Syntax Novinda Dian Puspito 2201409018 507-508

What Grammar Is and Is Not

1.1 Grammar and its role in language Grammar is used to the mechanism according to which language works when it is used to communicate with other people. When we studied Grammar of our native language, then we are trying to make explicit the knowledge of the language that we already have. Grammar is a mechanism for putting word together, but we have said little about sound or meaning. SEMANTICS (meaning) GRAMMAR PHONOLOGY (sound)

SEMANTICS

GRAMMAR

PHONOLOGY of writing system

1.2 Good and Bad Grammar Linguist who write grammar are concern with discribing how the language is used, rather than processing how it should be used. Prescriptive rules are clearly not grammatical rules in the same sense as descriptive rules, so it might be appropriate to call them rules of grammatical etiquette. Then we can see that what some people call bad grammar is asking to bad manners (it refers to something you might want to avoid doing). 1.3 Variation in Language A. Introduction There are many varieties of a language such as English. We can identify Americans as speaking in a different way from British people. So, language will vary according to certain characteristics of its user.

This is not meant to imply that each person as user speaks a uniform variety of language which never changes, speech may change as personal characteristics change. In addition, a persons speech will vary according the USE that speech is put to. It means that each user has a whole range of language varieties which he or she learns by experience and knows how to use appropriately. B. Variation according to User Dialect (regional origin) can be identified on the levels of pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. Vocabulary and grammar are the most basic levels for describing the dialect, since regional prunonciation, or a regional accent, can be used when speaking standard English as well as when they speaking a regional dialect. Dialect not imply an incorrect use of language, it is imply used to mean a variety of language determined by the characteristics of its users. Social-class membership The social class of the speaker seems to effect the variety of the language used. Age The way young speaks is of particular interest as it may be idicate of the direction in which the language is changing. Sex Certain grammatical features have been associated more with women than with men, and women are likely to use standard English than men. C. Variation according the use While the term dialect is convented to refer to language variation according the user. Register can be used to refer to variation according to use. Toner has relationship between speaker and the address in a given situation, and is often characterised by greater or lesser formality. Mode, has to do with the effect of the medion in which the language is transmited. Domain, has to do with how language varies according to the activity in which it plays a part. -

1.4 English and other language Language is mutual intelligibility. People who can undrestand each other speak the same langauge, but there are degrees of comprehension. Grammatical rules in English and other language It is important for English speakers of whatever variety of realise that other language may follow different grammatical rules. 1.5 Grammar and effective communication Language should not be evaluated according to what type of grammatical rules it follows, but according to whether it conveys its message affectively. 1.6 Grammar in Prose style In literature, the resources of the language including grammar are used not only for efficient communication of ideas, but for effective communication in a broader sense. How grammar constribute to the effects, particullarly through parallelism, the matching of one construction with another, similar one. 1.7 Grammar in Poetry Without the rules, the poets deviction from the rules would lose its communicative force.

Sentences and Their Parts

2.1 Prologue A. A test Its purpose is simply to start you thinking on the right lines. The students lead to classify the word into noun, verb, adjectives, or adverb A noun is a naming word (thing, person, substance) A verb is a doing verb (an action) An adjective is a word that describe a noun An adverb is a word which describes other types of words (verbs, adjectives, adverbs)

The most typical members of the class of nouns refers to people, things, ans substence (CONCRETE NOUNS >< ABSTRACT NOUNS) B. An Example JEBBERWOCKY We can not rely on meaning in defining word classes. In this part we classify each word on the basis of its position. C. The fuzzy boundaries of grammatical classes The typical nouns are those which refer to people, animals, and things, and these happen indicentally, to number amongs them the nouns which children learn first and the nouns which are most common in adult language as well. The typical verb is a doing word. The concept of fuzzy category applies not just to meaning, but also to formal aspects of definition. 2.2 the hierarcy of Units A sentence is composed of smaller units, clauses, phrases, and words. CLAUSE are the principal units of which sentences are composed. One sentence may consist of one or more clauses. PHRASE are units intermediete between clause and word.

[(My uncle Olaf) (was munching) (his pench) (with relish)]

NP 2.3 Grammatical Notation A. BRECKETING - Sentences are marked with an initial capital letter and final full-stop. - clauses are enclosed in square brecketes [ ] - phrases are enclosed in round brackets ( ) - words are sparated by space - if we need to sparate the grammatical components of words, we can use a dash. Example: [ (Our land-lady) (keep-s) (a stuff-ed moose) (in her attic) ] B. TREE DIAGRAM Se Ce VP NP Pp.P

Ph

Ph

Ph

Ph

Wo (Ourland -

Wo lady)

Wo (Keep-s)

Wo

Wo

Wo

Wo

Wo

Wo

(a stuff - ed moose) (in

her attic)

2.4 Using Test - Expansion Tests - Substraction Tests - Movement Tests 2.5 Form and Function - form classes - function classes, elements of the clause - function classes, elements of the phrase