u = x\a +

a;)<.
Ans.
-4ns.
5a!)(l
a!)3.
[a
6a;)".
14.
+ (w + l)6a;](a + 6a;)"~'u = a;'(l x)*.

^ns.
15.
M u
= a;Va
a;.
~
2 Va
16.
= 7?^(^ ^.
"^
17.
M = a;Vl+a; + a!2. =
"^
-
18.
M=
Va" -
a;2
19.
Vl + +
a;
a;^
20.
=JM^.
^^c
+ d*
21.t
^*=^
M=
i (a2-2aa;)<
22.
M=r
(a;2
- 1)2
^
23.
24.
M=
a;* 36a;2+362a!-6 6
25.
+ + a+6 M=
1
a;
a;'
a;
{a-irhxY
i
* Use Theorem HI. t Do not use Theorem IV.

9.
Differentiation of Implicit Algebraic Functions.
Wlien
X and y are connected by such a relation as
or or
i.e. if
+ y2 = a% = 0, a^ 2xy + xysaiy = x + y log x,

a;2 2/^
is
given as a function of x by an equation,
F{x,
y)=0
we
or
$ (a;,
y)
=*
(a;,
y),
which must
function of
first
x.
be solved for
If
y, then y is said to be an implicit solve the equation for y, thus obtaining
the equation
y =/(),
2/
thereby becomes an
explicit
function of
a;
x.
By an
satisfies
algebraic function of
is
meant a function y which
an equation of the form
O{x,y)=0,
where G(x,
of
y) is an irreducible polynomial in x and y; i.e. a polynomial that cannot be factored and written as the product
two polynomials. Thus the polynomials are algebraic functions y
for if
= ao + aiX+
+ " = P{vi),
then y
satisfies
the algebraic equation
G{x,y)=y-P{x)=0.
Similarly, the fractions in x are algebraic functions
;
for if
P(xy
w^here
factor,
-P(a;)
and
Q(<c)
are polynomials having no
common
then y
satisfies
the algebraic equation
G{x,y) = Qix)y-Fix)=.0.
40
CALCULUS
fractions are also called rationed
The polynomials and the

functions. '
Thus,
ax
a;2
by +^ + y^
y.
is
a rational function of the two independent variables x and Agaia, all roots of polynomials, as
y
or such functions as
= Vl + X +
X
sfi,
^1
are algebraic, as
is
seen on freeing the equation from radicals

converse, however,
and transposing.
tions
The
namely, that every

of rational funcit is sufB.cient
algebraic function can be expressed
and
radicals,
by means
is
not true.
In order to differentiate an algebraic function,

to differentiate the equation as it stands.
(1) x^
Thus
if
+ y^ = a?,
we have
(2)
Djc''-
+ Dy = D,a?.
Theorem V,
8.
To
Thus
find the value of the second term, apply
Z>^2
= D^'D^ = 2yDj/.
find,
This last factor, D^, is precisely the derivative we wish to and it is given by completiug the differentiations indio
,
cated in (2)
t^
and solving
this equation for
Djy
The
final result
(1) for
is,
:
of course, the
,
same as
if
we had
solved
equation ^
y= Vo* - x\

and then differentiated
Va2
In the
(3)
a?
case,
however, of the equation
a?-2xy + y^ = 0,
solve for y
we cannot
and obtain an
explicit function expressed
in terms of radicals.
Nevertheless, the equation defines y as a perfectly definite function of x for, on giving to x any
;
special numerical value, as x
tion for
y,
here,
= 2, we
have an algebraic func-
and the roots of

of precision.
this equation can
be computed to any degree
To find
the derivative of this function, differentiate equation
(3) as it stands (4)
with respect to x
Dj>?-2DXxy)
+ D^y^ = 0.
by
The second term Theorem III of 7
in this last equation can be evaluated

:
I>,(xy)
= xD^y + y, V of
where Dj^ denotes the derivative we wish to find. To the evaluation of the third term in (4) Theorem
applies:
Dy = 5y^Dj,.
3a!2
^^^'^^
- 2 xDj^ -2y + 5y*D,y =

we have
0.
Solving this equation for Dj/,
as the final result
'^
5y*-2x
is
Thus, for example, the curve

(1, 1),
seen to go through the point
and
its
slope there
is
(-D^)a,i)=-i-
42
CALCULUS
differentiation of implicit functions as set forth in the
The
above examples
is based on the assumptions a) that the given equation defines y as a function of a; 6) that this function has a derivative. The proof of these assumptions belongs to a more advanced stage of analysis. In the case, however, of the
;
we meet in practice, for example, such equations the condicome from a problem ia geometry or physics, tions for the existence of a solution and of its derivative are fulfilled, and we shall take it for granted henceforth that this
equations
as
is
true of the implicit functions
we
meet.
are
Derivative of x", n Fractional. prove the theorem Djc" =

for the case that
We
,
now
in a position to
nx"''-
is
fra,ction.
Let
where p, q are whole numbers which are prime to each other. Let ,
Then
= '.., y = x".
y
x,
Differentiating each side of this equatiqn with respect to
we have
and
since,
^ D,r
by Theorem V,
8,
^ Djx",
D^ = Dj>Djj = qy-^Dj),
it
follows that
qy-Wjj=px!^\
X>^
or
= -
qy
1
This last denominator has the value
(a?Y-^
=x
'.

Hence
We
see,
44
4.
CALCULUS
Plot the curve
a^
+ ^ = 81,
Show
that this curve
is
taking 1 cm. as the unit.

axes.
cut orthog-
onally by the bisectors of the angles
made by the coordinate

5.
M = Vl
u
X.
Ans.
5 V(l
Ans. 3
5-Vc^
6.
= 'Va'' 2ax + x\
= Vc* 3c2a!-|-3ca;2a^.
- xy -2
3-s/a-x
Ans.
7.
2cx + x^
(x>?.
=\
=
"^
9.
a;
= x-i/a + bx +
Ans.
10.
..<l^^^.
3 Va!2(l
- xy
^
JJ
Va-gj+Va +
a;
^^^
'
g^
a!2
+ aVa^-a;" Va^
ofi
13.
r=Va6.
lOâ;!'
16.
= V2
a;
a;.

20.
"-'^
V2aa!-a!2
21.
-'''
^-=^
(1
22.
24.
= iB(a2 x^y.
is 2.
23.
+ )' M = (6 V& +
^
)
!Pind the slope of the curve y
= x^
in the point
whose
abscissa
25.
26.
Ans. tan t
= .116.
If pv^*
c,
find
D^p.
find
D^j/-
If2/V5
= l+a;,
^ns.
^-=42a;Va!
.27.
Differentiate
y in two ways, where

xy
+ A:y = Zx,
'
and show that the

28. 29.
results agree.
The same, when
2/^
= 2 mx.
Show
that the curves
32/
= 2a; + a;y,
2?/
+ Sx +
j/^
aj'j/,
intersect at right angles at the origin.

30.
Find the angle at which the curves
2x = x'^xy + a^,
intersect at the origin.
x'
+ y* + 5x = 7y,
Ans. tan
<^
1.4.
CHAPTER
III
APPLICATIONS
1.
Tangents and Normals.
By
the tangent line, or simply

its points,
the tangent, to a curve at any one of
P,
is
meant the
straight
line
is
through
whose slope
point.
the same as
that of the curve at that
X
Fro. 9
Let the coordinates of F be denoted by (xq, y^. Now, the equation of the straight
line
through P, whose slope

y
is \, is
ai))-
ya = K^
If
On the other we denote
hand, the slope of the curve at any point

the value of this slope at
A.
is
Djf.
this
(a!o,
ô)
^7 {P^\,
will
be the desired value of
Hence the equation
of the tangent to the curve or
y=f(x)
at the point
(1)
(aJo,
F{x,y) =
y^
is
y-yo= (Ps)aip - Xo).

is
Since the normal

X', is
perpendicular to the tangent,
its slope,
the negative reciprocal of the slope of that line, or
X'=46
APPLICATIONS
Hence the equation
(2)
47
(x^, y^) is
of the normal to the curve at or
2^-2ô=-Tp-y(aJ-!eo)
x-Xo+iDjy)o-
{y
-yo)=0.
Example
curve
1.
To
find the equation of the tangent to the
y-a?
in the point x
= ^,y \-
Here
Hence the equation
of the tangent or
is
y i = ^(x ^)
3a!
4?/ 1 = 0.
Example
2.
Let the curve be an
ellipse
t+t=l
a^
Differentiating the equation as it stands,
we
get
a^
b^
ah)
Hence the equation
of the tangent
is
This can be transformed as follows

aô2/
- aW = - 6% + ^'^^, + ahf^y = oV + 6V = a^l^,
V%fB
48
CALCULUS
EXERCISES
1.
Find the equation of the tangent of the curve

y
= a? X
where
it
at the origin of
X.
at the poiat
crosses the positive axis
Ans. x
+ y = 0;
2x y 2 = Q.
2.
Find the equation of the tangent and the normal of the

a;2
circle
+ y2 = 4
answer.
at the point (1,

3.
VS) and check your
Show
that the equation of the tangent to the hyperbola
at the point
{xq, yg) is
a"
4.
Show
that the equation of the tangent of the parabola

y'^
= 2mx = m( +
ai))-
at the point
(xo, yg) is
VoV
5.
Show
that the equation of the tangent of the parabola

y^
= m? 2mx
at the poiat
(xg, yg) is
ygy
6.
= m? m{x +Xg).
Show
that the equation of the tangent of the equilateral
hyperbola
xy =ia^
at the point
(xg, yg) is
y^ + x^ = 2a''.
7.
Find the equation of the tangent

a? + y^ = a%x y)
to the curve
at the origin.
Ans. x
= y.
APPLICATIONS
8.
49
by the
coordi-
Show
that the area of the triangle formed
nate axes and the tangent of the hyperbola
at
any point
9.
is
constant.
Find the equation of the tangent and the normal of the

.
curve
in the point distinct
a?
= a'y'
.
from the origin in which
it is
cut
by the
bisector of the positive coordinate axes.

10.
Show
that the portion of the tangent of the curve
xi
at
+ yi = a^
is
any
point,
intercepted between the coordinate axes,
constant.
11.
The parabola
y^
= 2 ax
cuts the curve
a^
3 axy
+ ?/'==
point.
at the origin
and at one other
Write down the equa-
tion of the tangent of each curve in the latter point.

12.
Show that
in the second point at

2.
the curves of the preceding question intersect an angle of 32 12'.
ft.
square a box
Maxima and Minima. Problem. From a piece of tinis to be made by cutting out equal squares
from the four corners and

bending up the sides. Detei;-. mine the dimensions of the box of this description which will hold the most.
^ ^'
32a;
}-
Solution.
Let
the
be
of
the
length of
side
the the
32a;
Fio. 10
square
removed;
then
dimensions of the box are as indicated in the diagrams,

noting the cubical content of the box by
u,
De-
we have
50
1)
CALCULUS
u = x(3-.2xy,
2)
= 9x 12a;'' + 4*'.
which makes u from the nature of the
The problem
is,
then, to find the value of x
as large as possible, x being restricted case to being positive and less than :
3)
0<a!<f.
The problem can be
1).
treated graphically
curve
We wish
to find the highest point
by plotting the on this curve.
It appears to be the point
for
which x
= ^,
u=
2,
since other values
of x
which have been tried lead

to smaller values of u.
The foregoing method

has the advantage that
is direct,
it
for it assumes no
knowledge of mathematics beyond curve plotting. It

has the disadvantage that curve plotting, even in the
simplest cases, is labori-
ous
and, furthermore,
we
have not really proved Fig. 11 that x = ^ is the best value. We have merely failed to find a better one. The Calculus supplies a means of meeting both the difficulties mentioned, and yielding a solution with the greatest ease. The problem is to find the highest poiat on the curve. At
this point, the tangent of the curve is evidently parallel to
the axis of
x.
tan T
= Dû,
must have the value
Consequently, the slope of the tangent, here
i.e.
APPLICATIONS
All
51
we need do, therefore, is to compute Dû, most conveniently from equation 2), and set the result equal to
:
Bji
= 9 - 24a! + 12a;2 = 0.
x,
On
solving this quadratic equation for

''
.
we
find
two
roots,
"J*
T-
Only one of
values for
these, however, lies within the range 3) of possible
x,
namely, the value x =
^,
and hence
this is the
required value.
EXERCISES
1.
Work
the foregoing problem

ft.
for'
the case that the tin
is
a rectangle 1 by 2
determine in this
Plot accurately the graph, taking 10 cm. as the unit, and
way what appears

an
inch.
to be the best value for x,
correct to one eighth of
Solve the problem by the Calculus, and show that the best
value for x
2.
is
.21132
ft.,
or 2.5359
in.
A farmer
wishes to fence
fence.
a straight
river
river,
off a rectangular pasture along one side of the pasture being formed by the
and requiring no
ft.
build a fence 1000
long.
He has barbed wire enough to What is the area of the largest

having a given perimeter,
pasture of the above description which he can fence off ?

3.
Show
that, of all rectangles
the square has the largest area.

4.
Show
Each
8
ft.
that, of all rectangles
having a given area, the
square has the least perimeter.

5.
side of a shelter tent is a rectangle
How must 1;he
tent be pitched so as to
inside ?
afford the largest
amount of room
The
~^^
ends are to be open.

Ans.
angle.
The angle along the
ridge-pole
must be a right
52
6.
CALCULUS
of their squares
Divide the number 12 into two parts such that the sum may be as small as possible. (What is meant is such a division as this one part might
:
be
and then the other would be would here be 16 + 64 = 80.)

4,
7.
8.
The sum
of the squares
Divide the number 8 into two such parts that the sum
of the cube of one part and twice the cube of the other may-be
as small as possible.
8. Divide the number 9 into two such parts that the product of one part by the square of the other may be as largd^^
as possible.
9.
of one part
10.
Divide the number 8 into two such parts that the product by the cube of the other may be as large as possible.
At noon, one ship, which is steaming east at the rate 2^ mUes an hour, is due south of a second ship steaming south at 16 miles an hour, the distance between them being 82 miles. If both ships hold their courses, show that they
of
will be nearest to each other at 2 p.m.
11.
If,
in the preceding problem, the second ship lies to

till
from noon
course at 16 miles an hour,
one o'clock, and then proceeds on her southerly when will the ships be nearest to
each other?
12.
Find the
least value of the function
y
cyi3.
= x^ + 6x + 10.
y
Ans.
1.
What
is
the greatest value of the function
= 3x a^
for positive values of

-14.
a;
-For
what value of x does the function
12Vg
l attain its greatest value ?
+ 4a;
Ans. x
=^
APPLICATIONS
15.
tive,
53
At
-what point of the interval a
<
a;
<
6,
a being
posi-
does the function
{x
attain its least value ?
16.
a){h
x)
Ans. X
= Va6.
by
Find the most advantageous length for a means of which to raise a weight of 490 lb. (see Fig. 13), q
if
lever,
the distance of the weight

1
C*^
from the fulcrum is 1 ft. and the

lever weighs 6
i^^
3.
lb.
\qx
to the foot.
Fig.
13
Continuation: Auxiliary Variables.
fact, usually,
happens that
It frequently,
to
in
it is
more convenient
formu-
late a
problem if more variables are introduced at the outset than are ultimately needed. The following examples will serve to illustrate the method.
Example
1.
greatest area
Let it be required to find the rectangle of which can be inscribed in a given circle.
It is evident that the area of the
rectangle will be small
tude
is
is
small and also
when its altiwhen its base
short.
largest for
Hence the area will be some intermediate shape.

rec-
Let u denote the area of the

tangle.
(1)
Then
M
= 4 xy.
then the rectangle In fact,
But X and y cannot both be chosen

Fio. 14
arbitrarily, for
will not in general be inseriptible in the given circle.

it is
clear
from the Pythagorean Theorem that x and y must

x^
satisfy the relation

(2)
+ y^ = A
;
We could now eliminate y between equations (1) and (2), thus obtaining u in terms of x alone and it is, indeed, im-
54
CALCULUS
is
portant to think of this elimination as performed, for there
only one independent variable ia the problem. The graph of u, regarded as a function of x, starts at the origia, rises as x
increases, but finally
comes back to the axis of x again when x a. All this we read off, either from the meaning of u and x in the problem or from _* equations (1) and (2).
It is better, however, in practice not to elimi-
J.
respefct
(1),
nate
(2)
with
y, but to differentiate equa;tions (1) and ta x as they -Itand, and then set D,,u = 0.
"
Thus from
and from
")
Dû
(2),
= 4:(^+xD,y)=0, 2a; + 2 yD,y = 0.

we
see that
From
the second of these equations
y
Substituting for Dj) this value in the
first
equation,
we
get
y y
=0
or
y^
= a?.
it
Since x and y are both positive numbers,
follows that
= x.
is
Hence the maximum rectangle
a square.
<X
EXERCISES
1.
Work
the same problem for an ellipse, instead of a
circle.
2.
Work
the problem for the case of a variable rectangle
inscribed in a fixed equilateral triangle.
Example
2.
To
find the
most economical dimensions for a
tin dipper, to hold
pint.
APPLICATIONS
55
sible,
Here, the amount of tin required is to be as small as posthe content of the dipper being given. Let u denote the
surface,
a)
measured in square inches.

M
Then
= 2irrh +
irr^.
But r and h caimot both be chosen arbitrarily, for then the dipper would not in general hold a pint. Fig. If denotes the given volume, measured in cubic inches, then, since this volume can also be expressed as
16
jrr^,
we have
b)
irrÂ
V.
Differentiating equation o) with respect to r

D,ii
and setting
= 0, we have
D,u = ir\2h
or
c)
+ 2rDJi + 2 r = 0,
j
h
DifEerentiating 6)
+ rD,h + r = 0.
get
we
d)
T\2rh
r cannot
+ rWM=0.
as well as
Now,
in this problem,
r,
last equation
e)
through by
and so we may divide by ^
this
2h
It remains to eliminate
+ rD,h, = 0.
D^h between equations
c)
and
e).
From
e),
Substituting this value of D,A in
c),
we
or
find
/)
h2h + r = 0,
of the dipper
= h.
Hence the depth
must
just equal its radius.
Just what have we done here ? The steps we Discussion. have taken are suggested clearly enough by the solution of
56
Example
h, as
1.
CALCULUS
We
have chosen one of the two variables, r and
the independent variable (here, r); differentiated the function u, which is to be made a minimum, with respect to r,
and
6),
set
D,m
= 0.
Then we
differentiated the second equation

r,
likewise with respect to

it all
eliminated D,u, and solved.

is
But what does

Just this
function of
:
mean ?
What
behind
it all.?
is
the quantity m,
r.
the nature of the case,
For,
when
to r is given
any positive value, a
Now,
i.e.
dipper can be constructed which will fulfill the requirements. if r is very large, we shall have a shallow pan, and evidently the amount of tin required to
make
it will
be large
u will also have a large value.

if
shall then have a high cylinder a pipe. Is it clear that m, the surface, will be large in this case, too? I fear not, for it' is purely a relative question as to how high such a pipe must be to hold a pint, and I see no way of guessing intelligently. By means of equation 6), however, we see that
But what
is
small ?
We
of minute cross sections,
i.e.
and
Ml
if
we
substitute this value

/
ma), we
get
F
Ttr^
2F
r
From this last formula it is clear that, when r is small, u actually is large. The graph of u, regarded as a function of
!^
r, is
therefore ia character as
figure.
O
and
also very high
shown by the accompanying

the axis of
r
is
r,
It is a continuous curve lying above
very high when r is small, It has, therefore, a lowest point, and for this value of r, the area u of the dipper But at this lowest point the slope of the curve, will be least. Thus we see, first, that we have a genui),M, has the value 0.
when
large.
APPLICATIONS
ine
57
minimum problem
there
c)
is
actually a dipper of small-
and d) must hold, and since from these equations it follows by elimination that r = ft, there is only one such dipper, and its radius is equal to its altitude. The problem is, then, completely solved.
est area.
Secondly, equations
We inquired merely for the shape
of the dipper.
If the size
b)
had been asked for, too, it could be found by solving for r and h, and expressiag Via cubic inches
:
and /)
F= ^^ = 28.875,
fl-r-s
= 28.87,
'
= 2.095.
its
It can
happen in practice that a function attaias

Usuneces-
greatest
or its least value at the end of the interval. derivative does not have to vanish.
ally,
In that case, the
the facts are patent, and so no special

is
investigation
needed.
But
it is
sary to assure oneself that a given problem
which looks like one of the above does not come under this head, and this is done, as in the cases discussed in the text, by showing that near the ends of the interval the values of the function are larger, for a
minimum
problem, than for values well
withia the interval.
EXERCISE
Discuss in a similar manner the best shape for a tomato can
is to hold a quart. Here, the tin for the top must also be figured in. Show that the height of such a can should be equal to the diameter of the base. As to the size of the can,
which
its
height should be 4.19 General Remark.
in.
It
might seem as
if
the method used in
the solution of the above problems were likely to be insecure,

since the graph of such a function u might, in the very next problem, look like the accompanying figure. In such a case, there would be several values of x, for each of which Dû 0,
58
CALCULUS
to take.
and we should not know which one
this case does not arise in practice,
at
least,
Curiously enough, I have never
come across a physical problem which In problems like the above, there must be at least and when one X for which Djt =
led to this difficulty.
;
we
Fio. 19
solve a given problem,
we actually
the con-
find only one

dition.
x which
is
fulfills
Thus there
no ambiguity.
EXERCISES
1.
A 300-gallon tank
and
is to
vertical sides,
is to be built with a square base and be lined with copper. Find the most
economical proportions.
Ans. The length and breadth must each be double the
height.
2.
Find the cylinder of greatest volume which

Its altitude is one-third that of the cone.
T~
ji
I
can be inscribed in a given cone of revolution.

Ans.
3.
What
is
the cylinder of greatest convex
I_
^"
Fio. 20
surface that can be inscribed in the
same cone ?
Ans. Its altitude

4.
is
half that of the cone.
Of
all
the cones which can be inscribed in a given sphere,
find the one
whose
lateral area is greatest.
Ans. Its altitude exceeds the radius of the sphere by 33^ %

of that radius.
5.
Find the volume of the greatest cone of revolution which
can be inscribed in a given sphere.

6. If the top and bottom of the tomato can considered in the Exercise of the text are cut from sheets of tin so that a regular hexagon is used up each time, the waste being a total
loss,
what wiD then be the most economical proportions
for
the can ?
APPLICATIONS
7.
59
its
If the strength, of a
beam
is
proportional to
breadth
and
to the square of its depth, find the shape of the strongest
beam
that can be cut from a circular log.
Ans. The ratio of depth to breadth
is
V2.
its
8. Assuming that the stiffness of a beam is proportional to breadth and to the cube of its depth, find the dimensions of the stiffiest beam that can be sawed from a log one foot in
diameter.
9.
What What
is
the shortest distance from the poiut (10, 0) to '

w2 a
the parabola
10.
= 4a;9 /
points of the curve
are nearest
11.
(4,
0) ?
is to be made of a long rectangular-shaped by bending up the edges so as to give a rec-
trough
piece of copper
tangular cross-section.
that
its
How
carrying capacity
may
deep should it be made, in order be as great as possible ?

of water to be given
12.
30 C.
Assuming the density by the formula

p
from
0 to
= po(l + ca + pt^ + yf),

t
where and
po denotes the density at freezing,
the temperature,
- 6.53 X 10-6, a=5.30xl0-^ /8 = show that the maximum density occurs at

13. E!
y= 1.4x10-8, = 4.08.
ellipse
Tangents are drawn to the arc of the
+^=1
off
which lies in the first quadrant. Which one of them cuts from that quadrant the triangle of smallest area ?
14.
Work
the same problem for the parabola

y^
= a^ iax.
60
15.
CALCULUS
Show that,
of all circular sectors having the same perim-
eter, that
two straight
4.
one has the largest area for which the sum of the sides is equal to the curved side.
Increasing
affords a simple
and Decreasing Functions. The Calculus means of determining whether a function is inSince the slope of the
creasrag or decreasing as the independent variable increases.
graph
is
îven by
we
as
see that
D^, when D,y
is positive,
iacreases,
is
y iacreases but
negative,
as
o
creases.
o
"Fia. 21
when Dj/
y
decreases
iais
Figure 21 shows the graph ia general when
D^
positive.
In each figure both x and y have been taken as positive. is said above in the text is equally true when one or both of these variables are negative; for the words increase
But what
and decrease as here used mean algebraic, not numerical, iacrease or decrease. Thus if the temperature is ten degrees below zero (i.e. 10) and it changes to eight below ( 8), we say
the temperature has risen.
If
we measure the time t, in hours

from noon, then 10 a.m. will correspond to t = 2. Let u
t
= lZ
denote the temperature, measured iu degrees. Then a temô. 22 perature chart for 24 hours from midnight to midnight might look like the accompanying figure. At any instant, t t', for which the slope of the curve, D,u, is positive, the temperature is rising, no matter whether the thermometer ia above zero or below, and no matter whether
is
positive or negative
and
similarly,
when
Z>,m is negative,
the temperature
is falling.
Again, suppose the amount of business a department store
APPLICATIONS
61
does in a year, as represented by the net receipts each, day, be

plotted as a curve
(y
= receipts,
time, measured lq days), the curve being
measured in dollars x = smoothed ia the

;
usual way.
is
positive
ness of
D^ <
We
.the
Then a point of the curve at -which the derivative D^y > 0) indicates that, at that time, the busithe firm was increasing whereas a point at which means that the business was falling off.
(i.e.
;
proof of which
can state the result in the form of a general theorem, is given by inspection of the figure (Fig. 21)
figure,
and the other forms of the

discussion.
brought out in the above
Theorem
(a)
(b)
When x
'
increases, then
if if
'
Djf
> 0, D^y < 0,

its
y increases;
y decreases.
Application.
As an
application consider the condition that
a curve y =f{x) have

Fig. 23.
concave side turned upward, as ia

is
The slope
:
of the curve
a function of x
tan T
For,
= ^(w).
given, a point of
when x
curve,
is
the
and
hence
also
the
is
*-*
FlQ. 23
slope of the curve at this point,
Consider the tangent line at a variable point P. as tracing out the curve and carrying the tangent along with it, the tangent will turn in the counter
determined.
If
we think
of
clock-wise sense, the slope thus increasing algebraically as x
concave upward. And conx increases, the tangent will turn in the counter clock-wise sense and the curve will be concave upward. Now by the above theorem, when
increases,
whenever the curve
is
versely, if the slope increases as
Z>^tanT>0,
tauT increases as x increases. Hence the curve upward, when D, tan t is positive and conversely.
;
is
concave
62
The
of
y.
CALCULUS
derivative
D^tanr
is
This
is
called the second derivative of y,
the derivative of the derivative and is denoted

.
-r,
as follows
^
.
(read
"
D x second
of
").*
The
test for the curve's being concave
downward
is
obtained
in a similar manner,
and thus we are led
to the following
important theorem.
Test fob a Cukve's being Concave Upward, etc.

curve
,,
,
The
is
CONCAVE UPWARD CONCAVE DOWNWARD
whsn
when
D^ > D^ <
A
0.
point at which
changes
the curve
from being concave upward and becomes concave
downward
versa)
is
(or
vice
called
poirU
Fig. 24
of
inflection.
Since
D^y
changes
sign at such a point,

this
function will' necessarily,
if
continuous, vanish there.
Hence
A necessary condition for a point of inflection is that

BJ'y
= 0.
Example.
Consider the curve
= 3? 3x.
is
derivative
* The derivative of the second derivative, Dx^DJiy), and is written D^^, and so on.
called the third
APPLICATIONS
Its slope at
63
any point
is
given
.by
the equation
The second derivative

D/2/
of y with
respect to x has the value
= 6a;.
is
Thus we
values of
see that this curve
concave upward for

x,
all positive
ward
for all negative values.

it
character
and concave down^la. 25 In is as shown in the accompanying figure.

EXERCISES
For what values of x are the following functions increasing ? For what values decreasing ?
1.
2/
= 4 2a;2.
when x
2.
Ans.
3.
= x^ 2x + Z. Increasing, when > 1 decreasing,

y
a;
;
<
1.
2/
= 5 + 12x
as
a;2.
4.
y=3fi
Increasihg,
a;
21x + l.
and when
a;
Ans.
ing,
when
3.
> 3,
< 3
decreas-
when
y
3< <
^.
= 5 -\-&x 3?.
y
6.
= x x".
7.
ofi
^x^ + 12x l.
In what intervals are the following curves concave upward

in what,
8.
downward ?
Ans. Concave
= a^ 3a;2 + 7a; 5. upward, when > 1 concave

y
a;
;
downward,
when
a;
<
1.
64
9.
2/
CALCULUS
11.
13.
15.
= 15 + 8a; + 3a!= 10. y = a^ Qx^ x 1. = 3 9x + 24:xîa^. 12. y = 2a>> X*. y 4.0^ 6x + 11. 14. y ==-121x + 7x^ x\ y= y = 13 + 23x-24:X'' + 12a^-x^.
05*.
as*
In the early work of plotting curves 5. Curve Tracing. from their equations the only way we had of finding out what the graph of a function looked like was by computiug a large
number
scarcely
of its points.
We
are
now
in possession of powerful
methods for determining the character of the graph with
any computation. I"or, first, we can find the slope of any point; and, secondly, we can determine in what intervals the curve is concave upward, in what concave downward.*
the curve at
Example.
(1)
Let
it
be required to plot the curve
3y
Determine
first its
= x^- 3x^ + 1.
slope at
a)
(2)
any point
3n^ = 3x^-6x,
Djj
= v? 2x.
* There are two great applications of the graphical representation of a One is quantitaMvie, the other, quaUtative. By the first I mean the use of the graph as a table, for actual computation. Thus in the use
function.
have a graph of the function y = logio a between 1 and 10 for by means of such a graph the student can read ofi the logarithms he is using, correct to two or three significant figures, and so obtain a check on his numerical vork. Therfe is, however, a second large and important class of problems, in which the character of a function is the important thing, a minute determination of its values being in general irrelevant. A case in point is the determination of the number of roots of an algeof logarithms it is desirable to
drawn accurately
for values of x
braic equation, e.g.
ss
_ ^2 - 4 x
-t-
= +
0,
Here,
we
plot the curve

it
y ^^.^
_xi -
4:x
and inquire where

adequate to
cuts the axis of x.
For
this
purpose
it is
altogether
know the
character of the curve, and for treating this problem
the methods of the present paragraph yield a powerful instrument.
APPLICATIONS
It is always useful to to the curve
is
65
know
the points at which the tangent
parallel to the axis of x.
These are obtaiued

(2)
hy
setting
D^y =
and
solving.
a;2
Thus we get from

0.
the
equation
2a; =
and
The
roots of this equation are
=2
Now determine accurately

plot them,
the points having these abscissas,
and draw the tangents there

y
We
do
not
yet
the
its
know whether
curve lies above
tangent in one of
these points, or be-
low its tangent it might even cross

;
its
tangent, for the

Fib. 26
point might be a point of inflection.

aid of the second derivative.
6)
These questions will

derivative
all
be answered by
Compute the second

DJh/
= 2a; - 2 = 2(!B - 1).

when x
is
We
tive
see that
it is
positive
greater than 1 and nega-
when X
is less
than 1
-D.V
>
66
CALCULUS
coordinates accurately, determine the slope of the curve there,
and draw accurately the tangent

yU=.
This
draw.
liue
is
there.
= -i;
is
-DÛ=i
1.
the last of the important tangents which
Since the curve
X = 1, must be in character as indicated. We see, then, that the axis of x between and 1, and again ta the right poiut a; = 1 and it cuts that axis a third time to the
;
we need to concave upward to the right of the and concave downward to the left of that line, it
it
cuts
of the
left of
the origin.
These last two points can be located more accurately by computing the function for a few simple values of x.
hence the curve cuts the axis of x between
a;
= 2 and = 3.
a;
2/L=-i=-3;
hence the curve cuts the axis between a; = and a; = Incidentally we have shown that the cubic equation
a?
1.
3x^ + 1 =
we have
located each between two
has three real roots, and

successive integers.
EXERCISES
Discuss in a similar manner the following curves.
ticular
:
In par-
a)
if
such
Determine the points at which the tangent is horizontal, exist, and draw the tangent at each of these points
6) Determine the intervals in which the curve is concave upward, and those in which it is concave downward
c)
Determine the points' of
inflection, if
any
exist,
and draw
the tangent in each of these points
APPLICATIONS
d)
67
Draw
in the curve.*
it is
In most cases
1. 2.
3.
desirable to take 2 em, as the imit.
4.
5. 6.
= x^ + 3x^ 2. y = a^3x + l. y=iifl +3x + l. 6y = 2a^-3x^-12x + 6. 6y = 2d' + 3x^-12x y = a? + x^ + x + l.

y
4:.
Suggestion.
Show
that the derivative has no real roots and
hence, being continuous, never changes sign.

7. 8. 9.
12y = 4:a?-6x^
y
+ 12x 9.
10.
11.
12.
14. 16.
18.
19.
= 2x' x a^. 12y = 4a!8 + 18a!2 + 27a; + 12. = l 4a! + 6c(;2_3ffi3. y = l + 2x + x^ 6a!2 + 8. 13. y = a^ + 1. 42/ = 15. y = X + x^. y = x a^. 17. y=2xl*~xK y= + y = 3a!5 + 6a!' + 15a! + 2. 60y = 23^ + 16a^ + GOaj^ 30.
3/
0(?.
a!*
îx"^
a!*
a;2.
6.
Relative
Maxima and Minima.

2/ =/(')
Points of Inflection.
function
(1)
inflection, the material
* Since a curve separates very slowly from its tangent near a point of graph of the curve must necessarily coincide with the material graph of the tangent for some little distance.
68
is
CALCULUS
maximum at a point x = Xoii its value at Xq is any other point in the neighborhood of a%. But
not represent the largest value of the
said to have a
larger than at
such a
maximum need
function in the complete interval a
^ ^ 6,
a;
as
is
shown
by-
Fig. 27,
it is
and for
this reason
called a relative maxi-
mum,
a
in distinction from
absolute
maximum maximorum,
an
A.
X
a;=a
x x^
or
maximum.
definition
x=b
holds for a minimum, the word " larger " merely being replaced by " smaller." It is obvious that a characteristic feature of a maximum is
that the tangent there is parallel to the axis of x, the curve being concave downward. Similarly for a minimum, the curve here beiag concave upward. Hence the foUowiag
^-
similar
Test fok a
(a)
Maximum ob a Minimum.
[Z)^]_=0,
a maximum for x
If
[i).^]_<0,
the function has

(6)
it
= Xo;
if
iDjy-]^=0,
condition
is sufficient,
[i).^]_>0,
has a minimum.
The
but not necessary
cf 7.
.
Example.
Here
and hence
3x'' + l. D^ = Gaj^- 6a; = 6a;(a!2- l)(a!= + 1), = 1, 0, 1. for D^y =

Let
y
!ic^
a;
Thus the necessary condition for a maximum or a minimum, Dj/ = 0, is satisfied at each of the points a; = 1, 0, 1. To complete the determination, if possible, compute the
second derivative,
j)^^^s0<^-6,
sign at each of these points
and determine
its
APPLICATIONS
[i)j^]j=_i
[D,^2/],_o
69
= 24 > 0,
.-.
= l gives a minimum;
gives a
= 6<0,
=
24
..x=
.-.
maximum
minimum.
[PJh/],,^
> 0,
x=
1 gives a
Points of Inflection. A point of inflection is characterized geometrically by the phenomenon that, as a point describes
the curve, the tangent at

rection and,
P
y
ceases rotating in the one di-
tumiag back,
be-
gins to rotate in the opposite

direction.
Hence the slope

t,
of the curve, tan
has either
at
maximum
or a
minimum
Fio. 28
a point of
inflection.
if
Conversely,
tan r has a
will
maximum
tion.
or a
minimum, the curve

is
have a point of
inflec-
For, suppose tan t
at a
Xq,
maximum when x
increases, tan t,
= Xg.
Then
is
as X, starting with the value
i.e.
the slope
con-
of the curve, decreases algebraically,
and so the curve
cave
downward
to the right of
a^.
On
the other hand, as x
and so the curve is concave upward to the left of X(,. Now, we have just obtained a theorem W'hich insures us a maximum or a minimum in the case of any function which
decreases, tan t also decreases,
satisfies
the conditions of the theorem.
If, then,
we
choose
as that function, tanr, the theorem tells us that tanr
wUl
surely be at a
maximum
or a
minimum if
DJ^
D,tanr = 0,
Hence, remembering that
tan T
tsmrÔ.
= D^y,
If
we
obtain the following
Test fok a Point of Inflection.
the curve has
a point of inflection at
Xf,.
70
This
test, like
CALCULUS
the foregoLag for a maxionim or a
;
minimum,
is sufficient,
but not necessary
cf. 7.
Example.
Let
Then
= + 2a!S-12a;2 + 14a; 1. 27D,y = + 6x' 2ix + U, 27 DJh/ = 12a:'' + 12 - 24 = 12(a! - l)(a; + 2), 2rZ),52/ = 12(2a; + l).
.
272/
ffi*
4:afi
a!
Setting
S1I1C6
D/y
= 0,
we
get the points

0,
a;
= 1 and x = 2. And
36
=jfc
27[A'2/]^= 36
=ifc
27[X>,'2^]_.,
0,
we see The
that both of these points are points of inflection.

s,lope of
the curve in these points
is
given by the
equations
27[i?^]î=0,
27[Z)^]_3=54.
to the axis of
is 2.
Hence the curve

points
;
is parallel
x at the
first
of these
at the second its slope
EXERCISES
Test the following curves for maxima, minima, and points
of inflectioil, and * determine the slope of the curve in each
point of inflection.
1.
y y
=:
4:0^ 15x^+12 x+1.!i^
3.
6y
afi
Ssc'+Sa^l.
.
Z.
+ a^ +
iifi.
4.
y=(x-iy{x+2y.
^-
y=-, 2
+ 3a?
test
6.
y=(l x^^
Deduce a
7.
for "distinguishing be-
tween two such points of

Fig. 29.
inflection as those indicated
in
APPLICATIONS
71
7. Necessary and Sufficient Conditions. In order to understand the nature of the tests obtained in the foregoing paragraph
it is
essential that the student
ing of a necessary condition and of a
have clearly in miad the meanLet sufficient condition.
us illustrate these ideas by means of some simple examples.

a)
A
A
its
necessary condition that a quadrilateral be a square
is
that its angles be right angles.
But the condition

it.
is
obviously
not sufficient
6)
all
rectangles also satisfy
sufficient
condition that a quadrilateral be a square
is
that
angles be right angles and each side be 4

is
in. long.
But the condition

be 6
c)
iu.
obviously not necessary
the sides might
long.
necessary and sufficient condition that a quadrilateral

its
be a square is that mutually equal.
angles be right angles and
its sides
be
As a further illustration consider the following. It is a well-known fact about whole numbers that if the sum of the digits of a whole number is divisible by 3, the number is divisAlso, if the sum of the digits of a ible by 3 and conversely. whole number is divisible by 9, the number is divisible by 9
;
and conversely.
i)
Hence we can say
A
is
necessary condition that a whole
by 9
ii)
that the
is
sum
of its digits be divisible
number be divisible by 3. But the number be divisible by 9. But the
condition
not
sufficient.
A
is
sufficient
condition that a whole
by 3
that the
is
sum
of its digits be divisible
condition
iii)
not necessary.
necessary
and
sufficient
is
condition that a whole

that the
t
numbe
ber be divisible by 3 (or 9) divisible by 3 (or 9).
sum
of
its digits
Turning now
to the considerations of 6,
we
see that a
necessary condition for a
miaimum
is
that
72
CALCULUS
a;
at the point in question,

sufficient.
= a^.
But
this condition is not
When
or
it
it
is
fulfilled,
the function
may have
maximum,
tangent.
may have a
point of inflection with horizontal
On
the other hand, the condition
is sufficient
for a
minimum.
But
it is
not necessary.
Thus
the function
(1)
y=x^
minimum when x
of course fulfilled
ohviously has a
tion,
0.
The necessary
condi-
Dj/
= 0, is
But here
is
Z>,=2/
= 12
a;^,
and
[D^^']^
not positive
is
it is 0.
Again, as was shown in

of inflection
4,
a necessary condition for a point
that
DJhf
at that point.
=
Thus
in
But
this condition is not sufficient.

(1)
the case of the curve

origin.
this
condition
is
fulfilled at the
But the
It
origin is not a point of inflection.

to the student that such tests are
Remark.
may seem
unsatisfactory since they do not apply to all cases and thus
appear to be incomplete. But their very strength lies in the fact that they do not tell the truth in too much detail. They single out the big thing in the cases which arise in practice and yield criteria which can be applied with ease to the great
majority of these cases.
8.
Velocity; Bates.
By
the average velocity with which a

t is
point moves for a given length of time

8 traversed
meant the distance
divided by the time
average velocity
=-
APPLICATIONS
Thus a railroad
of 15/-|^= 30
train
73
stations 16 miles apart in half
which covers the distance between two an hour has an average speed
fast
in question is moving sometimes and sometimes slowly, we can describe its speed approximately at any given instant by considering a short interval of time immediately succeeding the instant t^ in question, and
mUes an hour. When, however, the point
taking the average velocity for this short interval.
For example, a stone dropped from

the law
To-find
(1)
.
rest falls according to
how fast
it is
going after the lapse of

So
to
seconds.
Here
= 16o'.
t'
A
(2)
little later,
fall,
at the end of
seconds from the beginning of
the
s'
= 16'2
t'
and the average velocity for the interval of

(3)
to
seconds
is
^j^^
t
ft.
per second.
to
Let us consider this average velocity, in particular, after the

lapse of 1 second
to
= 1,
^
t'
So
= 16.
.
Let the interval of time,

s'
to,
be -^
sec.
Then
= 16 X = 19.36, _ 3^ ^ 336 a second. s;^-So .1

1.1==
ft.
t'
to
Thus the average velocity

second.
for one-tenth of a second immediis
ately succeeding the end of the first second of fall
33.6
ft.
Next, let the interval of time be j^ sec. Then a similar computation gives, to three significant figures
^^^^ = 32.2
t'
ft.
a second.
to
74
CALCULUS
the interval
32.0
ft.
And when
velocity
is
is
taken as x^^nr
^^-'
*^ average
a second.
These numerical results iadicate that we can get at the speed of the stone at any desired instant to any desired degree of accuracy by direct computation we need only to reckon
;
out the average velocity for a sufB.eiently short interval of
time succeeding the iastant in question. We can proceed in a similar manner when a point moves according to any given law. Can we not, however, by the aid
and at the same time make precise exactly what is meant by the velocity If we regard the interval of the point at a given instant? of time- 1' io as an increment of the variable t and write ' = Ai, then s' So = As will represent the corresponding <o increment in the function, and thus we have
of the Calculus avoid the labor of the computations
average velocity
Then the average

this limit
Now allow
At to approach
as its limit.
velocity will in general approach a limit,
and
we
take
as the definition of the
velocity, v, at the instant
lim (average velocity from t=tgto
= actual velocity * at instant

or
= f) =
t
to,
v
it
= lim = D,s.
At^ At
Hence
derivative
appears that the velocity of a point is the timeof the space it has traveled. In the ease of a
freely falling
body
this velocity is
= D,s = 32
1.
In the foregoing
actually traversed
let s
definition, s has
been taken as the distance

point, P.
by the moving
More
generally,
is denote the length of the arc of the curve on which moving, s being measured from an arbitrarily chosen fixed
* Sometimes called the instantarieous velocity.
APPLICATIONS
point of
tliat curve.
75
Either direction along the curve

s.
may
be
chosen as the positive sense for
Thus, in the case of a
freely falling body, s might be taken as the distance of the body above the ground. If h denotes the initial distance, then
at
where s' denotes the distance actually traversed by any given instant. Hence
D,s
or
P
,
a'
+ D/ = 0,
= D,s'.
^s
Fig. 30
is
D,s
Here
D^ gives
numerically the value of the velocity, but D^s
a negative quantity.
We
will, accordingly,
extend the conception of velocity,
defining the velocity v of the point as D,s V
= DfS.
will
Thus the numerical value of v or D,s

case s increases with the time, DfS
is
speed, or the value of the velocity in the earlier sense.
always give the In
positive
and represents
is
the speed.
tive,
If,
however,
s decreases
with the time, D,s
nega-
and the
velocity, v, is therefore here negative, the speed
now being given by
or X),s. Speed=|u| =
In
all eases,
\D,s\.
Example.
that
velocity of 96
Let a body be projected upward with an initial Assuming from Physics the law ft. a second.
s
= 96f-162,
end of 2
sec.
find its velocity
a) at the
6) at the end of 5 sec.
Solution.
By
definition, the velocity at
any instant
is
Hence
a)
6)
= D,s = 96 -32t.
v\^,=^. ^V
l^ = -64.
76
CALCULUS
of these results
is that,
The meaning
at each of the two

ft.
instants, the speed is the same, namely, 64
the height above the ground

s
is
also seen to be the
a second (and same,

is
t
128 ft.). But when t 2, DiS is positive ; hence s creasing with the time and the body is rising. When
is
in-
= 5,
D,s
negative
hence
s is
decreasing with the time, and the
body
is
descending.
Rates.
Consider any length or distance,

is
r,
which
is
chang-
ing with the time, and so
denote the value of

will be
a function of the time. Let j-q at a given Instant, t = to, and let r' be the
t
t
value of r at a later instant,

r'
t'.
Then the
t'
increase in r
ro = Ar and that in
will be
= ^t.
ta
Thus
t
in
Jj,
the interval of time of At seconds succeeding the instant
average rate of increase of r
At
rate of
this limit
Now let
At approach
as its limit.
Then the average

and
t^
increase will in general approach a limit,
we take
as the definition of the rate of increase of r at the instant
lim (average rate of increase from
{^
to
f
t')
= actual rate of increase

A=o
at instant
<o
= lim = Dir.
At
is
r.
In other words, the rate at which r

stant
is
increasing at
any
in-
defined as the time-derivative of

decreasing, D,r
If r
is
wUl be a negative quantity
versely, if D,r is negative, then r is decreasing.
and conIn either ease,

;
;
the numerical value of D^r gives the rate of change of r just as, in the case of velocities, the numerical value of D,s gives
the speed.
More
generally, instead of
r,
we may have any
physical
quantity, u, as an area or a volume or the current in an electric

circuit or the
number
of calories in a given body.
APPLICATIONS
In
of M
all
77
these cases, the rate at which

i.e.
as the time-derivative of u,
is
I
as D,u
u is increasing ia defined and the rate of change
D,u
|.
Example. At noon, one ship is steaming east at the rate of 18 miles an hour, and a second ship, 40 miles north of the first, At what is steaming south at the rate of 20 miles an hour.
rate are they separating
Solution.
from each other at one
o'clock ?
78
CALCULUS
Let the student determine how long they will continue to approach each other, and what the shortest distance between
them
will he.
Remark. It is important for the student to reflect on the method of solution of this problem, since it is typical. We were asked to find the rate of recession at just one instant, t=l. We began by determining the rate of recession generally, i.e. Having solved the general for an arbitrary instant, t=t.
problem^
we
then, as the last step

f
-in
the process, brought into

for,
play the specific value of

t
which alone we cared

this
namely,
= l.
The student
will
meet
method again and
again,
in
integration, in mechanics, in series, etc.
We
:
can formulate
the foregoing remark suggestively as follows
By means
of
the Calculus acted on by
we
can often determine a particular physical

it
quantity, like a velocity, an area, or the time
takes a body,
known
is
forces, to reach a certain position.
The
method
consists in first determining
a function, whereby the

;
general problem
solved for the variable case
and
then, as
the last step in the process, the special numerical values with
which alone the proposed question

into play.
is
concerned, are brought
EXERCISES
1. The height of a stone thrown bytheformula:
vertically
upward
is
given
s=m-16t^.
its
When
it
velocity for the next
has been rising for one second, find (a) sec. (6) for the next
average
;
^^ sec.
(d)
(c)
its
it
actual velocity at the end of the first second

will rise.
how high
;
Ans. (a) 14.4 a second

2.
;
ft.
ft.
a second
(6)
15.84
ft.
a second
(c)
16
ft.
(d)
36
is
One ship
is sailing
80 miles due south of another ship at noon,
and
north at the rate of 10 miles an hour.
The
APPLICATIONS
second ship
sails
79
Will
west at the rate of 12 miles an hour.
the ships be approaching each other or receding from êach

-will be the rate at which the dischanging at that time ? How long will they continue to approach each other ?
other at 2 o'clock ? tance between
What
them
is
3. If two ships start abreast half a mile apart and sail due north at the rates of 9 miles an hour and 12 miles an hour, how far apart will they be at the end of half an hour ? How fast will they be receding at that time ?
4. Two ships are steaming east, one at the rate of 18 miles an hour, the other at the rate of 24 miles an hour. At noon, one is 50 miles south of the other. How fast are they sepa-
rating at 7 P.M. ?
5.
ladder 20
ft.
long rests against a house.
A man
takes hold of the lower end of the ladder and walks off with
at the uniform rate of 2 ft. a second. How fast is the upper end of the ladder coming down the wall when the man is 4 ft. from the house ?
it
If the kite
150 ft. high and there are 250 ft. of cord out. moves horizontally at the rate of 4 m. an hour directly away from the person who is flying it, how fast is the cord being paid out ? Ans. 3^ m. an hour.
6.
A kite is
7.
stone
is
dropped into a placid pond and sends out

If the radius of the
ft.
a series of concentric circular ripples.
outer ripple increases steadily at the rate of 6
a second, a second.
how
8.
rapidly
is
the area of the water disturbed increasing at
the end of 2 sec. ?
Ans. 452
is
sq. ft.
spherical raindrop
gathering moisture at such a
rate that the radius is steadily increasing at the rate of 1
mm.
a minute. How fast is the volume of the drop increasing when the diameter is 2 mm. ?
A man is walking over a bridge at the rate of 4 miles an and a boat passes under the bridge immediately below him rowing 8 miles an hour. The bridge is 20 ft. above the
9.
hour,
80
boat.
CALCULUS
How
fast are the boat
and the man separating 3 min-
utes later ?
Suggestion.
this
The student should make a space model for problem by means, for example, of the edge of a table, a crack La the floor, and a string or by two edges of the room which do not intersect, and a string. He should then make a drawing of his model such as is here indicated.
;
10.
locomotive
running
30
the
miles an hour over a high bridge
'"
track.
dislodges a stone lying, near
The
stone begins to fall just as the locomotive passes

it lay.
the point where
How
fast are the stone
and the
loco-
motive separating 2
11.
sec. later ?
40
ft.
Solve the same problem if the stone drops from a point from the track and at the same level, when the locomo-
tive passes.
A lamp-post is distant 10 ft. from a street crossing and from the houses on the opposite side of the street. A man crosses the street, walking on the crossing at the rate of 4 miles an hour. How fast is his shadow moving along the walls of the houses when he is halfway over ?
12.
60
ft.
* BScHEB, Plane Analytic Geometry, p. 230.
CHAPTER IV
1.
Infinitesimals.
An
infinitesimal is
a variable which
it is
desirable to consider only for values numerically small and
which,
when
the formulation of the problem in hand has prois
gressed to a certain stage,
allowed to approach
as its limit.
Thus in the problem of

(1)
differentiation, or finding the limit
lim^=Z>^,
and Ay are infinitesimals
;
Aa!
for
we
allow Aa; to approach

0..
as its limit, and then
Ay
also approaches
Again,
if
we
denote the value of the difference Ay/ Ax
Dj/
by
(2)
so that
f-2>^ = Ao;
e
e,
then
is
an
infinitesimal.
For,
when
Aa;
approaches
0,
the
left-hand side of equation (2) approaches 0, and so e is a varias its limit, i.e. an infinitesimal. able which approaches
Principal Infinitesimal,
When we
are dealing with a
num-
ber of infinitesimals,
a,
p, y, etc., it is usually possible to
choose any one of them as the independent variable, the others
then becomiag functions of it, or dependent variables. That infinitesimal which is chosen as the independent variable is
called the principal infinitesimal.
Thus,
if
the infinitesimals are a and
jS,
and
if
81
82
it is it is
CALCULUS
natural to choose as the principal infinitesimal.
perfectly possible to take
j8
But
as the principal infinitesimal.

is
then becomes the dependent variable, and

terms of
(4) ^'
expressed ia
p by
solving equation (3) for
a.
= ^
2-3/3
Order of Infinitesimals. We are going to separate infinitesimals into classes, according to the relative speed with vrhich they approach 0. Suppose we let a. set the pace, taking on the values .5, .1, .01, .001, etc. Consider, for example, a'. Then ' takes on the respective values .25, .01, .0001, etc., and
hence runs far ahead of a
INFINITESIMALS
AND DIFFERENTIALS
it is
83
for-
the conception of the order of an infinitesimal, and
mulated in a precise definition as follows

Definition.
the same order
if
Two
infinitesimals,
p and
y,
are said to be of
;
their ratio approaches a limit not
lim^=ir:^'0.
V
Thus
are of the
;8=2 + a?
same
order.
and
= 3a a'
tt
For,
'
j8^ 2ct + 3a y and hence, when approaches

,.
a?
0,
^ 2+ 3 o?
.
2-l-a limS=lim-^ = 2 -=^0.

fl
,.
Similarly, 12 o?
+ 5a^ and
/3 is
Ba^
7 a' are
infinitesimals of the
same
order.
An
infinitesimal
said to be of higher order than y if
limi2
= 0,
y
Thus
j8 is
if
j3=9a*
and
a.
= 2a + 5a*,
9a
of higher order than
For,
^^
9a'
_
2
0,
y~2a+5a*
and hence, when a approaches
,.
+ 5a"
fl
T 2
9a
y
Finally,
(5)
+ 5 '
is
said to be of lower order than y if
lim"=oD,
not ";8/y equals
to Chapter 11, 6,
(read: "j8/y becomes infinite" ;

* The student should
carefully
infinity."*).
now turn back
what is
said there ahout infinity.
and read again In particular, he should im-
84
Thus
/8 is
CALCULUS
if
/8=Va
y.
and
For
y=6a + a,
1
of lower order than
;3_
y
V^ ^
6+a'
is
Va(6 + a')
in-
When
a approaches 0, it creases without limit, or
evident that the last fraction
lim^ = oo.
y
First Order, Second Oi-der,
etc.
An
infinitesimal
/i is
said to
be of the ^rs< order infinitesimal, a i.e.

;
if it is
of the
same order as the
principal
if
a
If
/8 is
of the same order as a\
i.e. if
lim4 = ^=0,
then
is
is
said to be of the second order.
And, generally,
if ff
of the
same order
as a",
i.e. if
limJ?.= ^:^0,
a"
then
is if
said to be of the
n4h
order.
Thus
/8
= 2a
or
p=
^ a
I3
or
= a + (t\
then
j8 is
of the first order.
But
if
^ = 22+a'
then
press
fi
or
= -J^ 3 +a
is
or
B=a\
is
of the second order.
on
his
mind the
fact that infinity
notation used in (5) the

to another
sign does not

is
number. The formula
not a limit and that in the that one number is equal not an equation in the sense in which
mean
2x
=3
or o'
62 = (a 6) (a +
less
no more and no
limit.
6) is an equation. The formula means than that the variable /S/7 increases in value without
INFINITESIMALS
AND DIFFERENTIALS
/3
85
If^=Va,
then
J
and
Iim-^=lgfcO.
a*
/8 is
Hence
of the order
^.
It is easily seen that if
two
infinitesimals
/S
and y
are,
under
the present definition, each of order n, then they also satisfy the earlier definition of being of the same order. For, let
hm.-^
Then,
if
"
= KÔ
e
and
lim-^
a"
/S/et"
= i:^0. K
,
we
denote the differences
and y/a" L
respectively by
and
rj,
so that
(6)
K-K=e "
e
and
a"
^-i =
these variables,
and
r),
will be infinitesimals.
For, the left-
hand
side of each of the equations (6) approaches 0.
From
equations (6)
it
follows that
"
^ = K+
and
a"
^ = Z, + .
On
dividing one of these equations
by the other we have
L+
rj
We are now ready to allow a to approach
as its limit.
Then
lim^=lim^^
y
L+
Ti
By Theorem
III of Chapter
2,
5 this last limit has the value
lini^J = i-L(:K+i) = :^.
L+
ri
lim (L
7i)
Hence, finally
j^^ ^^^:ô, L y
q. e. d.
86
CALCULUS
1.
Snow
EXERCISES
tnat
^ = 5a
Show
ll2
+ a3
same
and
order.
= 7a + a<
are infinitesimals of the

2.
that
/8
= 2-3a2
and
= 2a + a*
are infinitesimals of the same order, but that their difference,
y,
3.
is
yS
(or y).
Show
that B
=
a'
-2
is
an infinitesimal of the second

infinitesimal.
order, referred to
4.
as_principal
/8
Show
Show Show
that
= Va^ + 2 a* is
13a'
fi
of the first order, referred
to a.
5.
6.
that
^ = V2 +
is
of lower order than
a.
that the order of
in question 5 is
= ^.
Determine the order of each of the following

referred to a as the principal infinitesimal
7. 8.
infinitesimals,
|a
+ 18a3. -a+V2' + *.
la!'
11.
12.
-s/i^
- a.
i8.
^- aW +
*
10.
13
-a
'
^^-
v2a2-'.
\8-7
If
>/
+ 4tt* +2
15.
tively,
and y are infinitesimals of orders n and m respecshow that their product, ^y, is an infinitesimal of order
+ m.
16.
If
j8
and y are
infinitesimals of the
same
order,
that their
order.
sum
is,
in general,
an
infinitesimal of the
show same
Are there exceptions ?
Illustrate
by examples.
INFINITESIMALS
2.
AND DIFFERENTIALS
87
Continuation
an
let
Infinitesimal.
Fundamental Theorem. Principal Part of Let j8 be an iniiiiiteaimal of order n, and
a be the principal infinitesimal.
Then
lim-^
cC
= irÔ.
Moreover, as pointed out in the last paragraph,

(1)
4=^+^' a"
e is
where
(2)
infinitesimal.
Prom
(1) it follows that
p = Za"
+ ea".
ing up) of
This last equation gives a most important analysis {i.e. break/3 into two parts, each of which is simple for its
peculiar reason.
Ka'^ is the simplest infinitesimal of the nth. order imagii)
own
nable,
a monomial in the independent

y
variable, the function
= Kx\
the principal part of
is
^S.
ii)
cot''
is
an infinitesimal of higher order than the nth.

â",
is called
The
first part,
By
far the
/8
tesimals
most important case in practice Here of the ^rst order, n = 1.
that of infini-
"
and
/8
= Ka
-\- eot.
Hence we
first order is
see that the principal part of
an
infinitesimal
of the
proportional to the principal infinitesimal.
Example
1.
Let
yS
= 2a
a^.
Then p
is
obviously of the
first order, or
= 1, and here
a"
88
Clearly, theu,
CALCULUS
K=2,
is
= a,
and the principal part of p
2a.
Example
2.
INFINITESIMALS
where q
is
AND DIFFERENTIALS
Hence
89
of higher order than Ka".
-^
Ka"
But lim rj/Ka"
1+-^,
Ka"'
lim-^=l + limJ-.
Ka"
Ka"
0,
Two
infinitesimals
and the statement is established. which have the same principal parts are
but the
equivalent, and conversely.
Equivalent infinitesimals are of the same order

converse
is
not true.
The
y,
difference
/3
namely,
y,
between two equivalent infinitesimals, is of higher order than j8 or y. For
/8
and
y
l'^
hence
lim ^-^^ = lim f *? y
-(?-) = Aim ^V 1 =
0,
q.e.d.
Conversely,
ence,
/8
if (3
and y are two
infinitesimals
/3
y,
is
or
y,
then
whose differ(3 and y are
equivalent.
For, since
follows that
i2^l2 = ^_l, 7 y
it
j.^/^ _ ^\
li^^sU^.
by hypothesis, and
The right-hand
the left-hand side

is
is
equal to
Aim^Vl.
^
yJ
q.e.d.
Hence
lim"=l,
y
We
come now
to a
theorem of prime importance in the
Infinitesimal Calculus.
90
CALCULUS
The
limit of the ratio
Fundamental Theorem.
tesimals,
of two
infini-
7
is
unchanged
if the
equivalent infinitesimal
numerator infinitesimul j8 be replaaed by any /3' and the denominator infinitesimal y be

infinitesimal
y'.
replaced by
any equivalent
In other words
lim " = lim c. y y
provided
li^l^-L
is
^
It
is
li^^^^l.
obvious that
The proof
immediate.
Hence by Theorem
II,
Chapter
II,
we have
lim-'"
But the
first
and third limits on the right-hand side are each
equal to 1 by hypothesis.
Hence
lim " y
= lim ^,
y
q. e. d.
The theorem can be

form:
stated in the following equivalent
The
limit
limit of the ratio of two infinitesimals of the ratio of their principal parts.
is the
same as
the
generalize from this theorem and an infinitesimal can always and for all purposes be replaced by an equivalent infinitesimal. Thus if
infer that
The student must not
P 2a + a^
their difference,
/8
and
y = 2a a\
y = ' + *,
INFINITESIMALS
is
AND DIFFERENTIALS
On
the other hand,
91
an
infinitesimal of the second order.
is
equivalent to
y',
y.
But
it is
,
not true that the difference of
and
is
namely,
_ /3-y' = aS
It is
an
infinitesimal of the second order.

3.
obviously of
order
Thus replacing y by an equivalent

j8
infinitesimal has
here changed the order of the difference

,v^
Differentials.
x,
y.
3.
Let
y=f(x)
Dj/ be
its
be a function of
and
let
derivative
^^t yu,c
-^^/.
lim^ = i?^.
A=a)
Ax
^^/î ^
e.
Let the difference Ay /Ax
D^y be denoted by
Ax
Ay = DjyAx
Then
and
(1)
+ eAx.
Ax can be taken
as the
it is
Since x
is
the independent variable,
principal infinitesimal.
constant, for
D^y does not vary with Ax;

its
we Ay
are considering
a value at a fixed point
X=
Xa.
Since, moreover,
as the
D^y
is
not in general zero, equation
(1) represents
sum
of its principal part, DjjAx, and
an infinitesimal of higher order, Ax. The expression D^yAx Definition of a Differential. the differential of the function, and is denoted by dy
(2)
is
called
dy = D,yAx,
:
or
df(x)=DJ(x)Ax.
etc.).
(read
" differential y " or " differential f{x) " or " dy,"

if
Thus
y = a?,
dy
2xAx,
or
dx^
= 2xAx.
92
CALCULUS
it
Since the definition (2) holds for every function y =f(x), can be applied to the particular function
Hence
(3)
^('")=^-
dx
it is
= D^x Ak = Ak.
0.
But
is
tial
not ia general true that
in general different
from
i^y and dy are equal, since t Thus we see that the differen-
of the independent variable

;
is
equal to the increment of that

is
variable
but the differential of the dependent variable
not in
general equal to the increment of thai variable.
By means
(4)
of (3) equation (2) can
now be written
in the form
dy = D^dx.
Hence
(5)
dx
is
Geometrically, the increment A?/ of the function
repre-
sented by the line MP', Fig. 33
and the
differential, dy, is
equal to
MQ,
tan T
for
from
(5)
=
dx
t.
or
dy
= dx tan
In other words. Ay represents the distance from the

level of
to the
;
curve,
when x = x'
to the tangent.
dy, the dis-
tance from the level of
Moreover, the difference
Ay dy = eAx
shown geometrically as the line QP', and is obviously from th& figure an infinitesimal of higher order than Aa; = PM. It is also clear from the figure that Ay and dy are equal
is
when and only when
the curve y
= /(a;)
is
a straight line
i.e.
INFINITESIMALS
when f(x)
is
AND DIFFERENTIALS
93
a linear function,
f{x)
= ax +
6.
Hitherto x has been taken as the independent variable, Aa;

as the principal infinitesimal.
We come now to the theorem on which the whole value of differentials for the purpose of performing differentiation depends.
Theoeem.
The relation
dy
is
(4)
= D,ydx,
both dependent on a third vari-
true, even
t.
when x and y are
able,
Suppose, namely, that x and y come to us as functions of a

third variable,
(6)
t
a;=<^(0,
that,
2/
= ^(0,
and
when we
eliminate
between these two equations, we

,
^
obtain the function
Then dx and dy have the following

the above definition, since
t,
values, in accordance with
not
x, is
now
the independent
variable, At the principal infinitesimal
dy
= Diy At,
dy
dx
= D^x At.
We wish to
prove that
= Dj/ dx.
Now by Theorem V
of Chap. II,
D,y
= Dj/D,x.
At,
Hence, multiplying through by
we
get
D,yAt
or
= D^y- DiXAt, dy = D^dx,
q. e.d,
94 With
II,
CALCULUS
this theorem the explicit use of Theorem V in Chap. 5 disappears, Formula V of that theorem now taking on
the form of an algebraic identity
du _ du dy dx dydx
To
this fact is
due the chief advantage of
differentials in the
technique of differentiation.
Differentials of
differentials of higher order

(7)
Higher Order. It is possible to introduce by a similar definition
dH/
= DJh,Aifi,
^y = DJyA3f,
etc.,
X being the independent variable.

(8)
We should then have
by
(3)
d^=DJh/dx^
or
^,= ^-'^'
etc.
hold
Unfortunately, however, relation (8) does not contiaue to when x and y both depend on a third variable, t. For
'
example, suppose ^ ^^
= t%
^
Then
= a + t\ y = a + x.
y
,
When
is
taken as the independent variable,
we have
ac-
cording to relation (8)
d^ = nfydt^ = 2dt'^;
and since
it
dx
= 2tdt,
follows that
^ ^ ^ J^ ^ J_ dx^~4:Pdfi~2fi~2x'
2dt'
On
the other hand,
when x
dh)
is
taken as the independent vari-
able, relation (8)
becomes
= D,hfdx^=%
^2^^ d^_
and consequently
da?'
INFINITESIMALS
Thus the quotient,
values according as
f
AND DIFFERENTIALS
95
^,
or
a;
is
seen to have two entirely distinct
is
taken as the independent variable.
We will
tion
agree, therefore, to discard this definition.
The
nota-
as
meaning DJ'y
is,
however, universally used in the

definitions
etc.,
Calculus,
and so we wUl accept the
^=D^%
g=2>.V,
interpreting the left-hand sides of these equations, however,

not as ratios, but as a single, homogeneous
(and altogether
clumsy
!)
notation for that
which
is
expressed more simply by
Cauchy's D.
Remark.
The operator D^
shall
be written when desired as
dx
Thus
X)j.
appears as
dxa X
Again, the equation

appears as
d'y_ d dy
da?
dx dx
is
Finally, the following notation
sometimes used
sj,
= D^y dx
'"
dx,
'
-2 = n'^ ^
da;2
etc.
'
\î. Technique of Differentiation. Formula II, Chapter II, 6

:
Consider,
for
example,
On
writing this formula in terms of differentials,
we have
d{u
+ v) _ du
dx
dv
dx
dx
96
CALCULUS
multiply this equation through by dx
Now
d(u
:
+ v)=du + dv.
Hence the theorem 7%e differential of the sum of two ftmctions is equal to the sum of the differentials of these functions. The others of the General Formulas, Chapter II, 6, 7, can be treated in a similar way and lead to corresponding
theorems in differentials, embodied in the following important group of formulas.
Gbnbkal Formulas of Diffkkbntiation.

I.
d(cu)=cdu.
d{u
II.
III.
-TTT
+ v)= du + dv. d{uv)= udv + vdu. ,M vdu udv

V
v'-
As already
explained,
Theorem
w
(a/Hi
reduces to an obvious
algebraic identity
w CEW
dx
/7 WV dy dx'
and so does not need to be tabulated. Of the special formulas hitherto considered, only two need be tabulated, namely
Spboial Formulas of Difpbkentiation.
1.
dc
= 0.
The
first
of these formulas says that the differential of a
constant
is zero.
The second
t.
is valid,
is
independent variable, but when x

the independent variable,
(1)
not only when x is the any function whatever of
Thus
if
M=vr^
INFINITESIMALS
and we
(2)
AND DIFFERENTIALS
97
set
= l-t,
u
equation (1) becomes

(3)
= x^.
-|
Hence
But
and thus
du
.
du
dx
x~^ dx.
= dl + d{t)=0 dt,
or
2V1 -
-dt ^^^
1
du
di
2Vl -
The student should copy

2.,
off
neatly on a card the size of a

1.,
postal the General Formulas I-IV, the Special Formulas
leaving
room
for a
few further
special formulas.
All the
difEerentiations of the elementary function of the Calculus are
based on these two groups of formulas.
To
its
is
differentiate
a function means henceforth to find either
Of course, when one of these known, the other can be found by merely multiplying or dividing by the difEerential of the independent variable. We proceed to show by a few typical examples how differentials are used in differentiation.
derivative or
its differential.
Example
1.
Let
m = 12
Sa; + la?.
and apply
To
find du. side of this equation,
at the
Take the differential of each same time Formula II

du
= c?(12)+
d{- 5x)+
d{l3?).
By Formula By Formula
Hence
1, I,
d(12)
= 0.
d{5x)=:
5dx and d(7af^=7da?. du = 5dx + 21ifidx = (-5 + 21x^)dx
and
^ = -6 + dx
21a;.
98
CALCULUS
These steps correspond precisely to the steps the student would take if he were using derivatives, only he would not have written them all out in detail. He would have written
down
at sight
f.
oh
He
can avail himself of the facility he has already acquired

follows.
and shorten the work as

du
Since
= Dj/idx,
)dx,
he can begin by writing
du=(
and then
fill
in the parenthesis with the derivative.*
Example
2.
Let
_ a^ a?
have
a;')
To find_dM.
By Formula IV we
^
^ (a= + x'^)d(a^ g') - (g" x'')dia' + (a2 + ^ (a^ + x-'-)(-2x dx) (g- - x^)(2xdx) (a2 +
a;2)2
a;2)2
ia'^xdx
du dx
4 a^x
(a2
+ xy
work
this
follows.
The student would probably Remembering that

du =
prefer to
example
as
Djjt,
dx,
'
* The student must be careful not to omit any differentials. If one term of an equation has a differential as a factor, every term must have a differential as a factor. Such an equation as
dM
is
= 5 + 21 x2
absurd, since the left-hand side
not.
Moreover, there
is
is an infinitesimal and the right-hand no such thing as djU.
INFINITESIMALS
iDegiii
AND DIFFERENTIALS
99
by writing
du
dx,
and then
fill in the fraction by the old familiar methods of Chapter II. In the two examples just considered, the processes with difEerentials correspond precisely to those with derivatives^ with which the student is already familiar. This will always be true in any differentiation in which composite functions are not involved i.e. whenever, according to our earlier methods, the vanished Theorem V of Chapter II, 8 was not used. It is in the diEEerentiation of composite functions that the method of differentials presents advantages over the earlier method. We turn in the next paragraphs to such examples.
,
EXERCISES
Differentiate each of the following functions by the
of differentials, and test the result

ter II.
method by the methods of ChapAns. du
i^"!.
2.
3.
= x^ Zx + 1.
y ^=a+bx + ex'': w = a' '.

s
4.
= 96<-162.
= vat + ^gt\
1 =- x
T Ans. du A
5.
6.
= 2dx
-
100
5.
CALCULUS
Continuation.
3.
Differentiation of Composite Fanctions.
Example
Let
= Vl + x+xK
To
find
dx
To do
this,
Here, we begin by computing du.
introduce a
new
variable, y, setting
2/
=1+ +
a;
a;'.
Then
= y^.
By-
Next, take the differential of each side of this equation. Special Formula 2 above,
du
Moreover,
= dy^= \y~^ dy. dy = {1 + 2 x)dx.

= Jll^^
2V1
-\-
Hence
d
du dx
x+x^
and-
+ 20! 2-Vl+x + x^
1
Let the student carry through the above differentiation by

the methods of Chapter II and compare his
work
step
by
step
with the foregoing. He will find that, although the two methods are in substance the same," the method of differentials is simpler in form, since no explicit use of Theorem V here is
made.
Abbreviated Method.*
still
The
solution
by
differentials can be
further abbreviated by not introducing explicitly a
new
* The student should not hasten to take this step himself. He will do till he has worked a score or more of problems in differentiating composite functions as set forth under Example 3, introducing each time explicitly a new variable, as y, z, etc.
well to omit the text that follows
until he comes himself to he attempt to use it.
Not
feel that the abbreviation is
an
aid,
should

variable, y.
101
The problem
is
to find du,
when
u=(l + x + a:2)i
Now,
Special
Formula
2, as
is
has already been pointed out,
holds, not merely
when x
:
the independent variable, but for
any function whatsoever. be written in the form

d
[<^(a;)]"
It might, for example, equally well
= ra[^(a;)]-id<^(a!).
essential
In the present ease, then, the content of that theorem, the enables us to write and complete truth it contains,
down
at once the equation

-
d{l
+ x + x^)^= 1(1 +
a; -I-
a;^)"*
d(l
+ x + x^).
answer
This last differential is computed at sight, and thus the is obtained in two steps.
Even
process,
these two steps are carried out mentally as a single
when the student has reached
the highest point in the
technique of differentiation.
d-\/x
He
-
then thinks of the formula
r=
dx
2y/x
realizes that it holds, not
variable, but for
any function
merely when x is the independent of x, and so writes down first
the easy part of the right-hand side of the equation, thus

d-\/l
+ +
a;
a;2
=
2V1 +
a;
a;2'
carrying in his head the fact that the numerator

tial of
the radicand,
i.e.
d(l
+ x + x^).
:
is the differenThis differentiation he
performs mentally, and thus has the intermediate work on paper
final
answer with no
102
Example
tive of y
4.
CALCULUS
The method
of differentials
is
especially use-
ful in the case of implicit functions.
Thus, to find the deriva-
with respect to x when

a?
^xy-\-2y* l.
Take the
differential of each side
^x^dx
- 3xdy - 3ydx + 8fdy = 0.

;
Next, collect the terms in dx by themselves contain dy as a factor

(3x^
the others will
- 3y)dx + (8f - 3x)dy = 0.

^^3_y-3^, sy' 3a! dx
EXERCISES
Hence
Differentiate the following twelve functions
of differentials and also

variable, if one
by the method by the methods of Chapter II (in

explicitly
either order), introducing each time

is
the auxiliary
used.
a^.
1/
1.
u=Va^ + a^^ +
y
Ans. du
= J^^^^^Va* aV +
-f!B*
3-
=
=-
Ans. dy
= =
y
"
-y
3.
u M
1-x
Introduce an
auxiliary
j3.ns. Ans.
au du
dx -
(l-)'
A
/V
\
If
\
Suggestion.
variable
= l x.
Then u
4.
-,
1^ "
v^
v/
u= xy (1
Ans.
.
dx
dy dx
H-as"
- x)' 2x (l + x^y
(1
INFINITESIMALS
6.
AND DIFFERENTIALS
Ans.
y
103
-
=
(a
+ ty
=
dt
(a
ty
.
7.
2x''-xy
+ iy' = 5.
Ans.
^ = ^'"~^ dx x Sy
8.
a!2/
= al = 2ma;.
^ns.
^ = -1. dx X
^=^.
da;
2/
9.
2/2
Ans.
10.
^ + ^=L
2a!2
^ns.
^ = -^.
da;
11.
+ 3y2 = 10.
+ = 0.
!/
^ns.
^ = _?^. 3y
2a!
12.
2a!2/-a;
Ans.
^ = 3lJi1|. 4-1 da
II
The student can work the problems at the end of Chapter by the method of differentials. Tor further practice, if deexamples are appended.
Ans.
sired, the following

13.
u={x^+l)y/3?-x.
du = la^lx"- dx
2 Va;'
14.
y={x + 2V)(x-hY.
u
Ans.
^ = 3(x^-b^). dx
15.
16.
- x^ la X u = yj: <l
Va^
X
Ar,
17.
u=-
104
20.
CALCULUS
u
Va" a?.
a?
Ans.
=
cfa;
af Va'-
a?
, 21.
ja^ x-\-l w=-\/

^x''
a;
1 +x+l
Ans.
du = dx
3a*
(3-2+
X +. 1) Va^
+ x^ + l
x^
__ (x
~
23.
a^)'
x^
.
'
du _ dx *^ = dx
S-Vx
3a^
u u
= (xi-aiy. = x(x^ + 5)\ + y^ = a'.
Ans.
iMzi^.
3a,f
24.
du = 5(' Ans. dx
+ l)(a!3 + 5)i
-^ =
da;
25.
a;'
-4ns.
\;'"
*a;
CHAPTER V
1.
Radian Measure.
lies in
In Trigonometry, the radian measure
of an angle was introduced, apparently for no good purpose.
The reason
paragraph,
first recall
the importance for the Calculus of this

to differentiate the sine.
new
will
system of measurement, and will become clear in the next
when we come
the definition.
We
Let a
circle
;
be described with
its
centre at the vertex
of
the angle
let r
denote the length of the radius of the circle
and
s,
that of the intercepted arc.

6,
:
Then
is
the radian measure,
of the angle
defined as the ratio s/r

(1)
Fig. 34
For a right angle,

has the measure
61
and hence 6
straight angle
= T = 3.14159
26535 89793
..
Let
d and
<l> <j>
be the measure of the given angle in degrees.

are proportional, e
Then
c<J3,
where c is a constant. To determine c, use a convenient angle whose measure is known in both systems for example, a straight angle. For the latter,
;
and
105
<l>
= 180.
106
CALCULUS
we
find
Substitating these values in the above equation
and hence
are in the unit circle
(i.e.
107
its
the circle of unit radius with
centre at 0).
accurately
Graph of sin x. It is important for the student drawn graph of the function
y
to
make an
= siax,
Let the unit of length, as and let it be chosen as 1 cm.
is
X being taken in radian measure.

usual, be the
same on both
axes,
For
this
purpose Peirce's Table of Integrals (the table of

especially convenient,
Trigonometric Functions near the end)

since the outside
column gives the angles in radian measure, and thus as many points of the graph as are desired can be plotted directly from the tables.
j/=sin X
Fig. 35
Since
sin
(tt
a;)
= sin x
{x, y)
each determination of the coordinates

graph, for which
of a point
on the
< <^
a;
yields at once a second point,

is
namely
structed
(tt
x,
y).
Thus one arch of the curve
readily con-
from the Tables.*
lows.
From this arch a templet, or curved ruler, is made as folLay a card under the arch and with a needle prick
through enough points so that the templet can be cut accurately with the scissors.
By means
chanically,
of the templet further arches can be

is
drawn me-
and thus the curve
readily continued in both
* The graph could be

rical considerations.
made directly without tables from purely geometDraw a circle of unit radius. Construct geomet^
as those
rically
convenient
angles,
obtained from a right angle by

of these angles,
successive bisectors.
Measure any one

will
X ABP, in ra^
dians and this
number
be the abscissa of the point on the graph, the
108
CALCULUS
Put
this curve in the
directions to the edges of the paper.*
upper quarter of a sheet of centimetre paper. The graph brings out clearly the property of the function expressed by the word periodic. The function admits the
period
2ir,
since
sm (a; + 2 tt) = By means

y
sin a;
Graph of
function
cos x.
of the templet the graph of the
= cos X
This function also admits
2
^
can
now be drawn
mechanically.
cos
/
the period 27r
(a;
tt)
= cos x.
ordinate being the perpendicular dropped from P on tlie line if n = 3, the coordinates of tlie point on the graph are
:
BA.
Thus,
^=
1.18,
.92.
A second point of the

the same
ing
y, its
arch,
that corresponding to Pj, has
coordinate be-
= 7r-^=1.96,
8
y=.92.
Of course, the distance ir must be laid off on the axis of x by measui'eit cannot be constructed geometrically from the unit length. This done, the further abscissae are found by successive bisectors. * In order to obtain the most satisfactory figure, observe that the curve has a point of inflection at each of its intersections with the axis of Since a X, the tangent there making an angle of 45 with that axis. curve separates very slowly from an inflectional tangent, it will be well to draw these tangents vrith a ruler. On laying dovro the templet, the curve can then be ruled in from the latter vrith great accuracy. It will not separate sensibly from its tangent for a considerable distance from a
ment
point of inflection.
Put the graph
axis of
109
in the second quarter of the sheet, choosing the
y for this curve in the
same
vertical line as the axis of
y for the sine curve above. There remains the lower half of the sheet for the next graph.
Graph of tan x. The same tables make profusely on the graph of the function
y
in the interval
it
easy to plot points
= tan x
axis of y in the
0^ < -.
a:
i I
Take the
I
same
ver-
2/=tan
Fig. 38
tical line as in
the case of the preceding graphs.

is
This done, a
is
second templet
made and by means
of
it
the graph
a;
drawn
mechanically for values of x such that

It
is
^ < < 0.
desirable furthermore to plot the function in the two
adjacent intervals
no
" ^^
Stt
CALCULUS
-T<^<-2'
tan {x
,
in order to suggest the fact that this function admits the
period
it:
ir)
tan x.
.
2.
Differentiation of sin x.
To
(1)
= smx,
apply the definition of a derivative given iu Chap. II, 1. Give to X an arbitrary value and compute the correcBb sponding value yôiy;
yo
= sin Xocorre-
Then give x an increment Ax,

and compute again the
sponding value of y
yo
:
+ Ay = sia (xa + Ax). = sin

a;,.
M'
Fig. 39
Hence
Ay
(ajo
+ Ax) sin Xq,
(2)
Ay _ sin (xp Ax
is
+ Ax) sin
Ax
It
at this poiat in the process that the specific properties

a; come into play. Here, the representar by means of the unit circle, familiar from the Trigonometry, is the key to the solution. From
of the function sin tion of sin a;
beginning of
the figure
it is
clear that
= MP, Ay = sin (xq + Ax)

siu Xo
sia {x^
sin
aio
+ Ax) = M'P', = QP', Ax = PP'.
Hence
(3)
Ax
ppi'
and
so
111
we want
to
know
the limit approached by the latter
limS^.
By virtue
of the
Fundamental Theorem of Chap. IV,
2,
we
can replace this ratio by a simpler one, since the arc the chord PP' are equivalent infinitesimals *
:
PP and
lim5 = l. PP
Hence
lim
p'=p jypf
^' = lim ^.
F'=p ppt
On
the other hand, the triangle

2^
QPP'
is
a triangle of refer-
ence for the
QPP =
<f>,
and
so
sin
PP
When
^ =
<A.
approaches P, the secant PP' (i.e. the indefinite line determined by the two points P and P) approaches the tangent PT at P, and thus
lim
p'=p
<i>
-4.
qPT =1-01^
J
Finally, then,
lim
P'=p
^ = lim sin <^ =
PP
sinf
p'=p
\2
^^^
Xq
)=
J
cos
Xq,
and consequently
j- ^^
A^ _
^^^
Aa) Aa;
The student should
assure himself of the truth of this statement
by
visualizing the figure
pass for angles of
(making an accurate drawing with ruler and com30, 15, and 7J, the circle used being 10 in. in
diameter) and realizing that, when P' is near P, the difference in length between the arc and the chord is but a minute per cent of the length of
either one.
A formal proof will be found below.
112
or,
CALCULUS
subscript,
on dropping the
(4)
DjSin X
= cos x.
dif-
This theorem gives rise to the following theorem in

ferentials
(5)
:
d sin X
= cos x dx.
Reason for the Radian. The reason for measuring angles in terms of the radian as the unit now becomes clear. Had we used the degree, the increment \x would not have been equal
to
PP
we should have had

Aa;
= PP'
2 TT
or
Aa;
^^, = 180 PP\

IT
360
Hence
(3)
would have read
Ay_
Ax
and thus the formula of
TT
QP
would have become
180 ppi'
differentiation
sin
D^
= -^ cos x.
180
by this more important, however, is the elimination of a multiplier which is of the nature of an extraneous constant, whose presence would have obscured the essential simplicity of the formulas of the
of labor in not being obliged to multiply
The saving
constant each time
we
differentiate is great.
Still
Calculus.
EXERCISE
Prove in a similar manner that
D^
3.
cos x
= sin x.
Certain Limits.
In the foregoing paragraph we have made
use of the fact that the ratio of the arc to the chord approaches 1 as its limit. A. formal proof of this theorem, based on the
113
axioms of geometry, can be given as follows. Draw the tangent at P and erect a perpendicular at P' cutting the tangent iu Q. Denote the angle 2(! P'PQ by a.
Then
for
i)
PP <PP' <Pq + FQ;

.
a straight line
is
the shortest dis;
tance between two points

extremities.
and ii) a convex curved line is less than a convex broken line which envelops it and has the same
But
PQ = EJ^,
cos a
P'Q = PPta.Tia.
1
1-
Hence
1
< J!P' <
PP
0,
;
tan
a.
cos a
When
approaches
1,
the right-hand
inequality approaches 1
member of the double hence the middle member must also

-^
approach
or
lim
PP
= 1,
q. e. d.
The foregoing proof

is
holds, not merely for a circle, but for
any curve with a convex arc PP'.

established generally.
Consequently the theorem
The Limit lim ^^^.

it is
From
Pig. 41
^"^
MA
Fig. 41
clear that
JfP=sin,
and hence
AP=a,
sin
a_
" AP
MP
it is
By
.(1)
direct inspection of the figure
seen, then, that
lim?i^=l.
114
CALCULUS
formal proof of this equation can be given as foUowa
Fig. 42
From
PP' = 2sina,
Hence
and
PP' = 2a.
sina_PP'
therefore,
by the proposition
just established,
lim?^ = lim^'=l.
0=^0
p'=pppi
is
Another Proof of (1). The area of the sector OAP, Fig. 42, \ a, and it obviously lies between the areas of the triangles
OMP and OPN.

^ sin a.
or
cos
Hence
< ^ a < ^ tan a

cos a
cos a
< -^ <
sm a
jpr
When
approaches 0, each of the extreme terms approaches 1, and so the middle term must also do so, q. e. d.
From
Peirce's Tables, p. 130,

sin 4 40'
we
see that
= .0814,
in radians, also has the value
and the same angle, measured
Thus for values of a not exceeding .0814, sin a differs from a by less than one part in 800, or one-eighth of one per cent.
.0814, to three significant figures.
The Limits lim ^

the
first
- "os
is
^^^ lim
^~'^^"
-
From Fig.
:
42,
of these limits
seen to have the value
lim-
cos
= 0.
115
A formal proof can be derived at once by the method employed in the evaluation of the next limit,
lim1
cos
Expressing 1
cos
a.
in terms of the half angle,
we have
l-cos = 2sin2^.
Hence
cos a
Ssin^?
2
1
''2
Of
and
l-cos _li,^ lim

2
2 -^
a
2
.
EXERCISES
when
1.
In the accompanying figure determine the following limits ot approaches

:
2.
3.
AR lim MP AQ lim AP BQ lim

lim
Ans.
2
1.
Ans.
FlQ. 43
MP
4.
lim
HP AP
PQ
6.
6.
7.
lim
AN
8.
PN AP BQ lim
lim
pn'
infini-
Determiae the principal part of each of the following

tesimals, referred to a as principal infinitesimal
9.
MP.
PN.
PQ.
Ans.
a.
10.
PB. Ans.â.
AQ.
11.
14.
BQ.
12.
15.
13.
16.
MA.
Ans. I a'.
MN.
17.
AQ-MP.
116
CALCULUS
The differenti4. Critique of the Poregoiag Differentiation. ation of sin a; as given in 1 has the advantage of being direct and lucid, and thus easily remembered. Each analytic step is
mirrored in a simple geometric construction.
advantage, however, of incompleteness.
For,
It has the disfirst,
we have
allowed Ax, in approaching

values
;
0,
to pass only through positive
and secondly we have assumed Xg to lie between and Hence there are in all seven more cases to consider. IT. ^ An analytic method that is simple and at the same time general is the following. Eecall the Addition Theorem for
the sine
+b)= sin a cos b + cos a sin b, sin (a 6) = sin a cos 6 cos a sin 6,
sin (a
whence
Let
sin (a
sin (a &) = 2 cos a sin a b = XQ. a + b = XQ+ Ax,

-(-
6)
h.
Solving these last equations for a and

,
b,
we
Ax
get
Ax
and the difference-quotient becomes
-=cos(â.o+-^j-^2
Aw
Ax\
sm
Ax
The first factor on when Aa; approaches 0.

tor
the right approaches the limit cossjo On setting Âx= a, the second fac-
becomes
sma
1.
Hence the
factor approaches
Thus
cos Xq,
lim ctxÂx
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONSv
or,
117
on dropping the subscript,

Z)j.
sin X
= cos X.
To
differentiate the
5.
Differentiation of eosa;, tanw, etc.

x,
function cos
introduce a
new
variable, y,
by the equation
y=^x.
cos x
Hence
= - y,
sin y.
and
= cos
- y]=
tained,
Taking the differential of each side of the equation thus obwe have
dcosa;
= dsmy = oos ydy.
But
118
CALCULUS
to difEerentiate the function sec x, set
sec X
= (cos
cos^
a;)~*-
Then
It
is
dsecx =
X
=
cos^
not desirable to tabulate the result, since one rarely

a;
has occasion to difEerentiate either sec

directly, as above.
or csco;,
and when 'the
occasion does arise, the difEerentiation can be worked out
the four
The student should now add to his card of Special Formulas main formulas just obtained. This card will now read
as follows
1.
2. 3.
-
4. 5. 6.
.
= 0. dx" = ma;"~i dx. d sin X = cos x dx. d cos x = sin x dx. d tan x = sec" x dx. d cot x = esc" X dx.
dc
6.
Shop Work.
To
acquire facility in the use of the
new
results, the student should
work a generous number
of simple
examples, for which the following are typical.
Example
The
solution can be abbreviated as follows.
119
The equation
d sin X
is
= cos x dx
is
true, not
merely when x
the independent variable.
It
holds, for example, in the
form
dsmy = COS ydy,

where y is any function of
x.
Hence we can write immediately
dsin ax
= cos ax d{ax),
dx.
and thus obtain the
result
d sin axâ cos ax
Example
2.
To
Let
M=V1 fc^sin",^. sin" z = 1

fc2
<^.
Then
Let
Then
and
dsin'
</i
u = z^ du = dz' = ^z~^dz; dz = -K'dairs?^. y = sin dy = cos d^ = dy^ = 23/% = 2sin<^ cos <^d<^.
<j}.
tj>
Hence
or
c?m=^"^(
2fc^sin<^ cos (^d<^)

fc2
=
du
d<l>
sin
d ^
A;2
cos-! A
sin2
</.
Vl
Example
to find -^.
3.
If
siax
+ 3my = x- y,
cos
Take the
cos
dx
differential of each side of the equation:
Hence
,
= dx dy. (cos x V)dx + (cos y + l)dy = dy _ 1 cos X dx 1 + cos

xdx +
ydy
3^
120
CALCULUS
EXERCISES
Differentiate the following functions.

1.
M
y y
= cos
oa;.
2.
= cos^x. = CSC X.
X = tan
2
3.
4.
5.
M
M
= cot2a;.
6. 8.
10.
12.
= sec3a;. = sin' X. u = x + tan X. M = sec^ X.

w
14.
sin
-
a;
1
15.
cos X
u u
= Vl + cos X.
a; a;
= 1 cos 1 + cos sin 18. M = a + b cos X 1 20. u = sin + cos x 22.* M = vers X.
16.
a; a;
23.*
It
= covers x.
siTie
* The versed sine and the coversed

vers a;
are defined as follows
= 1 cos
a;
covers a;
= 1 sin a.
cos?
24.
121
=x
sin.
2x.
25.
28.
= taii-^-^
1
29.
= 5iBJ!^.
X
a;^
30.
M = sin + cos 2
a;
a;.
31.
m= M
cos
tts;.
32.
M=-
33.
Vl-A!''sin2^
34.
/ a!COS= sm(!B
cos = z=:^===Vl &2

d>
sini* <^
+ w).
.
(^V ^^ = dx
COS
-,
(a;
'-
sm (a;
36.
6.
+ w) ^ "^ + y) +
+
a;
cos
a;
11
sm y
r-^-
35.
37.
tana; cot 2/= sin a; sin 3/.

tan
sin x
sin
jr
= 1.
sin y.
+ tan = 2 tan <^ tan

<^
38.
2/
7.
Maxima and Minima.
By means
of the
studied in this chapter the range of problems in

ally enlarged.
new functions maxima and

;
minima which can be treated by the Calculus has been materi-
No new
principles are involved
the student
should go over carefully the paragraphs of Chap. Ill relating to this subject, before he proceeds farther with the present
paragraph.
Example
1.
A man in
a rowboat 1 mile
off
shore wishes to
go to a point which is 2 miles inland and 4 miles up the If he can row at the rate of 5 miles an hour, but can beach. walk only 3 miles an hour after he lands, in what direction
should he row in order to get to his destination in the shortest
possible time ?
In the
first place, it is clear
that the straight line
AEB is
he rows toward a point P slightly farther up the beach, the amount by which he lengthens the leg AP of his path is very nearly equal to the amount by which
not the best path.
For,
if
122
CALCULUS
Consequently the time
is
he shortens the leg PB.*

ened.
short-
On
the other hand,
obviously ought not to be taken so

far
up the beach as D. The minimum occurs,

therefore, for
some
in-
termediate point.
Let the angles 0, <f> be taken as indicated in the figure. Then,

since
Fig. 44
i
= -,
V
time from
A to P = ^^^ = -
5
6 cos 6
time from
P to 5=:^=
On
,.-.
123
setting du/dO
setfi
= 0,
5
we
obtain the equation

<^ sin <^
6 ajg 6
_ _ 2 sec'
d^
dd
Z
(2)
Next, differentiate
sec'=
Odd
+ 2 Bec2 ^
d</,
= 0,
(5)
sec25l
= -2sec2^^.
by equation
or
(5)
:
Now,
(o)
^
'.
divide equation (4)

sin 6
,a\
5/3
=i^
gin
<A 2:
sin 6
=5
3
:
sinc^
is
The
result, stated in
words,
as follows
sia 6
is to
Sia <^ as
the velocity in water is to the velocity
on land.
.
Let the student work the general problem, in which

just stated.
all
the
data are take^ in literal form, and verify the general result
In order actually to determine be solved as simultaneous

:
9,
equations (2) and (6) must
,^
^
'
.
tan 6
l3sine
+ 2 tan = 4, = 5sin<^.
<^
done best by the method of Trial and Error, as it is Successive Approximations being the name usually given to it in Mathematics. It is a most important method in both sciences, and the student should let no opportunity go by to use the method whenever, as here, he meets a Cf. Chap. VII, 5. case which calls for it.
This
is
called in Physics
The Corresponding Problem in

solved a problem which
is
Optics.
We
have stated and
not lacking in interest, but which
appears to have no scientiiic importance.
This very problem,

light is different id
however, occurs in Optics.

*
i.e.
The velocity of
new
left-hand side
divide the left-hand side of (4) by the left-hand side of (5) for a and do the same thing for the right-hand sides. ;
124
CALCULUS
and water. Suppose two media to be in contact with each other, the common boundary being a be a luminous point, from which rays emanate plane. Let When the rays strike the bounding surface, in all directions.
different media, such as air
they are
all
refracted and enter the second
medium
in case the
than in the first. One And of the refracted rays will pass throttgh a given point B. now the law of light is that the time required for the light to to B is less for this path than for any other pass from
velocity of light in that
is less
medium
possible path.
If, then,
the velocity of light in the
first
medium
is
m * and
in the second
medium,
v,
we have
u
V
first
sin 6
sin<^
where n
is
the iTidex of refraction for the passage from the
medium
into the second.
EXERCISES
1.
wall 27
ft.
high
is
64
ft.
from a house.
wall.
of the shortest ladder that will reach the house

rests
Find the length if one end

horizontal
on the ground outside the
Take the angle which the ladder makes with the

as the independent variable.
2.
The equal
area
sides of
an isosceles triangles are each 8
in.
long,
the base being variable.

is
Show
that the triangle of
maximum
3.
the one which has a right angle.
Take one
of the base angles as the independent variable, ^.
A gutter is to be made out of a long strip of copper wide by bending the strip along two lines parallel to the 9 in. edges and distant respectively 3 in. from an edge. Thus the cross-section will be a broken line, made up of three straight How wide should the gutter be a;t the lines, each 3 in. long.
* The letter u used here has nothing to do with the
solving the problem.
v,
used above in
top, in order that its carrying capacity
125
as great as
may be
possible ?
4.
Ans. 6
is
ia.
which is to be 12 in. If Johnny may choose the plate on which the pie is to be baked, what size plate would he naturally select ?
5. A can-buoy in the form of a double cone is to be made from two equal circular iron plates by cutting out a sector from each plate and bending up the plate. If the radius of
Johnny
to have a piece of pie, the perimeter of
each plate
is a,
find the radius of the base of the cone
when
the buoy is as large as possible.
Ans. aVf.
6. From a circular piece of filter paper a sector is to be cut and then bent into the form of a cone of revolution. Show that the largest cone will be obtained if the angle of the sector
is
.8165 of four right angles.

7.
Two solid spheres, whose diameters are 8 in. and 18 in., have their centres 35 in. apart. At what point in their line of centres and between the spheres should a light be placed in
order to illuminate the largest
amount
of spherical surface ?
Ans. 8
8. 9.
in.
from the centre of the smaller sphere.

tent.
Find the most economical proportions for a conical
drawn along the fioor by a rope. Find the angle which the rope should make with the horizontal
to be in order that the tension
A block of stone is
may be
to be
as small as possible.
Ans. The angle of

10.
friction.
A block of stone
is
drawn up an
inclined plane
by
Find the angle which the rope should make with the plane, in order that the tension in the rope be as small as
a rope.
possible.
11.
high.
A statue ten feet high stands on a pedestal that is 50 ft. How far ought a man whose eyes are 5 ft. above the
may
ground to stand from the pedestal in order that the statue subtend the greatest possible angle ?
12.
steel girder
ft.
25
ft.
long
is
moved on
rollers
along a
passageway 12.8
wide, and into a corridor at right angles
126
to the passageway.
girder, find
CALCULUS
how wide
Neglecting the horizontal width of the the corridor must be in order that the
the corner.
girder
13.
may go round
Ans. 5.4
ft.
A gutter whose cross-section is an arc of a circle is

into shape a strip of copper.
is a,
to be
made by bending
of the strip
If the width
find the radius of the cross-section

is
when
Ans.
the
a/ir.
carrying capacity of the gutter

14.
a maximum.
end.
side,
A long strip of paper 8 in. wide is cut off square at one A corner of this end is folded over on to the opposite
thus forming a triangle.
Find the area of the smallest
triangle that can thus be formed.

15.
In the preceding question, when will the length of the
crease be a
minimum ?
16. The captain of a man-of-war saw, one dark night, a privateersman crossing his path at right angles and at a distance ahead of c miles. The privateersman was making a miles an hour, while the man-of-war could make only b miles
in the
same time.
The
captain's only
hope was
to cross the
track of the privateersman at as short a distance as possible
under his stem, and to disable him by one or two well-directed so the ship's lights were put out and her course altered Show that the man-of-war in accordance with this plan.
shots
;
crossed the privateersman's track - Va!'
b^
miles astern of
the latter.
If a
17.
= 6,
The
is
this result is absurd.
Explain.
illumination of a small plane surface by a luminous
point
proportional to the cosine of the angle between the
rays of light and the normal to the surface, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the luminous point
from the
surface.
At what height on the wall should an
arc
of
light be placed in order to light
most brightly a portion

ft.
the floor a
ft.
distant from the wall ?
Ans. About ^^ a
above the
floor.
18.
127
A town A
situated on a straight river,
and another town
B, a miles farther
river, are to
down
the river and 6 miles back from the
be supplied with water from the river pumped The main from the waterworks to will cost $ m per mile and the main to B will cost % n per mile. Where on the river-bank ought the pumps to be placed ?
by a
single station.
pole 25 ft. high is to be braced by a stay end of the stay being fastened to the pole and the other end to a short stake driven into the ground. How far from the pole should the stake be located, ia order that the stay be most effective ?
19.
A telegraph
20
ft.
long, one
20.
Into a full conical wine-glass whose depth

is
is
a and
the
generating angle there

radius of the ball
carefully dropped a spherical ball
of such a size as to cause the greatest overflow.

is
Show that
a.sm a
sin a
+ cos 2 a
21. A foot-ball iield 2 a ft. long and 2 b ft. broad is to be surrounded by a runnhig track consisting of two straight sides (parallel to the length of the field) joined by semicircular ends.
The track
is
to be
4c
ft.
long.
Show how
it
should be made
ia order that the shortest distance

foot-ball field
between the track and the
may
be as great as possible.
of
22.*
The number
ems
(or the
number
of sq. cms. of text)
page and the breadths of the margius being given, what ought the length and breadth of the page to be that the amount of paper used may be as small as possible ? on
this
23.
Assuming that the values of diamonds are proportional,
other things being equal, to the squares of their weights, and
diamond which weighs one carat is worth $ m, show that it is safe to pay at least $ 8 m for two diamonds which together weigh 4 carats, if they are of the same quality
that a certain
as the one mentioned.
* Exs. 22-25 do not involve Trigonometry.
128
24.
CALCULUS
When
a voltaic battery of given electromotive force
(E
and given internal resistance (r ohms) is used to send a steady current through an external circuit of R ohms resistance, an amoimt of work, W, equivalent to
volts)
^^
is
10' ergs
circuit.
done each second in the outside
Show
that, if dif-
ferent values be given to M,
will
be a
maximum when
E=
r.
cream cone is to hold one-eighth of a pint. The I, and half the angle at the vertex is x. Find the value of x that will make the cost of manufacture of the cone a minimum. (Ans. x = 35.27.)
25. ice
An
slant height is
8.
Tangents in Polar Coordinates.
Let
be the equation of a curve in polar coordinates.

find the direction of its tangent.
if
We wish to
known
The
direction will be
we
can determine the angle
duced and the tangent.
between the radius vector proLet P, with the coordinates (tq, 6^, be an arbitrary point iT of the curve and
tj/
P':(ro-FAr, flo+Afl)
a neighboring point.
Draw
the
chord
denote
PP
the
and
Z OP'P by Then obviously

lim^'=
^Q.
To determine
Pjq 45
^qj
drop
ular
perpendic-
PM from P on
the radius vector OP' and draw an arc of a circle with The right triangle MP'P is a triangle of referas centre.
PN
ence for the angle
ij/'
129
and
^
MP
cot
ij/'
Hence
(1)
cot ^0
= li-
= lim P'M
convenient infinitesimals
by more In the latter ratio we can replace P'M and We observe that cf. Chap. IV, 2.
;
MP
;
MP =
i.e.
Tq
sin
A6
hence
lim
= lim
=1
MP
and rÂB are equivalent

For
infinitesimals.
Furthermore, P'Jf and

tesimals.
P'iV=Ar
,
are also equivalent infini-
,^ _,,^ ,,_ P'M=P'N+ NM

-?df =?(,
and
ro cos Afl. 1 cos Afl
Hence
NM
3,
Now, by
130
CALCULUS
of the
(3)
In terms of differentials, this result can be written in either two forms dr = rdO
:
cot^=
tani/f
'
rde'
dr
Examvple.
Consider the parabola in polar form

TO
cos
<^
To determine
*""
i/.
Here,
(1-C0S^)2"
<^ d<f>
Hence
C0tl/f
(1
m sin COS
1
cos
md<^
<^
<^)2
sin<^
COS ^
of the latus rectum,
In particular, at the extremity we have
and thus we obtain anew the result that the tangent there makes an angle of 45 with the axis of the parabola.
Again, at the vertex,
COtU==0,
and the tangent there
is verified
,/r
= |,
as perpendicular to the axis.
From
the above equation,
cot^ =
^ 1 a simple relation between ^ and
cos ^
<f>
?^5^-,
can be deduced.
Since
sin^ J ^ l-cos</,
2 sin* cos*
2
;
,.,,^ 2sin2 2
2,,^ =cot5,
2
it
131
follows that
eot^ =
,
.A cot^-
But, for any angle,
x,
cot (w
x)= cot X.
=
Setting
a;
= ^ in the above equation, we have

cot
(ir
i/f)
cot
<4
Hence *
or, fke
supplement of
is
equal
to
*.
Thus we have a new
proof of the familiar property of the parabola, that the tangent

at
radius,
any point P of the curve bisects the angle between the OP, and a parallel to the axis, drawn through P. EXERCISES
focal
1.
Plot the spiral,
r=6,
it
and show that the angle at which
crosses the prime direction
whene = 27r
2.
is
80 67'.
Plot the spiral,
_1
Show
that
it
has an asymptote parallel to the prime vector.
Suggestion.
from the prime
Consider the distance of a point of the curve direction, and find the limit of this distance
6 approaches 0. Determine the angle at which the radius vector corresponding to 6 = 17/2 meets this curve.
3.
when
Plot the cardioid,

r
= a (1 cos
</>),
* The
(^
trigonometric
<p/2.
^)
+T=
TT
^ <2
and
equation admits a second solution, namely, however, we agree to take and ^ so that tt, this second solution is ruled out. '^ ^
If,
<
132
and show that
,
CALCULUS
cot
,
d/
=
1
sin
d>
cos
<l>
At what angle
is
the curve cut by a line through the cusp
perpendicular to the axis ?

4.
Prove
that, for the cardioid,
^
5.
2
is parallel to
Show
that the tangent to the cardioid
the
axis of the curve

6.
when
<^
|^7r.
At what
points of the cardioid
is
the tangent perpen-
dicular to the axis of the curve ?

7. Determine the rectangle which circumscribes the cardioid and has two of its sides parallel to the axis of the curve. 8.
Show
that, for the lemniscate,

?-2
= a2cos2e,
:
the angle
i^
is
given by the equation

cot
i/'
= tan 26.
tt
,
Hence, show that
/i
'I'
=2
is
9.
At what
points of the lemniscate
the tangent parallel the points which
to the axis * of the curve ?
Ans. At the point for which correspond to

10.
it
= 7r/6, and
by symmetry.
of the curve
The points
at
which the tangent, is

'
parallel to the
prime vector, are
evi-
dently those for which
= r sm
</),
* The axis of any curve is a line of symmetry. The lemniscate has two such lines. The axis referred to in the text is that one of these lines which passes through the vertices of the curve.
133
considered as a function of <^ through the mediation of the equation of the curve, has a maximum, a minimum, or a certain point of inflection. For these points, then,
^=
Show
r cos
d
is
+ sin
d.
0.
that this condition
equivalent to the one used above
in the special cases considered,

}fl
namely
IT.
-\-
<^==
11.
Plot the curve,
= acos2^, = 2 tan 26.

is
taking
a=
5 cm.
Show
that for this curve
cot./'
12.
At what
points of the curve of question 11

?
the tan-
gent parallel to the axis
Ans. For one of the points, tan 6

13.
=
V5
Plot the curve,
= a cos 3fl, = 3tan3e.

is
taking o
=5
cm.
Show
that
eot.^
14. At what points of the curve of question 13 gent parallel to the axis of the lobe ?
the tan-
Ans. For one of these points, tan

15.
=-v/l
-|
The equation
m
1 4- sin
(/>
Give a represents a parabola referred to its focus as pole. direct proof that the tangent to this curve at any point bisects
the angle formed by the focal radius drawn to this point and a parallel to the axis through the point.
16.
Show
that the tangent to the hyperbola

r
=
1
m = V3 cos
<^
134
'
CALCULUS
makes an angle of
60
at the extremity of the latus rectum
with the transverse

17.
axis.
Prove that the -tangent to the
ellipse
,
r=^ V3
with the
cos
ij)
at the extremity of the latus rectum
makes an angle of 30
major
axis.
9.
Differential of Arc.
Let
y
=/{<>')
(1)
be the equation of a given curve. (x, y),he a variable point, and
Let P, with the coordinates

of the curve.
is
s.
A a fixed point Then s Denote the length of the arc AF by of X for, when x is given, we know P and thus
s.
;
a function
It is possible to determine the derivative of
s,
D^,
as fol-
lows.
By the Pythagorean Theorem we have (Chap, IV, Fig. 33),
PP^ = Aa!2 + ^y^'.
Let A* approach
lim
as its limit.
Then
f^7= 1 + 1 ()^= 1 +(Ojyy.

3 the chord
it
Since by
PP' and
the arc
PP'= As
are
equivalent infinitesimals,
follows from the
Theorem
of Chap. IV, 2 that, in the can be replaced by As. Hence
Fundamental above equation, PP'
limf^Y=limf^Y = (i).,)S
and consequently
(2)
(D^sy=i+ip^yy.
On
replacing the derivatiTes in (2)
135
by
their values in terms
of differentials,
we have
\aaij
ds^
is
or
(3)
\dxj
= dx^ + dy^.
by means
Since
This formula
of the triangle
easily interpreted geometrically
PMq,
Fig. 33.
PM= dx
it
and
MQ = dy,
Theorem that
follows from the Pythagorean
(4)
PQ = ds.
and As
;
It is obvious geometrically that ds
differ
from each
other
by an
iniiiiitesimal of
higher order
i.e.
that they are
equivalent infinitesimals.*
write
/e\ (5)
Formulas for sin t, cos t. From the triangle down two further formulas
:
PMQ
we can
dy sm T = -^
cos T
= dx
ds
ds
These formulas presuppose a suitable choice of t. As s inP describes the curve in a definite sense. Let this be chosen as the positive sense of the tangent line at P. Then t shall be the angle between the positive axis of x and this line. If t were taken as the. angle which the oppositely directed tangent makes with the positive axis of x, the sign must be written before each right-hand side in (6). The formulas (6) suggest that x and y can be taken as funccreases, the point
tions of s
= ^(s),
.
...
i/f(s).
variahle
* In case the coordinates x and y are expressed as functions of a third t, dx will not in general be equal to Aa;, but wiU differ from it by
an infinitesimal of higher order. The triangle PMQ will then be replaced by a similar triangle PMiQi, in which Mi lies on the line PM, its distance from being an infinitesimal of higher order.
136
CALCULUS
s is given, P,
This is, of course, always possible, since, when and hence also x and y, are determined.
Since
(6)
ds
(5)
= \'dx' + dy
we have from
(7)
sinT
= +--^^ -s/da? + dy^

s
cosr
^
Vdx^ + dy''
Furthermore,
^
no matter what choices of

dy
(8)
and t are made.*
3inT
=+
'^^
cosT
Which
sign
is
to be used in (8)
depends on which of the two

t.
possible determinations has been chosen for
Thus t
in a
given cas^ might be 30 or 30
+ 180 = 210.
If the first
choice were made, t = 30, then sin. t, cos t, and dy/dx = tan t would all be positive quantities, and hence the upper signs must be taken. But if the other choice, t = 210, is made, then sin T and cos t are negative, and the lower signs hold.
Example.
Consider the parabola
y
Let
= x\
lies in
P be a point of the
curve which
the
first
quadrant.
Since
tanT
is
= ^ = 2a;
dx
first
here positive, t
may
2a!
be taken as an angle of the
quad-
rant.
In that
case,
formulas (8) give

.
smT =
cost
Vl + 4a;2
VH-4a;2'
(8).
* The signs in (6) and (7) are not necessarily tlie same ; also in (7) and
If
137
P is a point of
the curve which
lies ia
the second quad-
rant, tan T is negative,
an angle of the second or fourth quadrant. If we choose to take t as an angle of the second quadrant, formulas (8) become
t is
and
sinT
2x
.
eosT
1
-
Vl + 4aj2
Vl+4a;2
take t as an angle of the fourth
We may, however, equally well

quadrant.
Then
.
sinT=
Vl+4a;'
In each
ease,
cost
Vl + 4a!2
t, is
one of the numbers, sin t and cos
positive,
the other, negative.
Polar Coordinates.
the curve
Similar considerations in the case of

..
lead to the following formulas
cf Fig.
.
46
PP'^
= P'3P + MP^.
Hence
limf^Y=limr^%limf^'
the chord
Now,
PP
infinitesimals.
Moreover,
and the arc PP' = As are equivalent and Ar are equivalent and
PM
MP and r^B are equivalent.
Hence
Dropping the subscript and writing the derivatives in terms

of differentials
we
have, then
or
(10)
ds2
= dr-2 + r^dB\
138
Furthermore,
(11)
CALCULUS
.it=f,
c<*.|,
the tangent
s,
PT being drawn in the direction of the increasiag and ^ being taken as the angle from the radius vector produced to the positive tangent.
rates
'
Rates and Velocities. The principles of velocities and were treated in Chapter III, 8. We are now in a position to deal with a wider range of problems. We note the following formulas. Let a point P describe
10.
the curve
^/v
Let
denote the length of the arc, measured from an arbitrary
point in an arbitrary sense, and let t be the angle from the

positive direction of the axis of x to the tangent at
drawn
m the direction of the

of the velocity (v
(1
^
increasing arc.
Then the components
= ds/dt) of P along the axes are, respectively:

T,
'
-H,
^
= v cos
da;
dy -s-=
dt
sm T.
dt
Let a point
(2)
P describe the curve

r
= {&).
;
s denote the length of the arc, measured from an arbitrary point ia an arbitrary sense and let \ji be the angle from the
Let
radius vector, produced beyond P, to the tangent at

iu the direction of the increasing arc.
P drawn
Then the components
of the velocity {v
= ds/dt)
of
along the radius vector pro-
duced and perpendicular to the same (the sense of the increasing 6 biing taken as positive for the latter) are respectively
^ ^
dt
1.
dt
is
Example
railroad train
running at the rate of 30
miles an hour along a curve in the form of a parabola

y2
= 1000
a;,
taken as the unit of length.
139
the axis of the parabola being east and west, and the foot being
The sun
is
just lising in the east.
Find how fast the shadow of the locomotive is moving along the wall of the station, which is north and south, when the distance of the shadow from the axis of the parabola is 300 ft. The first thing to do is to draw a suitable figure, introduce suitable variables, and set down all the data not already put
into evidence
present case
by the we have,
;'
figure.
Thus
:
in the
in addition to the ac(a) the
companying
figure, the further data
velocity of the train
this
in feet per second, since
must be expressed we wish to retain
the foot as the unit of length for the equa^

tion of the curve.
is
Now, 30 miles an hour equivalent to 44 feet a second. On the other hand, another expression for the velocity is ds/dt. Hence we have, on
equating these two values,
^=44
dt'
(b)
We
must
set
down
explicitly at this "point the equation
of the curve,
^^^
figure
To sum
up, then,
we
first
draw the
and then write
down' the supplementary data
Given
a)
-dt
= 44,
and'
b)
y^
= 1000x.
make
clear
The second thing

is.
to
do
it
is
to
what the problem

:
In the present case Tofind
can be epitomized as follows
(^]
We
posal for solving the problem.
are noj7 ready to consider what methods are at our disobserve that ds occurs in
We
140
the data.
eral
CALCULUS
Obviously, then, we must make use of the one gentheorem we know which gives an expression for ds when the equation of the curve comes to us in Cartesian coordinates, namely, the theorem
ds'
= da? + dy\
This can be done by means of the we have
Since dx occurs neither in the data nor in th conclusion,
we wish
to eliminate
it.
equation of the path
6).
DifiEerentiating 6)
dy
Hence
Angular
angle, ^, creasing
Velocity.
141
By
the angular velocity,
line is turning in a given plane is
u>, with which a meant the rate at which the
made by the
rotating line with a fixed line,
is in-
do
dt
Example
2.
point
is
describing the eardioid
r
at the rate of c
ft.
= a (1 cos 6)
Find the rate at which the
a second.
radius vector
drawn
to the point is turning

is
when
:
= ir/2.
The formulation
Given
of this problem
as follows
a(l cos
ff).*
142
7.
143
the lamp-
How
fast is the direction of the
man from
8
?
post changing in Ex. 12 of Chap. Ill,
8. The sun is just setting aa a baseball is thrown vertically upward so that its shadow mounts to the highest point of the dome of an observatory. The dome is 50 ft. in diameter. Find how fast the shadow of the ball is moving along the dome one second after it begins to fall,' and also how fast it is
moving just
9.
after
it
begins to
fall.
Let AB, Fig. 48, represent the rod that connects the piston of a stationary engine with the fly-wheel. If u denotes
the velocity of
and V that of show that
A in its rectilinear path, B in its circular path, + cos 6 tan ^)?;.
/V^~-
M =:(sin 6
10.
FiQ. 48
rind the velocity of the piston of

is
a locomotive when the speed of the axle of the drivers

11.
given.
A
is
long
drawbridge 30 ft. being slowly raised
by chains passing over a windlass and being drawn in at

the rate of 8
ft.
a minute.
distant electric light sends
out horizontal rays and the

Fig. 49
bridge thus casts a shadow
on a vertical wall, consisting of the other half of the bridge, which has been already raised. Find how fast the shadow when half the chain has been is creeping up the wall
drawn
12.
in.
A man
walks across the
floor of a semicircular
ft.
rotunda
100
ft.
in diameter, his speed being 4
a second, and his
path the radius perpendicular to the diameter joining the extremities of the semicircle. There is a light at one of the latter points. Find how fast the man's shadow is moving along the wall of the rotunda when he is halfway across.
144
13.
CALCULUS
A man in a train that is

window
running at
full
speed looks out

If
of the
in a direction perpendicular to the track.
he
fixes his attention successively for short intervals
of time
on objects at different distances from the train, show that the rate at which he has to turn his eyes to follow a given ohject is inversely proportional to its distance from him.
14.
Water
is
flowing out of a vessel of the form of an inis 30,
verted cone, whose semi-vertical angle

fast
at the rate of a
quart in 2 minutes, the opening being at the vertex.

is
How
the level of the water falling

still
when
there are 4 qt. of
water
in ?
15. Suppose that the locomotive of the first of the Examples worked in the text is approaching the station at night at the rate of 20 miles an hour, its headlight sending out a bundle of parallel rays. How fast will the spot of light be moving
along the wall of the station

light
line, is
when
the distance of the headin a straight
from the vertex A of the parabola, measured

500
ft.
?
is
Assume
that the wall
perpendicular to the axis of the
parabola and distant 75

16.
ft.
from the vertex.
In the preceding question, how fast will the bundle of
rays be rotating ?
17.
A point describes a circle with constant velocity.

its
is
Show
that the velocity with which
projection moves along a given
diameter
diameter.
18.
proportional to the distance of the point from this
A point P describes
lies in
the arc of the ellipse
which
rant.
the
at
first
quadrant, at the rate of 12
ft.
a second.
quad-
The tangent
F cuts off
a right triangle from the
first
How fast is
the area of this triangle changing
when
passes through the extremity of the latus rectum ?

increasing or decreasing ?
Is the area
19.
145
A point P describes the oardioid r = 5 (1 cos

How
fast is
ff)
at the rate of 12 cm. a second.
The tangent
at
P
is
cuts the
7r/2 ?
axis of the curve in Q.

20.
moving when 6 =
The sun
is
just setting in the west as a horse
running
around an
elliptical track at the rate of
miles an hour.
The
axis of the ellipse lies in the meridian.
Find the rate at which the horse's shadow moves on a fence beyond the track and parallel to the axis.
CHAPTER VI
1.
Logarithms.
is
The logarithms with which the student

definition of logioic is as
if
is
familiar are those which are ordinarily used for computation.
The base
10,
and the
y
foUows
= logio X
10"
= X.
caai
These are called denary, or Brigg^s, or common logarithms. More generally, any positive number, a, except unity, be taken as the base, the definition of log, x then being
(1)
y
3/
= log,
a;
if
a=x.
= log I
Fig. 50
The accompanying
figure represents in character the graph
of the function log, x for
any a
>
1.
It
is
drawn
to scale for
146

a = 2.71828.
shortly.
147
The reason
it
for this
choice of a will appear
From
(2)
the definition
log.l
follows at once that
= 0,
loga
=L
Only positive numbers have logarithms.

positive.
0),
For, a" is always Hence, if x be given a negative value (or the value the second equation under (1) above cannot be satisfied by
any value of y. The two leading properties of logarithms are expressed by

the equations *
:
(I)
logP+logQ = log(PQ)
logP" = nlogP.
(II)
P and Q are any two positive numbers whatever, and n any number, positive, negative, or zero. The base, a, is arbitrary. Thus
Here,
is
and
= log 2 + log 5 log VT = log 7^ = J log 7.

log 10
From
(3)
equation (I)
it
follows that
log^ = -logQ
and
(4)
log
1= log P- log Q.
(I),
For, if
we
set
P = 1/Q in
log 1
we have
= log - + log Q.
log 1
But, by
(2),
= 0.
* The student should recall the proofs of these theorems, which he learned in the earlier study of logarithms, and make sure that he can Proofs of the theorems are given in the author's reproduce them.
DWerential and Integral Calculus,
p. 76.
148
CALCULUS
1 log- = -logQ,
i
Hence
/-
j q.e.d.
Again, write (1) in the form
logiPQ')
= logP+logQ',
and now
set Q'
= 1/Q.
Then
P i log- = logP+log-.
But
logi = -logQ.
Hence
p log-=logP-logQ,
For example,
log (a as
q.e.d.
+ b)- log a = log fl + ^\

b,
we
see
by
setting, in equation (4),
P=a +
As a
Q = a.
we
further example of the application of equation (II)
may
cite
the following
^g
^t ft
Eor,
if
+ ^) = log Ka + }=-,
h the left-hand side of this equa^
P=a + 6
and
tion has the value
n log P.
Further Property of Logarithms.

b,
When
it is
desired to
express a logarithm given to a certain base,
a, in
terms of
is
logarithms .taken to a second base,
the following relation
needed
(III)
log.a;
= j5Si^.
Let
a'
The proof
of (III)
is
as follows.
= log X,
= X.

Take the logarithm
(5)
149
of each side of this equation to the base b

logj a
= logt X.
by
(11)^ if in (II)
But the left-hand
side can be transformed
we
take 6 as the base, thus having
logjP=nlogiP.
Here, let
P=a,
Then
and
(5)
= y.
a,
logj
a<'=y log^
a=
or
now becomes
y y=
logj
logi X.
^^, a
logs
log.,
= |2i^,
logs*
q.e.d.
Example.
Let
= 10
and
let
= 2.718.
To
iind
log 2.
From
(III),
log 2
^
= _i2gio2_ _ .3010 ^
logio 2.718
gg32
-4343
'
Two
Identities.
Just
'as,
for example,
-\/q^
=x
and
(Va:)'
= ,
state
no matter what value x

ties for
(1),
may
have, so
we can
two
identi-
logarithms and exponentials. In the second equation replace y by its value from the first equation. Thus the
equation
(6)
is
rfSo"-
a!
seen to hold for all positive values of x. Secondly, replace x in the first equation (1) by from the second equation y
its
value
= log a".
We
now by x any number
can equally well write x instead of y, understanding whatever, and we have, then, the
150
identity
(J)
CALCULUS
log. a'
all
= X.
x, positive,
This equation holds for

zero.
values of
negative, or
EXERCISES
1.
Show
rind
that
logio
2. 3.
-.. .8950
-._ = .0482.
-4ns.
logio .09420.
-1.0259.
Compute
Compute
2.718-6M2.
2.718--'^.
Ans. 1.758. Ans. 0.4186.

6.
4.
5.
Compute
w''.
Compute
V2*'^_
7.
Show
that
log tan 6
= log sin 6 log cos

fl
^,
<6
<-
8.
Show
that
log sin e
+ log cos = log 55:^,
o<e<l.
0<fl<2,r.
9.
Show
that
j^gl-|ose_21ogsin|,
10.
If
(a;,
y) are the Cartesian coordinates of a point distinct
from the origin, and (r, ff) the polar coordinates of the same point, show that , ^ ' log r = log (as' + 2^').
, , , 1^
11.
Prove that
log (a^
- 62) = log (a + 6) + log (a - 6), provided a + 6 and a b are both positive quantities.
12.
Simplify the expression

log (1
+ ;)- log (l+a!2).
13.
Show
e
that
V(e^
e-')2 + 4 = e' + e"*,
where
has the value 2.7182.

14.
151
Simplify the expression
15.
Show
that
ilog(l
= log(H-0'.
In order to differentiate
2.
Differentiation of Logarithms.
,
the function
it is
Chap. II,
necessary to go back to the definition of a derivative, 1, and carry through the process step by step.
Xq,
Give to X an arbitrary positive value,

corresponding value,
(1)
2/0,
and compute the
of the function
VO
= loga Xg.
Ax
(subject merely to the restric0)
Next, give to x an increment

tion that Xq
value,
(2)
2/0
+ Ax is
positive
and Ax #
and compute the new
+ Ay,
of the function
yo
+ Ay= log (xa + Ax). + Ax) log x

Ax
From
(1)
and
(2) it follows that
Ay ^ log, Ax
(xq
It is at this point that the specific properties of the loga-
rithmic function come into play for the purpose of transform-
ing the last expression.

log {xo
By
1, (4),
+ Ax) - log xo = log fl + ^\
and hence
We
next replace the variable Ax by a new variable
as
follows
152
CALCULUS
t=
Xf,
or
Aa;
= x^.
Thus
(3) takes
on the form
From
(II), 1, the bracket is seen to
have the value
log. (1
and hence
(4) Xg
+ OS
0'.
^ = ilog(l + Ax
Aa;
As
(6)
approaches
as its limit,
also approaches 0, and so
limf2^
= llimlog,(l + 0î_
the variable (1 proaches 0, and this limit

in mathematics
Now,
+
is
'
approaches a limit when

the
ap-
number which
cf
.
is
represented
to five
by the
is
letter e;
3.
Its value
places of decimals
= 2.71828
is
.
;
cf
3.
Moreover, log
a;
a continuous function of
x,
as
is
shown
in a detailed study of this function.*
Hence
lim log
(1
+ 0'"= log
lim (1
+ *)4 = log
we
On
have:
substituting this value in the right-hand side of (5)
Xq
* Such a treatment
stage.
is
too advanced to be pursued with profit at this
Cf. the author's Differential
and Integral Calculus, Appendix,
p. 417.

or,
153
on dropping the subscript

D,loga;
the usual
(6)
= ?:5g^.
X
Thus
becomes
f7\ (7)
if
base,
= 10,
be taken, the formula
n 1 Z)Jogioa!=
.4343...
before, in the differentiation of the sine.
have met a similar situation There, if angles be measured in degrees, the fundamental formula reads
Discussion of the Result.
:
We
J5, sin
= -^ cos x.
180
In order to get rid of this inconvenient mxdtiplier, we changed the unit of angle from the degree to the radian, and then the formula became
:
Dj
In the present
for
sin
= cos x.
do a similar thiag.
case, it is possible to
base, a, is wholly in our control, to choose as
we
like.
The Now,
any
base, the logarithm of the base is unity, 1, (2)

log
= 1.
e
If,
then,
we
choose as our base the number
a
the multiplier becomes
(8)
= e = 2.71828 = log. e = 1.
log e
For
this reason, e is taken as the base of the logarithms
used in the Calculus.*
These are called natural logarithms.

inventor of logarithms.
is
They
latter
are also called hyperbolic, or Naperian logarithms,
the
But
name
after Napier, the

e for this
* The notation
number
due to Euler, 1728.
154
CALCULUS
Napier * was the very man who introduced denary logarithms into mathematics, and so the use of his name in connection with natural logarithms is misleading. Since natural "logarithms are always meant in the formulas
of the calculus, unless the contrary
is
explicitly stated,
log,
a;
it is
customary to drop the index

to write
(9)
from the notation
and
y
identities (6)
= log X,
and
6'^"
if
e"
= x.
The
(10)
(7) of 1
now
take on the form
(11)
= X, log e' = X.
of differentiation
The formula
(12)
becomes

Hence
or
155
d log sin x = cot x dx,
log sin x = cot

dx
x.
EXERCISES
1.
M
M
= log cos X. = log tan x. = log cot . = log sec K.

= log:j
,
-r-
dx
= tan x.
cot x
2.
=
die
+ tan x.
3.
M
M
du
,
-2
.
aa;
sinzoj
CSC
a;.
r>
4.
5.
M = log
1 du =,
6.
0! a;
7.
a+ M = log a
1
+ K da!a!l
1
a;
du _
da; (Zm
2a
a^
a;
_
a;
a;2
8.
M M
u
= log Va^ + xK
/< = log (1 cos
1
dx
\
a?
+ x^
.x a;
.
9.
a;).
du dw =
da;
cot
2
,
10.
= log (1 + cos
(1
du
a;).
= ^^^ 2 T'~~ tan n

da; is
3.
The Limit lim
t)
'-
Since this limit
fundamental
in the differentiation of the logarithm, a detailed discussion
of
it is
essential to completeness.
Let us
set
(1)
s=(l + 0^
s for
and compute the value of

t
values of
near
0.
Suppose
.1.
Then
s= (1.1)10,
156
and
this
CALCULUS
number
is
found by the usual processes with
loga-
rithms to be 2.69.
similar manner.
Further pairs of corresponding values {t, s) are found in a In particular, the student can verify the
:
correctness of the following table of values *

t

It is readily seen that if the interest is
157
compounded n times
in a year, the principal and interest at the end of the year will
amount
to
1000(^1
dollars,
.
+ :^)
this expression
00.
and we wish to find the limit of To' do so, write it in the form
:
when
1000
n
and
set
t='
The bracket thus becomes
and
its
limit
is e.
Hence the desired

1000e
result
is
= 1061.84.*
EXERCISE
If $ 1000 is put at interest at 4
principal
interest
% compare the amounts of and interest at the end of 10 years, (a) when the is compounded semiannually, and (6) when it is com,
pounded continuously.
5.
Ans.
diEEerence of $ 6.88.
Differentiation of
e'.
the student
wUl turn
to
Before beginning this paragraph Chap. VIII and study carefully 1.
Since
(1)
=^
and
= log y
are equivalent equations, the former function can be differentiated by taking the differential of each side of the latter
equation:
ax
*
^ = diogy = -^y
is
The
;
actual computation here
expeditiously done
by means
of
series
see the chapter
on Taylor's Theorem.
158
Hence
or
(2)
CALCULUS
(3)
The function
LOGARITHMS AND EXPONENl
160
6.
CALCULUS
Graph
of the Function ".
Por
positive values of
n the
curves
= x'
Fis. 52
lie
as indicated in the figure.
When
= 1, we
from the origin, which axes of X and y.
bisects the angle
have the ray between the positive

When n >
w
1,
161
;
the curve
is
always concave upward
when
<
1, it is
concave downward.
All the curves start at the origia and pass through the
point
(1, 1).
lies.
Por values of a; > 1, the larger n, the higher the curve For values of a; < 1, the reverse is the ease. Let X have any fixed value greater than unity a; = a;'
:
>
1.
Consider the ordiaate

y
= x'".
,
As n
increases, x'" increases continuously.
This property
is
the basis of the property of logarithms included

continuous.
the word
Differential
For proofs of the foregoing statements of. the author's and Integral Calculus, p. 27 and Appendix, p. 417.
7.
The Fornmlas
of Differentiation
to
Date.
The student
will
now
bring his card of formulas up to date by suppleso that it will read as follows
menting
it
Genebal Formulas of Diffbrbsttiation

I.
IL
III.
TV
= c du. d(u + v) = du + dv. d (uv) =udv + v du. ,fu\_ vdu udv

dcu
\vj
ifl
Special Formulas of Differentiation

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
= 0. da;'' = wa;"~ida;. d sin X = cos. x dx. d cos = sin x dx. dtan x = sec^ x dx.
dc
a;
162
6)
CALCULUS
dcota! dloga;
= cscâ; da;.
7)
= ^.
X
8)
9)
d^ = ^dx.
da"
= a" log a dx.

new results
it is
To
obtain facility in the use of the
desirable
that the student
work a good number
of simple exercises.
Example
1.
To
u=
Let y
e"'.
Then
Hence
'
= ax. u = e", du = de" = e''dy = e"(adx).

de"
-"'
= ae'
163
= An sin
Next, compute
{nt
+ y).
Since
dH_d^du\
dP~di\dt)
/
~~dF dt
dM_
dt'
we take the
differential of each, side of the equation for

df - = An d sin (nt + y)
J
An [cos {nt + y)d{nt + y)] = An^ cos (nt+y) dt.

Hence, on dividing through by
dt,
we have
^ = -An^
If
COS (nt
+ y).
now we
multiply the given value of u by n^ and add the
product to the value just obtained for

tically 0,
i.e.
dhi
,
the result
is
iden-
for all values of
+
dt^
n^M
= 0,
'
q. e. d: ^
EXERCISES
1.
e-''.
~ = -2xe-". dx
2.
w=
e='"^
=e^cosa;.
dit
da;
3.
M=
(e
+ e--)2.
^ = 2(e2'-e-2'). dx
164
4.
CALCULUS
M
= 10'.
a!i<'10'.
= (2.30259
da;
OlO*.
5.
w= u M
M
^=9 10-(10 + 2.30259a!).

dx
6.
= log (sec X + tan x).
7.
a!2
1oga;.
= dx = dx
9.
see x.
a;(l
+ 2 loga;).
8.
10.
= a' log (a u = e""' COS (nt y).

a;).
11.
,
= e"'log(2a; + 3). u = e~*(^ cos ni-f-B sin n<).

m
dw
da;
12.
13.
log i\ log(a; + l). M= +l u = log(a;+Va;2_a2).

a; a; i^:^
,
loga;
.
a;
(a;
f^, + 1)2
dw
^ = Va;"1
da;
a?
14.
= log + Va^ + a
(as
du
15.
u
M
= log (e* + e^). = log tan
17.
18.
M u
= logtan^| + j\ = cotg-|
19.
20.
21.
M = log
VI + sin 0.
23.
u = log Vl
cos X.
25. M=(10i+')=. 27.
=r^Y-

29.
165
u
M u
M
= af"". = (siiia;)'=".
^=
a!'"''-i(sina;
+ a!cosa!loga;).
sitfajlogsina;).
30.
^= (suia!)--i(cos2a!32.
31.
a;"'.
u=
(cos
a;)*'""^.
33.
u
u
(tan x)". = {x^f.
34. 37.
= (loga;2)^ 35. m = (1 + a). If M = J. cos ni + JB sin nJ, show that
36.
38.
If
= Oe-" cos (Vw^ K^f + y),

h 2K
d2
show that
w% = 0.
df
CHAPTER
VII
APPLICATIONS
It often 1. The Problem of ITninerical Compntation. happens in practice that we wish to solve a numerical equation in one unknown quantity, or a pair of simultaneous equations in two unknowns, to which the standard methods with which we are familiar do not apply for example,
;
cos x
f
2 cot
fl
2 cos
= X, + 2 = cot + cos = 2.
<^,
<f>
Such equations usually come to us from physical problems, and the solution is required only to a limited degree of
accuracy,
ures.
say, to two, three, or possibly four significant fig-
Any
method, therefore, which yields an approximate
solution correct to the prescribed degree of accuracy furnishes
a solution of the problem. In particular, the problem of the determination of the error in the result due to errors in the observations comes
under this head.

2.
Solution of Equations.
1.
Known
Graphs.
Example
1)
Let
it
be required to solve the equation

cos x
= x.
We
To
2)
can evidently replace this problem by the following:
find the abscissa of the point of intersection of the curves
= cos x,
166
= x.
APPLICATIONS
167
The first of these curves we have plotted accurately to scale. The second is the right line through the origin, which bisects
the angle between the positive coordinate axes.
fore, sufficient to lay
It
is,
there-
down a
ruler
on the graph of the former
curve, so that its edge lies along the right line in question,
and observe where between
this line cuts the curve.
The
result lies
x= .1
and
= .8,
and may fairly be taken as a; = .76. It is understood, as usual iu approximate values, that the last figure tabulated does
not claim complete accuracy
alone.
;
but
we
are entitled to a somefirst figure
what better result than would be given by the
'Example
3)
2.
To
solve the equation
a!3-f-2a;-2
= 0.
Suppose we have plotted the curve

4)
= 0?
Then
:
accurately from a table of cubes.
the problem can con-
veniently be formulated as follows
To
5)
find the abscissa of the point of intersection of the curves
s?
and
2 2x.
The
details are left to the student.
Example
6)
3.
To
find the positive root of the equation

e-i''4- 2.92 a;
= 2.14.
e*
Here, we can connect up with the graph of the function by making a simple transformation. Let
7)
x'=:
^x;
es''
= 2x'.
The equation then becomes

8)
- 5.84a;' = 2.14,
168
and we seek
CALCULUS
to determine the abscissa of that point of inter-
section of the curves (for simplicity,

9)
we drop
the accent)
= 6^
and
= 5.84a; + 2.14
The second
place of
;
which
lies to
the left of the origin.

is
decimals in the coefllcients
not to be taken too seriously
we
make
drawing as the graph and a well-sharpened pencil permit. Having thus determined the negative a' from the graphs of 9), we find the desired positive x by substituting
as accurate a
this value in equations 7).
left to the student.
The execution
of the details
is
Example
4.
Solve the equation

e*
= tan x,
or
< <~
a;
If one of the curves

2/
= e*
y=. tan x
were plotted on transparent paper, or celluloid, it could be laid down on the other with the axes coinciding and the intersection read
off.
the actual grapTis
The same result can be attained by holding up in front of a bright light.

first
In cases as simple as
often yield a good
tions can be secured
this, however, free-hand graphs will approximation, and further approxima-
by the numerical methods

EXERCISES*
of the later
paragraphs.
1.
Solve the equation

cos X
= 2x.
2.
Find the root of the equation

3 sin x
= 2x
which
lies
between
and
tt.
* In solving these exercises only so great accuracy is expected as can be attained from well-drawn graphs of the standard cviTves. It will be shown in later paragraphs how the solutions can be improved analytically
and carried
to
any desired degree
of accuracy.
170
CALCULUS
is
16. rind the radius of the circle whose center and which is tangent to the parabola
at (0, 2)
y^
= x.
3.
Interpolation.
Consider the equation
1)
f{x)=0.
some degree
of accuracy.
precisely, suppose that
/(rBi)
Suppose a root has been located with
More
and
f{x^
are of opposite signs.
If the function f(x) is continuous in
if its derivative is always posialways negative) in this interval, then the function is always increasing (or always decreasing) and so must have just one root between asj and x^. The root can be found approximately as follows. Consider the graph of the function
the interval
tive (or
Xi'^x^x^ and
2)
y=m.
2/i
Let
=/(!),
Vi
=f{x2),
and draw the chord through the points (a^, y{) and (ajj, y^. The point in which this chord cuts the axis of x will obviously
yield a further approximation to the root
sought.
Denote
this last value

is
by X.
The equation
Jg
of the chord
aî
2/1
3)
s^
Fig. 53
On
setting
2/
- ^y î = and solving
2/2
2/1
for x,
we
have, as the value of X, the following

4)
X=xi-?i^^2,j,
2/2-2/1
or
5)
X=x,--^^^^^^f(x,).
APPLICATIONS
171
We have explained
equations 4) and
tion of the
the method in detail and developed, in
new
5), the analytic formula for the determinaapproximation, X. In practice, however, it is
usually simpler to
draw the
straight lines of Fig. 63 accurately

off
on a generous scale and read

Example.
6)
from the
figure the value of
X.
Consider equation 3) of
a'
2,
Ex. 2
+ 2a; - 2 = 0.
=
ay'
The curve
7)
in question is here
+ 2x 2,
and the graphical solution of

a;
2 shows that the root
is
about
= .7 or .8. = .7 Let =
a;
aji
then
j/i
is
found to have the value
2/1
= -.267.
y^
Next,
let
= X2 = .S;
then
.112.
We have,
iî, Vi)
then, to lay a secant through the points
= (-7, - .257)
by
a;
and
:
{x y,)
= (.8,
.112).
Its equation is given
3) *
.8
-.7 ^ y + .257 -.7 .112 + .257'

and solving for
x,
On
''.'
setting y
in this equation
we
get,
X=.7+^^ = .7693. .369

this
:
In order to see about how close pute the corresponding value of y

2/|z=.7693
approximation
is,
com-
= -0063. = .77.
make
this determination should take 10 cm. to
We get,
* It
is
then, about
two places of decimals, x
desirable that the student should
graphically, as indicated above in the text.
He
.7
represent the interval of length
.1,
from
Xi
to aj
.8.
172
CALCULUS
method again, taking now
It is possible to apply the

(ao,
3/i)=(.7693,
- .0063)
graphical determination
and
(a^, ^2)
as before.
We
leave this as an exercise to the
student.
He
should
make both the
with an enlarged scale and the analytic determination of formula 4).
The Method; Not, the Formula. The student may be tempted to use the formula 4) or 5), rather than to go back This would be unto the method by which it was derived. fortunate, for the formula is not easily remembered, whereas the method, once appreciated, can never be forgotten. If the student finds himself in a lumber camp with nothing but the ordinary tables at hand, he may solve his equation if he has once laid hold of the method. It is true that the best way is for him to treat first the literal case and deduce the formula. But this he may not be able to do if he has relied on the formula in the book.
EXERCISES
Apply the method

end of
4.
to a
good number of the problems at the
2.
Newton's Method.
Suppose again that
it is
a question of
solving the equation

1)
f{x)
= Q,
fairly
and suppose we have already succeeded in finding a good approximation, x = Xi. Consider the graph of the function
2)
y =/{<>=)
Compute Hi =f(x,). tangent at the point
To improve the approximation, draw the

(xi,
y^.
Its equation is
APPLICATIONS
Evidently, this luie will cut the axis of
a;
173
at a poiat very near
If,
the point in which the curve 2) cuts this axis. in 3) and solve for x, we shall ob- y set y
then,
we
tain a second approximation to the root of

1)
which we
seek.
The value
of this root
will be 4)
X = xiExample
1.
Fig. 54
studied in
to
yi
;
Let us apply the method to the Example In order, however, to have simpler numbers work with, take Xi = .77 and compute the corresponding it is found to be .0035. j/j
3.
:
(i,2/i)
= (-77,
-.0036).
We
must next compute dy/dx from the equation

y
= a^ + 2x2;
(dy\
=3.779.
dx
On
substituting these values in 3),

2/
we have
-.77).
+ .0035 =3.779
solve.
(a;
Now
set
2/
and
The
result is that given

.7709.
by
4)
a;
.0035 = .77 + 3.779
We have tabidated four figures in the result because this is about the degree of accuracy that seems likely. To test this point, compute y for the value of x which has been found
3/U=.7709
= --000L
is greater than unity, the error than one unit in the fourth place. It is easy to verify the result by computing y for the next larger four-place
Since the slope of the graph

a;
in
is less
value of
a.:
|^..,
= + .0003.
174
CALCULUS
Thus we have a complete proof that the root lies between 7709- and .7710, and we see that it lies about one quarter of the way from the first to the second value.
.
Example 2. It is shown that the equation of the curve which a chain hangs, the Catenary, is
in
5)
2,=|ê^
is
+ e-^
of the arc, measujed from
where a
a constant.
is
The length
the vertex,
6)
Let
its
it be required to compute the dip in a chain 32 feet long, ends being supported at the same level, 30 feet apart. We can determine the dip from 5) if we know a, and we s
can get the value of a from 6) by setting

/
15 15,
= 16, x = 15:
16
Leta;
Then
f(x)
= ei'-e-'-^x = 0,
the curve
and we wish
7)
to
know where
y=f{x) = e-e-'-^x
This curve starts from the origin and, since
crosses the axis of x.
ax
is
negative for small values of x, the curve enters the fourth
quadrant.
Moreover,
^=6^-6-- >0,
x>0,
APPLICATIONS
and hence the graph
f(l)
is
175
Einally,
always concave upward.
= e-e-^-2^ = .217>0,
and
and only one positive, root, and between and 1. It will probably be better to locate the root with somewhat greater accuracy before beginning to apply the above method. Let us compute, therefore, /(^). By the aid of Peirce's Tables
so the equation has one
this root lies
we
find
/(.5)
= 1.6487 - .6066 - 1.0667 = - .0245 <

/(.5)
0.
Comparing these two values of the function
= -.02,
/(I)
= .22,
and remembering that the curve is concave upward, so that the root is somewhat larger than the value obtained by direct
interpolation (this value corresponding to the intersection of
the chord with the axis of
a;)
we
are led to choose as our first
approximation
/(.6)
Kj
= .6
= 1.8221 - .5488 - 1.2800 = -.0067, .2376. /'(.6) = 1.8221 + .5488 - 2.1333 =

Hence the value
of the next approximation
.6
is
X = - z:j99K = + .0282 = .628. .2376

.6
To
get the next approximation
we compute
/(.628)
= 1.8739 - .5337 - 1.3397 = .0005.

root to three significant figures is .628
Hence the value of the
with a possible error of a unit or two in the last place, and the value of a we set out to compute is, therefore, 15/.628 = 23.9.
Remark.
Newton's method, like the other methods of
this
chapter, has the advantage that an error in computing the
new
approximation wUl not be propagated in later computations. Such an error wUl in general hinder us, because we are not
176
likely to get so
CALCULUS
good an approximation.
is
But the one

done
right,
test for
the accuracy of the approximation

tion of the corresponding y,
the accurate computa-
and
if this is
we
see
precisely
how
close
we
is
are to the desired root.
The function /()
usually simple, and
it is
easy to see
whether the curve is concave upward or concave downward near the point where it crosses the axis. We thus have a means of improving the approximation at the same time that
we
simplify the
new
value of
x.
For,
if
the curve
lies to the
right of its chord, the approximation too small

;
by
interpolation will be
and if the curve lies to the right of its tangent between the point of tangency and the axis of x, the approximation given by Newton's method will also be too small.
Comparison of the Two Methods. When looked at from their geometric side the two methods appear much alike, the first
seeming somewhat simpler, since
of derivatives.
it
does not involve the use
Why
bother, then, with Newton's
method?
It is not a theoretical question, but purely one of convenience
in carrying out the numerical work.
It will be found that, as
rule,
the first method
is
preferable in the early stages
When, however, a fairly (usually, merely in the first stage). good approximation has been reached, the numerical work ravolved in Newton's method is generally shorter than that
required
by
interpolation.
EXERCISES
Apply the method

crude, the
to the Exercises of 2.
the approximation given
When, however, by the graphical method of 1 is

to improve
it.
method of interpolation may be used
5.
Direct Use of the Tables.

1.
Example 2:
1)
Let us recur to the
first
example studied, Ex.
1,
cos
a;
a?.
APPLICATIONS
The graphical
solution gave x
177
= .75.
Turn now
:
to a table
of natural cosines in radian measure, preferably Peiroe's Tables.
As we run down the
table,
we
find the entries
RADIANS
.7389 .7418
cos
NAT
.7392
.7373
.7418.
It is
Thus X
is
seen to
lie
between .7389 and

it
an ex-
cellent exercise for the student to
work out the
interpolation
for himself before
we
take
up
at the end of the paragraph.
The answer
Example
2)
is
a;
= .7391. = e',
and
Tr/2.
2.
Consider the equation

tan X
the desired root lying between
free-hand drawing of the graphs of the functions
= tan x,
1.5.
y=e''
shows that x
lies
between 1 and
So the next step
is
taken
conveniently by opening Peirce's Tables to the Trigonometric
Functions and Huntington's to the Exponentials, and writing down the two pairs of values of the functions which came
nearest together
tan X
1.3 1.4
3.60
5.80
lie
3.67
4.06
1.3
Thus the root
is
seen to
between
and
1.4.
The general
case
which the above examples are intended

:
illustrate is the following
To solve thf equation

= 4>{x),
to
f{x)
where f{x) and

readily computed.
<^{x)
are tabulated functions, or functions
178
CALCULUS
the solution has progressed to the point indicated
When
by the examples, the next step can be taken by interpolation, or by Newton's method, as will now be explained.
Interpolation.
When
ble near together, Xi
greater than
<^(a!)
two values of the independent variar x^, have been found such that /() is for one of them and less than ^(x) for the
and
other, the best approximation to take next is the one given by
the abscissa of the point of intersection of the chords of the
graphs of the functions.
This value, X, can be found as follows.
Suppose that
/(oh)
<
<^(a;i)
and
/(ajj)
>
(^(k^).
Introduce the following notation
X Xi^
From
and
h.
the figure, the triangles

similar,
AiCBi and A2CB2 are

AiBi
= Ai,
A^Bi
= Aj.
taken
Their altitudes, when
is
as the vertex, are respectively h
and
&
h.
Hence
h Ai
^ B-h
Aj
On
3)
solving this equation for h
we
find
A,
-
A1
If /(a!i)
+ A2
8.
>
^(xi)
and/(a^)
<
^(3:2),
the result
still
holds, for
Ai and A2
now become
negative, but their numerical values
APPLICATIONS
179
correspond to the lengths of the sides of the triangles in

question.
It
is
easy to express in words the result embodied in
3).
Etjle.
In order
order
to see
to give
what fraction of
8= x^ Xi
must be
added
to x^ in
X, form
the differences
Then
their
the fraction is the quotient
of the first of
these differences by
sum.
In practice, an accurately drawn figure on a large scale will

often afford a quicker and sufficiently accurate solution.
Example.
Eetiiming to Ex. 1 above, we have

f(x)
= cos X, = .0029, 8 = X2-Xi

4>(x{)-f{x0=-.OOO4:
;
^(^)= ^
! = .7389,
% = .7418.
<t>(,x^)=- .0045.
f{x^)49
.0004_oo29
.0049
= :0116^_0002.
is
Hence the value of the new approximation
X = .7389 + .0002 = .7391.

The student
less
will
have no
difficulty in
in a similar manner.
It turns out that the correction
completing Ex. 2 above is here
than one tenth of 8, and hence it does not influence the x' = 1.30. second place of decimals
:
it is
is desired, Newton's Method. well now to apply Newton's method to the function
If a higher degree of accuracy
F{x)=f{x)-
<l>{x).
In the case of Ex. 1 above it is pretty clear that we already have four-plaee accuracy, and the computation of F{x) for the = .7391 would only verify the result. This is as far value If we needed greater as we can go with four-place tables.
180
accuracy,
tables.
CALCULUS
we
should use Newton's method and five or six-place
carried only to two-place accuracy, or
Example 2 has been
three significant figures.
We
can obtain two further figures
with the tables at our disposal,
2/1
= F{x)= tan x = F(1.30)= 3.602 - 3.669 = - .067.

y
e'.
^ = secâ;-e^ dx
To
^ dx
10.3
= 13.97 - 3.67 = 10.30
X=1.30-f
1.3067.
test this result, however,
would require
five-place tables.
EXERCISES
Solve the following equations
1.
cot
a;
as,
< <
a;
tt.
2.
e*
-|-
loga!=
1.
3.
The hyperbolic
sine (sh
x or sinh
a;)
and cosine (ch x or
cosh x) are defined as follows

sha5
cha!
= --L
By means
and are tabulated in Peirce's Tables, pp. 120-123.

the present paragraph.
of these, reduce the treatment of Ex. 2, 4, to the methods of
We come now to one of the 6. Successive Approximations. most important of all the methods of numerical computation. In physics it is known as the method of Trial and Error in mathematics it goes under the name of the method of Succes;
sive Approximations.
The problem
equations,
1)
is
that of solving a pair of
simultaneous
F{x,y)=0,
^(x,y)=0.
APPLICATIONS
The
by
to
181
cases
which
:
arise in practice are characterized in general
t-wo things
First, there is only
one solution of the equa-
tions -which interests us,
and the physical problem enables us
make a fairly good guess at it for the first approximation. Secondly, each of the equations 1) is simple, the curve can readily be plotted in character, and the equation can be solved
with ease numerically for the dependent variable when a numerical value has been given to the independent variable. But elimination of one of the unknowns, though sometimes possible, is not expedient, since the resulting equation is hard to solve.
The method is as follows. Plot the curves 1) in character with sufficient accuracy to determine which of them is steeper (i.e. has the numerically larger slope) at their point of intersection. Let
Ci:
F(x,y)=0
is less steep.
or
y =/()
be the one that
or
y
(l>{y),
182
CALCULUS
The successive steps of the process are shown geometrically by the broken lines of the figures. The success of the method depends on the ease with which y can be determined when x is given in the case of Ci, while for Q^ X must be easily attainable from y. If the curves hapto have slopes numerically equal but opposite in sign, the process would converge slowly or not at all. But in this case the arithmetic mean of x^ and x^ will obviously give a good approximation.
pened
The method has the advantage

independent of
its
that each computation
is
predecessor.
An
error, therefore, while it
may
delay the computation, will not vitiate the result.
Example. A beam 1 ft. thick is to be inserted in a panel 10 X 15 ft. as shown in the figure. How long must the beam be made?
We have
'
sin
15
cos
Hence
Fig. 68
+ cos = 15, ^ + sin = 10. = 10 cos 15 sin cos" ^ sin"

4>
l 1
(^
<^
<^
<^
<^.
Now an
expression of the form
a cos ^
can always be written as
6 sin
sin
<^
Va^ +
where
V^(
"
cos
<^
= Va" + 6" cos
(<t>
+ a),
cos a
In the present case, then,

cos
2<^=V325cos
10
,
.
(<^
+ a),
= 15
V325
where
cos a
is
sin
V325
Thus a
an angle of the
tan
first
quadrant and
a
= I,
= 56 16'.
APPLICATIONS
Our problem may be formulated,
then, as follows
:
183
To
:
find
the abscissa of the point of intersection of the curves
= cos 2
<^,
= V326 cos
(<^
+ a).
We
with,
know from
namely
the figure a good approximation to start
tan
^ = I,
^= 33 44'.
:
For
this value of
<^
the slopes are given by the equations *

sin 2<^
i^
IT
^=_2 d^
= - 2 sin 67 28' = - 1.8,

(<^
i^
^ = - V325
y
sin
+ ) = - V325 = - 18.
Hence we have
Ci
On-,
cos 2
or
<f>
= V326 cos (d> + a)
d)
= cosî
^::rz
a-
V325
BegiiiniQg with the approximation
we compute
Passing
2/1
= 33 44', = cos 67 28' = .3832.

^1
Cj,
now
.3832
to the curve
we compute
<^2
its
<^
when
its
= V326 cos (<^2 + ),
= 32 31'.
<j}2
We now repeat the process, beginning with fiiid = cos 65 02' = .4221,
2/2
= 32 31'
and
.4221
= V325 cos (.^3 + a),

<^4
<^3
= 32 23'.
this
is
A further repetition gives

of the root
= 32 22',
and
the value
we
set out to determine.

is
* Since the degree
here taken as the unit of angle, the formulas of

;
differentiation involve the factor ir/lSO
cf
Chap. V,
2.
184
CALCULUS
EXERCISES
1.
Solve the same problem for a
beam 2
ft.
thick.
2.
A cord
ft.
long has one end fastened at a point
ft.
above a rough
tied to a rod 2
table,
ft.
and the other end
is
long.
How
far can the
rod be displaced from the vertical through and still remain in equilibrium when
released ?
solution depends are
The equations on which the

2 cot d
J
+ -= cot = 2. 2 cos 5 + cos = ^, find the value of ^. If the coefficient of friction 3. A heavy ring can slide on a smooth vertical rod.
<j>,
I
<^
/a
To
fastened a weightless cord of length 2 a, carrying an equal ring knotted at its middle point and having its further
the ring
is
end made fast at a distance a from the

of equilibrium of the system.
4.
rod.
Find the position
Solve Example 2,
4,
by the method of successive
ap-
proximations.
7. Arrangement of the Xumerical Work in Tabular Form. In the foregoing paragraphs we have laid the chief stress on setting forth the great ideas which underlie these powerful methods of numerical computation. There are, however, certain details of technique which are important, not only for ease in keeping in view the results obtained, but also for
accuracy, since they reduce the numerical
We will illustrate what we mean
work by an example.
to a system.
Example. Let it be required to find all the values of x between 0 and 360 which satisfy the equation
sin
a;
= logio (1 cos x).
APPLICATIONS
185
A free-hand graph of each of the functions 1) y = auix, y = logjo (1 cos x)

shows that there is one root between 0 and 180 and a second between 180 and 360. But these roots cannot be located with any great accuracy iu this manner. It is necessary to do exact table work, and to keep the successive results in such form that they are convenient
for later reference.
Fig. 60
To
this
with the
trial
end such a table as the following value x = 150.
is
useful.*
Begin
186
1
CALCULUS
cos = 2 sin^-, 2'

a;
logio (1
cos x) = login ain^ - + logio 2
= 2 log sin I +.3010.

Hence
it is
possible to get along with, only
two
entries of
tlie
tables if
we make
X
use of
tlie
following scheme.
APPLICATIONS
For
<^
187
x the values of the two functions, /(as) and by a quantity -which is comparable with the error of the tables, and the problem is solved.
this value of
(x), differ
EXERCISES
1.
Determine the other root in the above problem.

Solve the equation
cot X
3.
= login (1 + sin
e~'
a;),
< <
a;
90.
3.
Find the positive root of the equation
= 0? X.
(from a table of cubes),
a;'
Suggestion.
Tabulate
x, a?
x,
and
8.
e""'.
Algebraic Equations.
By an
algebraic equation is
meant
an equation of the form

1)
aoa;"
+ aiX^-^ + - + a = 0,
ao=
0,
where n denotes a positive integer.

If the coefBcients Oq, aj, are numerical, the roots can be approximated to by the method of interpolation or by" Newton's method. In either case it becomes necessary to compute the value of the polynomial
f(x)
= OqW + aia;-i + + a
for several values of x, the later ones of

three- or four-place numbers.
which will be at least There are labor-saving devices for performing these computations, to which we now turn.
Numerical Computation of Polynomials. nomial, for example, be given
f(x)
Let a cubic poly-
= ax^ + bx^ + cx-\-d, = m.
and let it be required to compute f{x) for the value x Write down the following scheme
_a
am,
am
am^
-\-
+ bm
am^ + bm-\-c am? -\- hm? + cm
f(m)
188
the explanation of
coeflB.cient, a,
CALCULUS
wMeh
is
as follows.
Begin with the
first
and multiply it by m which stands below the line. To

second
line,
to get the expression

this
am
expression add the
coefficient, 6, to get
b.
the second expression above the
am +
Next, multiply this expression by

it,
to
get
the expression which stands below
and continue the
process.
The
last entry
above the line will be the required value,
/(m)
Example.
= aw? + bm? + <mi + d. = 7a? -&X-- + Zx -1,

= .8.
Let
f{x)
and
let it
be required to compute the value of /() for x

is
Here, the scheme

7
5.6
as follows
-.4
-.32
/(.8)
2.68
-4.856
2.144
and hence
= - 4.866.
It will be observed that the process requires only additions
and multiplications. The former can be performed mentally. The latter are executed most simply by one of the machines now in general use with computers. These instruments, combined with the method of this paragraph, have rendered Horner's method for solving numerical
(or subtractions)
algebraic equations obsolete.
EXERCISE
Compute the value

5.1a^
of
- 3.42a;'- -H 1.432a;
-|-
.8543
for X
= .1876.
In the problems which arise in physics, however, it is not a question of computing all the roots of a numerical equation, about which nothing is known beyond the coefficients. Usually, the equation is a cubic or biquadratic, and only one root Moreover, from the nature of the problem, a close is required.
APPLICATIONS
189
guess at the value of this root can be made at the outset. Then the methods set forth in this paragraph and in 2, 3 lead quickly to the desired result.
EXERCISES
Solve the following equations, being given that there and only one, between 0 and 90
1.
is
one
root,
cos3
(9
- 3 cos ^ = .6283,
0
0
2.
sin' e
- .75 sin $ = .1278,
< < <

<
6
(9
90.
90
3.

!B*
+ 2.6SC3 - 5.2a;2 - 10.4a; + 5.0 =

and
1.
which
4.
lies
between

3x*
- 12a? + 12a;2 -4 =
3.
which
9.
lies
between 2 and
Cubics and Biquadratics. Aside from the problem of numerical computation, the simpler algebraic equations present an intrinsic interest which should not
Continuation.
special
be ignored.
Transformations,
1)
a)
Let the cubic equation

bx'^
/()
let
= aa? +
+ cx + d = 0,
y,
aÔ,
be given, and
2)
x be replaced by
y
where
= x h,
x = y -\-h.
Then
f(x)
= a(y + hy + b(y + hf J^c{y + h) + d = ^{y) = af + (3ah + b)y''+-,

later coefficients are easily written
where the
down.
190
If y
3)
CALCULUS
then
will
= )8 is a root of the equation <^(y) = o, x=p+h

1).
he a root of equation
For,
it is
always true that
/{"')
= Hy)
when X and y are connected hy the relation 2). Here, h is any number we please. In particidar, h can always he so chosen that the coefficient of the second term of
3) will
drop
out.
It
is sufficient
to set
4)
3ah +
= 0,
or
= -A.
algebraic equation of any degree into a
Obviously, the same method can be used to transform an new equation whose
is
second term
lacking.
EXERCISES
Transform the following equations into equations in which
the second term
1.
a.-3
a;'-
is lacking.
2. 4.
6.
3. 5.
+ + 1 = 0. + a^ + l = 0. 3x^7ai' + x^ x l = 0.
a;
a;*
a;2
ix'^ +2 = 0. 5a^ ia^ + x^ +x SO=zO. + a^ + iB2â,.^l_0.

So?
a;6
6)
Let the equation
5)
f(^x)=x>+pa? + qx +
let
r=0
be given, and
6)
x be replaced by
y
y,
where
= ^,
x=ky.
r.
Then
f(x)
= kY + k-^ + kqy +
<^ (y),
Denoting this
last
polynomial by
fip)
we have
= 'f>{y)
relation
6).
for all values of x
and y which are connected by the
APPLICATIONS
It
is
191
clear that, if
j8 is
a root of the equation
then x
= kp will be a root of 5).

it
The
that,
factor k is arbitrary, and we can always determine on dividing equation 7) through by fc
so
the coefficient of
that pÔ):
i)
j/'
will
be numerically equal to unity (provided
^=1
=2 k^
or
= \/p, = ^/p,
if
p>0;
p <0.
ii)
= 1
or
if
In this way, equation 5) can be reduced to one of the two forms

a)
/8)
+ y^ + Ay + B = 0; y*-y^ + Ay + B = 0.
y*
If,
in particular,
and q ^0,
y'
5)
can be reduced to the
form
y)
+ y + B = 0.
to
The method can be applied

second term
is
any algebraic equation whose
lacking
x"
+ CiX"-^ + CsK"-' 4- - + c = 0.
EXERCISES
1,
Replace the equation

7a!^
- 175a;2 + 16a; + 10 =
j8),
by an equation
of the type
and
state precisely the relation

first.
of the roots of the second equation to those of the
192
2.
Calculus
Show
that, if in the equation
Ooa"
+ aiX~^ + + a = 0,
=1
where
Oo
=?^
and a
=^ 0, the transformation
2/
is
made, the roots of the new equation,
a^"
+ -i3r"' H
1-
oo
are the reciprocals of the roots of the given equation,

3. If on transforming equation 1) by 2), where h is determined by 4), the constant term in the resulting equation 3),
<^(y)
= 0,
'
does not vanish, the further transformation
8)
= -,
z
or
= - + h,
z
is lack-
will carry 1) into
an equation ia which the linear term

Az^
^SThe theorem holds

tion of
4.
+ B^ + D=:0.
State
it
AÔ,
D=^Q.
in full generality for an algebraic equaaccurately.
any higher degree.
Replace the equation

a^
4:a^ 6af + 16x-4: =

Ay* + Bf+Of'
by an equation
of the type
+ D = 0.
Graphical Treatment.
We
have already seen that the cubic
a^+px + q =
can be solved graphically by cuttiag the standard graph
ai>
by the
'
straight liae,
= -px-q.
we may consider
the general problem
Since the general cubic can be reduced by the transformation

2) to
a cubic of
this type,
of the graphical solution of a cubic as solved.
APPLICATIONS
To
9)
193
obtain a similar solution for

aoil^
tlie
general biquadratic,
+ ba^ +
y*
ex"-
dx
+ e = 0,
a 4=0,
begin by reducing
i)
ii)
it
to one of the three forms
iii)
+ y^ + Ay + B = 0; + Ay + B = 0; y' +Ay + B = 0.
y*-y2
equation of type
a^
i)
:
An
+ x'-+ Ax + B = 0,
y
can be solved graphically by cutting the standard curve
!e^
by the parabola
y
= x' Ax B.
ii)
similar procedure leads to a solution in the case of each
of the other
two types,
and
iii).
The Method of Curve Plotting. Let the coefficients a, e in equation 9) be different from 0. By means of Ex. 3, p. 192, the equation can be reduced to one of the following type
J[a;
+ B3? + Cx^ + E =
(i.
In order to discuss the number and location of the roots of

this equation, it
is
sufficient to plot the curve
= Aa^ + Ba?+ Cx^+E.
Since all the maxima, minima, and points of inflection of this curve can be determined by means, at most, of quadratic equations, the problem is readily solved in any given numerical case.
EXERCISES
Determine the number of real roots of each of the following and locate them approximately.
1.
equations,
3a!*
2.
+ 8a;3 -90a:2+ 100 = 0. Sa;* + 8a;' -90a;5 + 600 = 0,
194
3.
CALCULUS
3a!*
+ 8 a? -90aii2 + 1600 = 0.
that the eqiiation
4.
Show
has
rlo
real roots.
How many real

5.
roots has each of the following equations ?

6.
a;'
7.
9.
a;^ 5x 1 = 0. a? 4a; + l=0.
8.
a;'
+ 7a; 1=0. -3a; 2 = 0.
a;'-x + 3
3a;<
= 0.
10.
11.
+ 4a;' + 6a!2-l = 0.
6a;*
12.
+ 12a;+ 1 = 0. 3a;< - 4a?' + 12a;= + 7 = 0.

43;=- 15a;2
?
13.
How many positive

Has the equation
roots has the equation
+ 8a;3 - 12a;2 - 24a; - 1 =

3a;_8a;+12ar'
14.
+l=
any
real roots ?
16.
By means
of the graph of the function
= a?+px + q
+px + q =
show that the equation

a?
has
(a)
1 real root
when
when
(6) ^
^
real roots
^+ > ^7 4 ^+ 4 < o 27
2.
'
(c)
2 real roots when
^+
27
i-
= 0,
0,
{p and q not both
fd) 1 real root '

^
when
^ + 21 = 4
{p
= g = 0}
In case
(c) it is
customary to count one of the roots twice
in case (d), to count the root three times.
APPLICATIONS
16.
195
Extend the
criterion of Ex. 15 to the case of the general

aa:?
^^^
bofi
+ cx + d = 0.
close this chapter
10.
Curve Plotting.
We will
by
consider-
ing the application Of the principles set forth in the earlier
paragraph-on curve plotting (Chap. Ill, ing curves of a more complex nature.
6) to
some
interest-
Example
1)
1.
To
plot the curve
y-
1
l''"a!-|-l
The curve is obviously not symmetric in either axis but symmetry in the origin is fulfilled, since on replacing a; by K and yhjy the new equation,
;
the test for
-y =
is
X+1
1).
equivalent to the original equation,
Incidentally
we
be
observe that the curve passes through the origin.
In consequence of the symmetry just noted

suffi.cient to
it
will
plot the curve for positive values of x and then
rotate the figure about the origin through 180.
To each
there
positive
value of X but one
corresponds
one
value
of
y.
When
X approaches 1 as its limit from above (i.e. always greater remaining than 1), y becomes
positively
infinite.
Hence the line x=l

is
an asymptote for
FlQ. 61
one branch of the

curve.
196
CALCULUS
infinite,
X approaches 1 from below, y becomes negatively and hence this same line, x=l, is an asymptote for a second branch of the curve. Tor all other positive values of x, y is continuous. The slope of the curve is given by the equation
When
2) '
^ = -(.
dx
is
V'
{x-iy
all
(a;
+ 1)2/
and
seen to be negative for

or minima, or in fact
continuous.
Thus, ia particular, the curve
values of x for which y is is seen to have no

at
maxima
is
any points
which the tangent
horizontal.
The second
'
derivative
is
given by the formula
dx''
\{x
- Vf
(x
+ 1)V
is
When
positive,
a;
>
1,
the right-hand side of this equation
always
and so the curve is concave upward in this interval. Moreover, it is evident from 1) that, when a; = + oo, y apfrom above, and so the positive axis of x is also an proaches
asymptote.
In the interval < a; < 1, the second derivative is surely sometimes negative, for this is obviously the case when x is only slightly less than 1. Is dhj/dx^ always negative in If not, it must pass through the value 0; this iaterval? for a continuous function cannot change from a positive to a negative value without taking on the intermediate value 0.* Let us set, then, the right-hand side of equation 3)
equal to
and solve:
2fL_ + _^_Vo.
*
How must the graph

must it not
0.
?
of
a,
continuous function look, which

It
is'
some-
times positive and sometimes negative ?

scissas,
must cross the axis of ahAt the point or points where It crosses, the function
has the value
APPLICATIONS
This equation
is
197
equivalent to the following
^
(x
(x-iy
1
+ iy'
we have
1_
Extracting the cube root of each side of this equation,
x1
Clearing of fractions
x+1
:
we
find
x
or
+ l=-(x-l), 2a! = 0.
a!
vanish,
Hence a; = and we
a!
is
the only value of
for
which
(Py/dx'^
can
see at once that the right-hand side of 3) does
vanish for
= 0. We have thus proven that where iu the interval <

curve
is
a!
the contiauous function 3) is no<.l, and since it is negative in
part of this interval,
It is
it is negative throughout. Hence the concave downward throughout the interval. now easy to complete the graph. The curve has one
point of inflection,
is,
namely, the
:
origin,
and the slope there
by
2), equal to
2.
EXERCISES
Plot the following curves
198
11.
CALCULUS
y
= x-\
A.
12.
X
14.
=X
X
13.
= ^ + 3? 2x. 1
a;
=d
.&x a?.
15.,=^-^. a; la; +
l
16.
= 1A_. x x1
Example
4)
2.
To
plot the curve

y^
= x^ + a?.
is
We observe first
axis of
a;.
of all that the curve
symmetric in the
It
is sufficient,
therefore, to plot the e^rve for posithis part of the curve over on
origin.
tive values of y,
and then fold
the axis of
x.
The curve goes through the
Unlike the examples hitherto considered, this curve does not permit ah arbitrary choice of x. It is only when the right-
hand
side is positive or zero,

a!2
i.e.
when
0,
+ a? ^
or
or
a?(l
+ x)>0
x>l,
that there will be a corresponding value of y and thus a point
with the given abscissa. Obviously, the curve cuts the axis of x at the origin and at the point x = l. We have, then, essentially two problems
i)
to plot the curve for

to plot the curve for
a;
ii)
> 1<
a;
<
0.
Is
i)
When
a;
>
0,
the positive value of y
given by the
equation
6)
= xVT+x.
2
Hence
dy^
dx
+ 3a;
2Vl-|-a;
APPLICATIONS
199
For positive values of x the right-hand side of this equation is always positive, and hence there are no horizontal tangents in the interval under consideration the slope of this part of the curve is always positive. In particular, the slope at the
;
origin
is
unity
= 1.
dx
The second
7)
derivative has the value

d^y
<*''
+ 3a; 4(1 + x)^

4
is
The right-hand
that the curve
always
Fig. 62
positive in this interval,

is
and thus it appears concave upward for all posi-
tive values of x.
ii)
When
< <
a;
0,

present case,
8)
6), since
the positive value of y is no longer x is now negative.* In the
200
It
is,
CALCULUS
therefore, important to determine the
corresponding
point on the curve and draw the tangent there
2/|x=-!=-(-|)V5rri=^=.38.
Two
other important poiots for the present curve are the
origin
and the point
a;
= 1, y = 0.
dy dx
At
these
points the slope has the following values
-1
.1.
dx
1;
Fto. 63
Draw
the corresponding tangents.
the expression 10) for the second derivative it is clear that, when 1 a; 0, the right-hand side of this
From
< <
always negative, and hence the curve is concave downward throughout the whole interval in question. We can now draw in the curve in this interval,
equation
is
Kg. 63. The curve

the axis of
x.
is
now complete above
It remains, therefore,
axis.
merely to fold this part over on that The entire curve is shown in
Fig. 64.
Fio. 64
EXERCISES
1.
:
y^ = x^-a?.
2. y^
= x- Ix"-
-|- 7?.
3.
y'i={x
:
a)\Ax-\-B)
Suggestion
Write the second factor in the form
Jx + B = A(x b), where b = ,

and make two cases
case,
:
i)
A>0;
ii)
A<0.
Discuss the omitted
^ = 0.
APPLICATIONS
4.
2/2
201
a;2
*.
5.
yi
y^^
jgi.
Example
11)
3.
To
plot the curve

y''
= x{x-l){x-2).
and
x,
The curve
lies
wholly in the regions
^ ^1
a)
sc.
It is
symmetric in the axis of

it
and hence
it is sufficient
to
plot
for positive values of
y.
The function
y
is
=:-yJx(x
l)(x 2) ^ ^ 1.
a;
continuous in the interval
It starts with
the
value
when x =
X,
0, increases,
and
"
finally decreases to
when
a;=l.
When
starting
y,
with the
starting
value 2, increases,
with the value 0, increases, always remaining positive, and increasing without limit as x be-
Fia. 65
comes infinite. So much from considerations of continuity. A piore specific discussion of the character of the curve can be given by means
of the derivatives of the function.
The
12) or 13)
slope
is
2y^=Zx^-&x + 2
dx dy ^ dx ~
slope
is infinite
Zx^Qx + 2 2^x{x-l){x-2)
a;
The
when
or 1
dy dx
= co.
dy dx
At these
points, the tangent is vertical.
202 The
slope
is
CALCULUS
when
3a;2-6a!+2
The
roots of this equation are
= 0.
= l-V3
x=l+,
V3
The
first
of these values does not correspond to any point on
the curve.
The
second, x
= .42,
\3V3 3V3
yields a horizontal tangent,
the ordinate being
"
Plot this point and draw the tangent.

cussion on the basis of continuity
must'lbe a
it is
From the above disobvious that this point
are no other
is
maximum, and we see that there maxima or minima. But it
not clear that the curve has no points of

rpg
inflection in this interval.

iG. bb
.
treat this question,
compute the
sec;
ond derivative.
but
it is
This might be done by means of formula 13) simpler to use 12)

:
2y^ + 2^=6x-6,
y^ = 3x-3-^. "dx^ dx^

Substitute here the value of dy/dx from 13) and reduce
'
'^dx"'
4 a; (a; -1) (a;

to be in difficulty.
-2)
And now we seem

tell
How are we
going to
when
dh//dx^
is positive,
when
negative ?
First of all, y is positive, and so the sign of dhjjd^ will be the same as that of the right-hand side of the equation.
Secondly, in the interval in question,
< < 1, the denomia;
nator
is
positive.
APPLICATIONS
All turns, then, on whether the numerator,
15)
is
i.e.
203
the funotion
= 3!B*-12a!8 + 12a;2-4,
15).
positive or negative.
graph of the function

the equation
To answer The slope
this
question, plot the

is
of the graph
given by
16)
~ = 12a^ dx
36a;!
+ 24a! =
12
a; (a;
- 1)
(a;
- 2).
In the interval in question, the right-hand side of this last equation is always positive. Hence u increases with x throughout the interval ^ a; 1, and consequently attains its greatHere, est value at the end-point, x = 1.
Mi=l
= -1is
We
see,
therefore,
that
negative
throughout the whole interval in question, and consequently the graph of 1) is Concave
downward in this interval. The reasoning by which we determined whether u

itive or negative is
FlQ. 67
is
pos-
an excellent illustration of the practical application of the methods of curve plotting which we have It is in no wise a question of the precise values of learned. u which correspond to x. The question is merely Is u posiWithout the labor of a single comtive, or is it negative? putation involving table work we have answered this quesSuch questions as these arise tion with the greatest ease. again and again in physics, and the aid which the calculus is
:
most important. It may seem to have been a fluke that we were able to factor the polynomial in 16) and thus simplify
able to render here
is
One further
point.
so materially the further discussion.
which
arise in practice,'
the problems with a pedigree, just
And
yet, in the
problems
such simplifications as this present themselves with great

frequency.
204
CALCULUS
the graph,
.
To complete
2
it
remains to consider the interval
a;
<
oo.
Since
the tangent to the curve
is
vertical at the point
where the curve
meets the axis of x. It is clear, then, that the curve must be concave downward for a while, and so dPy/da? < for values of X slightly greater than 2. This is verified from 14), since
17)
m|^=-4.
the other hand,
On
is
positive.
when x is large, u is positive and (Py/da^ Hence the curve is concave upward. There must
a point of inflection in the interval, and there
that the second derivative will vanish
be, therefore,
may be several. From 14) we see

and only when
when
3^ _ jgj^ + i2a,2 -4 = 0.
is,
The problem
this equation
then, to determine the

2,
number
of roots of
which are greater than
and to compute them. Again, it is a question of the graph of 15). When > 2, we see from 16)
that
du dx
> 0.
Hence u steadily increases X. Now, from 17), u starts with a negative value, and u is positive
with
and large when x
is large.
Hence u vanishes for just one value of x which is

greater
m|j_3
than
2.
Since
= 23, this root is seen

between 2 and
3.
to lie
Fig. 68
It can be determined to
any required degree of accuracy by the foregoing methods of
APPLICATIONS
which find herewith a practical application. two places of decimals it is 2.47.
this chapter,
205
To
EXERCISES
1.
;
y
2/2
3.
= a^ X. = X.
ajs Ij.
2.
4.'
y
2/"!
5.^2/2=(a!2
2
l)(a;2-4).
6.
y"^
= x a?. =1 = {1 =
ar*.
x'^){x''-
i).
CHAPTER
VIII

1.
Inverse Functions.
Let
(1)
y^m
x,
be a given function of
and
let
us solve this equation for x as
a function of y
(2)
'^
't>(y)-
Then
<j}(y) is
called the inverse function, or the inverse of the
function /(k).
Thus
if /()
Hence
and
<^(2/) is
= a^, we have y= x ^ Vy,

af'.
here the function

is
-y^
tabulated, the table also serves
It is necessary merely
When
the given function
as a tabulation of the inverse function. to enter it
from the opposite
direction.
Thus,
if
we have a
re-
table of cubes,
we can
use
it
to find cube roots
by simply
versing the roles of the two columns.
In the same way, the graph of the fxmction (1) serves as the graph of the function (2), provided in the latter case we take y as the independent variable, and x as the dependent variable,
or function.
The graph of the inverse function, plotted with x as the independent variable, can be obtained from the former graph as follows. Make the transformation of the plane which is defined
by the equations
.
(3)
^ = ^'1
or
206
''=y''\

It is easy to interpret this transformation.
207
whose
Any
poipt,
coordinates are
(x, y), is
:
carried over into a point

line
{x', y') situ-
ated as follows
Draw a
L tlirough the origin bisecting the
angle between the positive axes of coordinates. Drop a perpendicular from

{x,
y)
on
L and produce it to an
The poiat thus
is
equal distance on the other

side of L.
determined
(a;',
the point
this
y').
The proof of
is
statement
immediately
evident from the figure.
Thus it appears that the

transformation (3) can be generated by rotating the
plane about
180.
through
Fig.
is
The transformation
since if a plane mirror
(x, y)
also spoken of as a reflection in L,

set at right angles to the plane of
were
and so that the line L would lie iu the surface of the mirror, the image of any figure, as seen in the mirror, would
be the transformed figure.
Monotonic Functions.
increases, or else
function, f(x),
is
said to be mono-
tonic if it is single-valued
and
if,
as x increases, /(x) always
always decreases. We shall be concerned only with functions which are, in general, continuous. It is obvious that the inverse of a monotonic function is also monotonic. A given function,
2/
=/('),
can in general be considered as made up of a number of pieces, each of which is monotonic in a certain interval.* Thus the
function
(4)
sfi
* There are functions which do not have this property not play an important rdle in the elements of the Calculus.
but they do
208
CALCULUS
can be taken as made up of two pieces, corresponding respectively to those portions of the
graph which
lie
in the first and
the second quadrants, the corresponding intervals for x being

liere
-oo<a;<0,
0<a;<oo.
inverse,
Each of the pieces, of which /(cc) is made up, has a monotonic and thus the function ^(a;) inverse to f(x) is represented by a number of monotonic functions. In the example just cited, the inverse function is multiple:
valued
(5)
y=-Vx.
pieces into
But one of the two
which the
original function was
divided yields the single-valued function

(6)
y=V5,
y
(6).
the so-called principal value of the multiple-valued function

(5); the other,
= _V^,
the remainder of
The
but
it
derivative of a monotonic function cannot change sign
can vanish or become infinite at special points.
Thus
y
is
= Va^
a;2,
^ ^ a,
a;
eral,
it
a decreasing monotonic function. Its derivative is, in gennegative but when a; = 0, it vanishes, and- when x=a, becomes infinite.
;
Differentiation of
an Inverse Function.
The function
<f>{x)
inverse to a given function f(x) can be differentiated as follows. By definition, the two equations
(7)
y=^{x)
;
and
x=f(y)
they are two forms of one and the same relar tion between the variables x and y. Their graphs are identical. Take the difEerential of each side of the second equation
are equivalent
dx
= d/{y) = DJiy).dy.

Hence
(8)
209
dx
DJ{y)
side of (8)
in terms of x
To complete the formula, express the right-hand by means of (7).
2. The Inverse Trigonometric Functions. The inverse trigonometric functions are chiefly important because of their application in the Integral Calculus. They are defined as
follows.
(a) (1)
is
The Function
sin~i x.
The
inverse of the function
= sin X
1
obtained as explained in
by solving
this equation for
as a function of y,
(!')
and
is
written
= sin~i y,
In order
to
read " the anti-sine of y." *
obtain the graph of the function

(2)
y-=sm~^x
we have, then, merely to reflect the graph of (1) in the bisector of the angle made by the positive coordinate axes. We
are thus led to a multiple-valued func-
the line x = x'( 1 ^ a;' ^ 1) graph in more than one point, in fact, in an infinite number of points. For most purposes of the Calculus, however, it is allowable and advisable to pick
tion, since
cuts the
* The usual notationôn the Continent for sin-i a;, tan-i x, etc., is arc sin x, It is clumsy, and Is followed for a purely academic reason namely, that sin-' x might he misunderstood as meaning the minus first power of sin x. It is seldom that one has occasion to write the reciproWhen qne wishes to do so, cal of sin X in terms of a negative exponent.
arc tan x, etc.
;
all
ambiguity can he avoided by writing (sin x)-K
210
CALCULUS
(2),
out just one value of the function
most simply the value
rr/2, and to understand t/2 and y that lies between y by sin~'a! the single-valued function thus obtained. This de-
=+
termination
is
called the 2>rincipal value of the multiple-valued

a;.
function sin"'
Its
graph
is
the portion of the curve in

line.
Fig. 70 that is
marked by a heavy
This shall be our

is explic-
convention, then, in the future unless the contrary

itly stated,
(3)
is
and thus
y
= sin"' x
:
equivalent to the relations
(30
a;=siny,
-2^2/<|sin-i(- 1) = -|.
plate,
In particular,
sin-iO
= 0,
sin-il=^,
The student should now prepare a second
showing
Place
the graphs of the three functions sin"' x, cos~' as, tan"' w. the first in the upper left-hand corner of the sheet
in the
;
the second,
upper right-hand corner

fine lead-pencil
and the third on the lower
half-sheet.
All of these curves can be ruled from the templets.

;
Use a
then mark in the principal value of
the function in a clean, firm red line.

ure, all the principal points, as is
Also mark, in each figdone in Fig. 70 of the text.
Differentiation of sin"' x.
In order to differentiate the funcy
tion
= sm_, X,
.
'
make the equivalent
equation,
a;
= sin
3/
the point of departure.
Then
dx
'
= d sin y = cos y dy.
Hence
^ dx
^.
cosy

terms of x as follows.
Since
sin2
211
Tlie right-hand side of this eqiiation. cau be expressed in
+ C032 y = l
cos y
and since sin y
= x, we have cos' y = 1 x%
= Vl
is
x''.
We
have agreed, however, to understand by
sin~ia!
the
principal value of this function.

restriction
:
Hence y
subject to the
tive (or zero).
ir/2 ^y^ jr/2, and consequently cos y is posiWe must, therefore, take- the upper sign before
d dx
.
the radical,* the final result thus being

(4)
sin
_, 1
= 1 Vl=
dx
(4')
d sin~i X
Vl-a?
(b)
The Function
cos~ia;.
The treatment here

:
is
precisely
similar.
(5)
The
y
definition is as follows
if
= cos~i X
of the
71.
= cos y,
is
(read
" anti-cosine x ").
The graph shown in Fig.

is
function cos~ia;
sinîa;, this
as
Like
function
also infinitely multiple-valued.

is
single-
valued branch
selected
by imposing the
further condition
O^yîr.
This determination
value of cos~i x
(6)
:
is
known
as the principal
y-
O^y^TT.
is
* Geometrically the slope of the portion of the graph in question always positive, and so we must use the positive square root of 1 x''.
212
CALCULUS
is
It will be understood lieiiceforth. that the principal value
meant unless the contrary is In preparing the graph of value as a firm red line.
explicitly stated.
this function,
mark the
principal
To
differentiate the function cos~ia!, use the implicit
form
of equation (5)
= cos y.
Hence
dx
3>iid.
= d cos y = sin y dy
THE INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 213
214
The
cal
CALCULUS
differentiation can be
still
performed as in the case of the

identi-
function tan"ia;, but

relation
cot"ia;:
more simply by means of the
connecting the principal values of tan"'* and
(15)
tan-*
+ cot"* = f.
=
1
Hence
(16)
^ '
lco1r>a;
dx
+ 3^'
^,
or
(17)
ci!cot-ia;
^.
this function, red.
x,
It is well for the student to

also,
make a graph of drawing in the principal value, as usual, in
The following identity holds for positive values of the principal values of the functions are used
(18)
when
tan-i-
= cot-i x,
:
0<x.
For negative values of x

(180
it
reads
tan-ii
= cot-i x-tt,
X
Remarks.
cacr^x, can
x<0.
sec-'o!,
The other
inverse trigonometric functions,
be treated in a similar manner.
They
are,
how-
ever, without
importance in practice.
Their principal values
cannot be defined by means of a single continuous curve.

necessarily consists of more than one piece it is most natural to take it as consisting of two pieces. Corresponding to the Addition Theorem for each of the
The graph
trigonometric functions, there are functional relations for the

inverse trigonometric functions.
(19)
^
Thus, for tan-'a!

'"
tan-i u
'
+ + tan-i v = tan-i 1 ^
is
WW
These
relations,
however, are not always true when the

taken,
principal value of each of the functions
and
for this

reason
it is
215
usually better not to employ them.
If,
however,
less
ia a particular case,
u and v are each numerically
than
unity, the principal values can be used throughout in (19).
3.
Shop Work.
of formulas of
Special Formulas the four

list
The student will now add to his list of new formulas of this chapter. The It reads dififerentiation is now complete.
as follows.
Special Formulas of Differentiation

1.
2.
3.
4. 5.
6.
= 0. d a" = na;"~' sin x = cos x dx. d d cos x = sin x dx. dtan X = sec' x dx. d cot x = esc' X dx.
dc
da;.
7.
dloga;
8. 9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
216
Exa/mple
1.
CALCULUS
Differentiate the function
u
Let
= cos~i y =s a
> 0.
Then
= cos"' y, du = d cos~i y ^y
u
dy
,
= dx
a
dx a
Hence
dy
-
dx
VI
r.
7Y
'''
-
Va2
- X'
and, finally,
dC08-^ =
In abbreviated form.
Va2
a!2
a cos""^ -
4
-
Va2
Example
Differentiate the function
2.

The student should
notice that the
217
method used
is
in the text
is
for deriving the fundamental formulas of differentiation

to he repeated in the applications.
not
It
these formulas them-
selves that should be used.
Thus, to solve Ex. 1 by writiag

cos
=X
and then differentiating would be logically irreproachable, but bad technique. EXERCISES
Differentiate each of the following functions.
1.
= smi
a
dx
iH-. --^11
2.
M M M
= tan~i
a
3.
= cot~'-a
4.
= sin~i(w sin x).
5.
- = cos 1
-1
1
dx
7.
?t
V3-|-2a;
a;2
6.
,2a! = sm-i=^^^^ =
.
i.-,x+a = coti--f
*
V2
8.
M u
= cot-1 =
X
9.
= tan-'--
10.
= tan
'
X-
218
15.
CALCULUS
= C0S-1-.
2
16.
t=sin-ii.
17.
=cos-i-+Y.
n
18.
u= X sinî
1
a;.

iFirBt of all,
219
however,
it
should be pointed out that there are

is
two distinct problems.

satisfy such equations as
(a)
(6)
(c)
One
sin
to find all values of x
which
a;
cos
a;
tan
is
a;
= .2318 = - .4322 = - 1.4861.

;
The other
to find the principal value of

;
an inverse trigono-
metric function
sin-1.2318;
for example,
cos-i
(-
.4322)
tan-i(- 1.4861)
The methods
First
of treating these problems are identical-
Geometric Method.
Equations
(a),
(6),
(c)
can be
solved graphically
by the aid
of the unit circle representation
with an error corresponding to a degree or two, the results

being expressed in radians
Calculus.
if
the problem comes from the
For example, consider equation
(6).
provide himself with an accurately drawn circle of his
The student should own
construction, executed on the accurate centimeter-millimeter
paper commercially procurable the radius of the circle berug 10 cm. and its center at a principal intersection of the rulings. To solve equation (6), he will lay a straight-edge on his plate, parallel to the secondary (or y-) axis and at a distance
;
of
4 cm., 3^ mm. to the
left of that axis.
points of intersection of the straight-edge with the circle

fine pencil lines
Marking the two by
easUy erased, he now measures one of the
acute angles involved by means of his protractor and thus determines the two solutions of (6) lying between 0 and 360
correct to minutes or thereabouts.
By
aid of the Tables the
values can at once be converted into radian measure.

Arithmetic Solutions.
From
the figure before
him the
stu-
which is known. The determination of the angle he needs is merely a problem in the solution of a right triangle by the tables, and
dent
sees clearly a right triangle, one leg of
now
220
CALCULUS
he proceeds to carry this work through to the degree of accuracy which the tables permit. Equations (a) and (c) are treated in a similar manner. The
point of this method
is
that the student
is
trained to visualize
a figure, and not
to try to
remember a
table that looks like
sin^
is
and when the student

helpless.
For, such tables vanish ia a short time,
needs his trigonometry ia later work, he
In terms of the inverse functions,

for the value of the variable, x
this first
problem consists
in finding all the values of the multiple-valued function cos~i x
= .4322.
Second Oeometric Method. This method consists ia readiag from the graph the two values which lie between and 2 jr, and then adding to these arbitrary positive or negative multiples of 2 jr. The graph suggests, moreover, how to determine these values arithmetically by the aid of a table of sines or cosines of angles of the first quadrant. It also suggests a further refinement of the graphical method, of which the student will do well to namely, this. Let him make an accurate avail himself,
off
graph of the function ^
y sin X
on cm.-mm.-paper, taking 10 cm. as the unit and measuring

This half-arch to ir/2. the angle in radians, x ranging from supplements the four graphs of the functions sin x, cos x, sin~i x,
cos~ia;
and serves as a 3-place table for determining
their values
(with a possible error of two or three units in the third place).
To sum
unit-circle
up, then, there are two geometric methods
1) the
method
2) the graphs of the functions, the latter
beiag supplemented by the 10-cm. graph just described.

of the geometric
Either
methods suggests how to use the tables correctly and affords an altogether satisfactory check on the tables.
When
the accurately drawn graphs are not at hand, freeclearly
hand drawings indicate security and accuracy.
how
to use the
tables with

EXERCISES
221
1. Determine both in degrees and radians all values of x which satisfy the above equations (a), (6), (c), using each time all of the geometric methods set forth, and also the tables.
2. Mnd the value of each of the following functions. It is understood that the principal value is meant. Use first the method of the graphs. Then determine from the tables.
Check by
unit-circle
and
protractor.
ii)
i)
sin-i(-.1643);
iii)
cos-i (.6417)
tan-i(- 2.8162).
3.
By means
of a free-hand
drawing of the graph estimate
the value of each of the following functions.
Remember
that
a curve recedes from

inflection.
its
tangent very slowly near a point of
a) sin-1.113;
6)
;
tan-i(- .214)
cot"!
(
c)
cos-i.l72;
;
d) tan-i (- 7.4)
g)
e)
- .162)
/) cos-i (- .998)
i)
Z)
sin-i(-.21);
h) sin-i.89;
fc)
tan-i6.2;
sin-i
j) cot-17.3;
cos-i(-.138);
;
(-
.138).
In what cases
5.
is
your error large
in what, small ?
Applications.
The
inverse trigonometric functions afford
a convenient means of solving the following problem in Optics. A ray of light is refracted in a
prism.
its original
Show that its deviation from direction is least when
the incident ray and the refracted ray make equal angles with the
faces of the prism.
The study
of this
problem has a
pj^ ^3
vivid interest for the student
who
has seen the laboratory experiment of admitting a ray of sunlight into a darkened room, allowing it to pass through
222
CALCULUS
it
a prism, thus being refracted, and throwing

persed, on a screen.
finally, dis-
Let prism
of
6'
AF
;
be the incident ray;
PQ,
its
path through the
and
is
;
the ray -which emerges.
Then the
deflection
is
PQ
obviously
6 ^
and the further

is
deflection of Q,B
<l>'
so that the total deflection, u,
(1)
= e-4, + e'-4>' = e+6'-(ct> +

sum
\
<i>').
On
the other hand, the

/
of the angles of the triangle

/
PDQ is
Hence
(2)
'=(i-*Hi-*')+^ + 0'=a.
can, therefore, write (1) in the
We
(3)
form
u
is
= e+e'-a.
desired to
This
6' are,
the quantity
it is
make a minimum.
and
however, connected by a relation which can be obtained as follows. We have by the law of refraction (cf. Chap. V, 7)
/A\ (')
sin 5
sin^-'^'
THE INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 223

Take 6
as the independent variable.
Then
^'
and the condition
M-^ +
=
-
W
-^ =
d0
1.
de
gives ^
Next, take the differential of each side of the second equar

tion (8)
d(vsing)
d(vsiD.6')
Vl y2 sin2 d
or
V cos
Vl
,
1/2
sia2 6'
6dd
giji2
V cos
ff
d6'
VI
Hence
(\n\
1/2
VI _ y2 sui2 01
.
cos g
cos^^
Vl - v2 sin2 6
But dO'/dO
/-.
-|
/'^^''\_o
Vl-i/2sin2 0'Uey
= 1.
Consequently
cos 5
cos
6'
VI v2 sin2 a
Vl - v^ sin2 e'
the solution deOne solution of this equation is 6 = 6', manded by the theorem. But conceivably there might be
it -would not be clear which one of them makes u a miaimum. We can readUy show, however, that equation (11) has no further solutions. Square each side
other solutions, and then
cos^g
cos^y
l-v-'Siaê''
l-v2siii2e
Clear of fractions and express each cosine in terms of the sine

(1
- v2 sin2 0')(1 _
sin2 e
sin'
S)=(l-
v"-
sitf e)(l
- sia^ 6').
:
Multiply out and suppress equal terms on the two sides
& = - sin' ff v^ sin' B, if - 1) sin2 e = (v2 - 1) sin2 6'.

v"'
sin2
224
Hence
siii2
CALCULUS
e
siii2
fl',
sin 6
= sin 6',
first
and consequently the only angles of the

can satisfy (11) are equal angles, 6
quadrant which
=
<f>
6'.
From
(5)
and
(6) it follows that
<^'.
Hence, from
(2)
(^
= ^,
M
and so
$= sin-i( n sin^j,
\
= 2sin"i( Msin-
a.
That M
is
tory experiment.
a minimum, is clearly indicated by the laboraIt can be proven analytically as follows.
From
(9)
dW-
dfl2
Differentiate (10) as it stands

tion, set dd'/dd
then, after the differentiaIt is seen at once tha*-
= 1 and & = 6'.

hence
^'<0,
and u has a minimum.
^>
0,
EXERCISE
mural painting 4 ft. high is 12 ft. above How far back from the wall should he stand, in order that the angle subtended by the painting be
of a
The bottom
the eye of the observer.

as large as possible ?
Suggestion.
Take the
distance, x, of the observer
from the
wall as the independent variable, and express the angle of

elevation of the bottom and the top of the painting in terms
of
X.
Printed in the United States of America.

Calculus

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Cornell University Library.

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the United States on the use of the

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

BOMBAY CALCUTTA MELBOURNE

PEKKIN8 PK0FBS80K OF MATHEMATICS IN HABVAKD UNIVERSITY

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

bt the macmillan company.

Published January, 1931.

Berwick & Smith Co. Gushing Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.

to present the elements of the

however, also essential that the student receive thorough

important application of the graphical inethods, with

which the Calculus

this subject, simple as it

illustrated by simple examples. The book might have included a

brief treatment of curva-

and evolutes, and the

But probably most

teachers of the Calculus will prefer to take

so the closing chapter is devoted to the last of the

elementary functions, the inverse trigonometric functions, with

of mathematics, namely, their application to integration.

The book an abridged

course, in which, after the fundamentals of the

three chapters have been covered, any of the remaining

topics can be treated briefly,

and thus a wide scope in subject

even when the time

General Definition of a Function

DIFFERENTIATION OF ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS.

Definition of the Derivative

Maxima and Minima

Increasing and Decreasing Functions

Maxima and Minima.

Necessary and Sufficient Conditions Velocity; Rates

INFINITESIMALS AND DIFFERENTIALS

Certain Limits Critique of the Foregoing Differentiation

105 110 112

Shop Work Maxima and Minima

128 134 138

Rates and Velocities

LOGARITHMS AND EXPONENTIALS

Graph of the Function x" The Formulas of Differentiation

THE INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Inverse Functions The Inverse Trigonometric Functions

206 209 215 218 221

in the seventeenth century

the mathematician, astronomer, and physicist, Sir Isaac

by Newton Germany. The

reaction of the invention on geometry and mathematical physics

which represent variable quantities

for example, the

a function of x which depends on two constants, a and

defines the function /() in the present case to be 2a!' 3a;+l.

an equation defining the function

We shall be concerned for the present

with functions of one above. Here, x is called