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Back to Index Stainless Steel Categories: Martensitic Introduction Martensitic Ferritic Austenitic Duplex Specialist Grades
Martensitic stainless steels, typified by types 410/420/440, containing about 12Cr and 0.1C wt% as the basic composition. They are not as corrosion resistant as the other classes, but are extremely strong and tough as well as highly machineable, and can be hardened by heat treatment. They contain 11.5 to 18% chromium and significant amounts of carbon. Some grades include additional alloying elements in small quantities. Martensitic Stainless Steels Grade 410 C 0.15 Mn Si Cr Ni Mo P 0.04 S Comments/Applications
11.51.0 0.5 13.0
The basic composition. Used for cutlery, 0.03 steam and gas turbine blades and buckets, bushings... Addition of sulphur for machinability, used 0.15 for screws, gears etc. 416 Se replaces sulphur by selenium. 0.03 Dental and surgical instruments, cutlery.... 0.03 0.03 Enhanced corrosion resistance, high strength. Ball bearings and races, gauge blocks, molds and dies, cutlery.
416 420 431 440A 440B 440C
12.00.15 1.25 1.0 14.0 0.150.40 0.20 0.600.75 0.750.95 0.951.20 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 12.014.0
0.60 -
0.04 0.04
15.01.250.04 17.0 2.0 16.018.0 16.018.0 16.018.0 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.04 0.04 0.04
0.03 As 440A, higher hardness 0.03 As 440B, higher hardness
Introduction - Stainless Steel Categories Stainless steels are commonly divided into five groups: martensitic stainless steels, ferritic stainless steels, austenitic stainless steels, duplex (ferritic-austenitic) stainless steels, and precipitation-hardening stainless steels. 1. Martensitic stainless steels, typified by types 410/420/440, containing about 12Cr and 0.1C wt% as the basic composition. They are not as corrosion resistant as the other classes, but are extremely strong and tough as well as highly machineable, and can be hardened by heat treatment. They contain 11.5 to 18% chromium and significant amounts of carbon. Some grades include additional alloying elements in small quantities. 2. Ferritic stainless steels contain larger amounts of Cr which stabilizes the ferritic phase. Ferritic stainless steels are highly corrosion resistant, but far less durable than austenitic grades and cannot be hardened by heat treatment. They contain between 10.5% and 27% chromium and very little nickel, if any. Typical applications may include appliances, automotive and architectural trim (i.e., decorative purposes), as the cheapest stainless steels are found in this family (type 409).
3. Austenitic stainless steels, such as type 304 typically contain 18Cr and 8Ni wt% (aka 18/8 stainless).. Austenitic stainless steels comprise over 70% of total stainless steel production. They contain a maximum of 0.15% carbon, a minimum of 16% chromium and sufficient nickel and/or manganese to retain an austenitic structure at all temperatures from the cryogenic region to the melting point of the alloy. Other standard grades have different preferred applications; for example, type 316 which contains up to 3 wt% Mo, offers an improved general and pitting corrosion resistance, making it the material of choice for marine applications and coastal environments. 4. Duplex stainless steels are two-phase alloys based on the Fe-Cr-Ni system. The specific advantages offered by duplex stainless steels over conventional 300 series stainless steels are strength (approximately twice that of austenitic stainless steels), improved toughness and ductility (compared to ferritic grades), and a superior chloride SCC resistance and pitting resistance. The high yield strength offers designers the use of thin-wall material (which can lead to major reductions in weight) with adequate pressure-containing and load-bearing capacity. Duplex stainless steels have found widespread use in a range of industries, particularly the oil and gas, petrochemical, and pulp and paper industries. 5. Specialist grades include the precipitation hardened or oxide dispersion strengthened alloys.
Properties of Stainless Steel (Tabulated in accordance with the Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys (UNS), Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, Pa., 1975. This reference contains the cross reference numbers for AISI, ASTM, FED, MIL SPEC, and SAE specifications. All yield strengths are obtained using the 0.2 percent offset method. Multiply strength in kpsi be 6.89 to get strength in MPa.) UNS Number S20100 S20100 S20100 S20100 S20100 S20200 S20200 S30100 S30100 S30100 S30100 S30100 S30200 S30200 S30300 S30400 S31000 Yield Strength (Kpsi) 55 75 110 135 140 55 75 40 75 110 135 140 37 75 35 35 40 Tensile Strength (Kpsi) 155 125 150 175 185 110 125 110 125 150 175 185 90 125 90 85 95 Elongation in Reduction in 2 in., % Area, % 55 20 10 5 4 55 12 60 25 15 12 8 55 12 50 55 45 55 65 65 160 150 170 65 155 165 Brinell Hardness H_b
Processing Annealed 1/4 hard 1/2 hard 3/4 hard Full hard Annealed 1/4 hard Annealed 1/4 hard 1/2 hard 3/4 hard Full hard Annealed 1/4 hard Annealed Annealed Annealed
S31400 S41400 S41400 S41400 S41400 S41400 S41400 S41600 S41600 S41600 S41600 S41600 S41600 S41600 S43100 S43100 S43100 S43100 S43100 S50100 S50200
Annealed Annealed Drawn 400 F Drawn 600 F Drawn 800 F Drawn 1000 F Drawn 1200 F Annealed Drawn 400 F Drawn 600 F Drawn 800 F Drawn 1000 F Drawn 1200 F Drawn 1400 F Annealed Drawn 400 F Drawn 600 F Drawn 800 F Drawn 1200 F Annealed Annealed
50 95 150 145 150 120 105 40 145 140 150 115 85 60 95 155 150 155 95 30 30
100 120 200 190 200 145 120 75 190 180 195 145 110 90 125 205 195 205 125 70 70
45 17 15 15 16 20 20 30 15 15 17 20 23 30 20 15 15 15 20 28 30
60 55 55 55 58 60 65 65 55 55 55 65 65 70 60 55 55 60 60 65 75
170 235 415 400 415 325 260 155 390 375 390 300 225 180 260 415 400 415 260 160 150
Steel Alloy Designation System AISI-SAE Designation Number
Type and Description Carbon steels
10xx 11xx 12xx 15xx
Plain Carbon (Mn. 1.00% max.) Resulfurized Resulfurized and rephosphorized Plain Carbon (max. Mn. range 1.00-1.65%) Manganese steels
13xx 23xx 25xx
Mn 1.75 Nickel steels Ni 3.50 Ni 5.00 Nickel-chromium steels
31xx 32xx
Ni 1.25; Cr 0.65, 0.80 Ni 1.75; Cr 1.07
33xx 34xx
Ni 3.50; Cr 1.50, 1.57 Ni 3.00; Cr 0.77 Molybdenum steels
40xx 44xx 41xx
Mo 0.20, 0.25 Mo 0.40, 0.52 Chromium-molybdenum steels Cr 0.50, 0.80, 0.95; Mo 0.12, 0.20, 0.25, 0.30 Nickel-chromium-molybdenum steels
43xx 43BVxx 47xx 81xx 86xx 87xx 88xx 93xx 94xx 97xx 98xx 46xx 48xx 50xx 51xx 50xxx 51xxx 52xxx 61xx
Ni 1.82; Cr 0.50, 0.80; Mo 0.25 Ni 1.82; Cr 0.50; Mo 0.12, 0.25; V 0.03 min. Ni 1.05; Cr 0.45; Mo 0.20, 0.35 Ni 0.30; Cr 0.40; Mo 0.12 Ni 0.55; Cr 0.50; Mo 0.20 Ni 0.55; Cr 0.50; Mo 0.25 Ni 0.55; Cr 0.50; Mo 0.35 Ni 3.25; Cr 1.20; Mo 0.12 Ni 0.45; Cr 0.40; Mo 0.12 Ni 1.00; Cr 0.20; Mo 0.20 Ni 1.00; Cr 0.80; Mo 0.25 Nickel-molybdenum steels Ni 0.85, 1.82; Mo 0.20, 0.25 Ni 3.50; Mo 0.25 Chromium steels Cr 0.27, 0.40, 0.50, 0.65 Cr 0.80, 0.87, 0.92, 0.95, 1.00, 1.05 Cr 0.50; C 1.00 min. Cr 1.02; C 1.00 min. Cr 1.45; C 1.00 min. Chromium-vanadium steels Cr 0.60, 0.80, 0.95; V 0.10, 0.15 Tungsten-chromium steels
72xx
W 1.75; Cr 0.75 Silicon-manganese steels
92xx 9xx
Si 1.40, 2.00; Mn 0.65, 0.82, 0.85; Cr 0.00, 0.65 High-strength low-alloy steels Various SAE grades Boron steels
xxBxx
B denotes boron steels Leaded steels
xxLxx
L denotes leaded steels
Properties of Steel (Tabulated in accordance with the Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys (UNS), Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, Pa., 1975. This reference contains the cross reference numbers for AISI, ASTM, FED, MIL SPEC, and SAE specifications. The values shown for hot-rolled (HR) and cold drawn (CD) steels are estimated minimum values which can usually be expected in the size range of 3/4 to 1-1/4 in. A minimum value is roughly several standard deviations below the arithmetic mean. The values shown for heat-treated steels are so-called typical values. A typical value is neither the mean nor the minimum. It can be obtained by careful control of the purchase specifications and the heat-treatment, together with continuous inspection and testing. The properties shown in this table are from a variety of sources and are believed to be representative. There are so many variables which affect these properties, however, that their approximate nature must be clearly recognized. Multiply strength in kpsi by 6.89 to get strength in MPa.)
Properties of Steel Yield Tensile Yield Tensile Elongation Reduction Brinell UNS Processing Strength Strength Strength Strength in 2 in. in Area Hardness Number Method kpsi kpsi MPa MPa % % H_b G10100 Hot Rolled G10100 Cold Drawn Cold Drawn Cold Drawn Cold Drawn Drawn 800 F Drawn 1000 F Drawn 1200 F Cold Drawn 26 44 27 47 32 54 39 67 81 72 62 42 71 86 47 53 50 56 58 64 72 80 110 103 91 76 85 113 179 303 186 324 220 372 269 462 558 496 427 289 489 593 324 365 345 386 400 441 496 551 758 710 627 524 586 779 28 20 28 18 25 15 18 12 18 23 27 18 12 23 50 40 50 40 50 40 40 35 51 59 66 40 35 62 95 105 101 111 116 126 143 163 220 201 180 149 170 235
G10150 Hot Rolled G10150
G10350 Hot Rolled G10350 G10350 G10350 G10350
G10400 Drawn
1000 F G10500 Hot Rolled G10500 G10500 G10500 G10500 Cold Drawn Drawn 600 F Drawn 900 F Drawn 1200 F 49 84 180 130 80 81 90 100 220 155 105 100 338 579 1240 896 551 558 620 689 1516 1068 723 689 15 10 10 18 28 25 35 30 30 55 65 57 179 197 450 310 210 192
Hot G15216 Rolled, Annealed Hot G41300 Rolled, Annealed Cold G41300 Drawn, Annealed G41300 Drawn 1000 F
60
90
413
620
30
45
183
87 133 63
98 146 90
599 916 434
675 1006 620
21 17 27
52 60 58
201 293 187
Hot G41400 Rolled, Annealed Cold G41400 Drawn, Annealed G41400 Drawn 1000 F
90 131 69
102 153 101
620 903 475
703 1054 696
18 16 21
50 45 45
223 302 207
Hot G43400 Rolled, Annealed Cold G43400 Drawn, Annealed G43400 G43400 G46200 G46200 Drawn 600 F Drawn 1000 F Case Hardened Drawn 800 F
99 234 162 89 94 58 132
111 260 182 120 130 91 155
682 1612 1116 613 648 400 909
765 1791 1254 827 896 627 1068
16 12 15 22 23 22 15
42 43 40 55 66 53 44
223 498 363 248 256 183 302
Hot G61500 Rolled, Annealed G61500 Drawn
1000 F Hot G87400 Rolled, Annealed Cold G87400 Drawn, Annealed G87400 Drawn 1000 F 64 95 441 655 25 55 190
96 129 78
107 152 115
661 889 537
737 1047 792
17 15 22
48 44 45
223 302 223
Hot G92550 Rolled, Annealed
Titanium Grades The various Titanium Grades as defined by ASTM and ASME are numbered from 1 and upwards where all numbers except 6 and 8 are represented. Most of the grades are of alloyed type with various additions of for example aluminium, vanadium, nickel, ruthenium, molybdenum, chromium or zirconium for the purpose of improving and/or combining various mechanical characteristics, heat resistance, conductivity, microstructure, creep, ductility, corrosion resistance etc. etc. Palladium (Pd) and ruthenium (Ru), Nickel (Ni) and molybdenum (Mo) are elements which can be added to the pure titanium types in order to obtain a significant improvement of corrosion resistance particulary in slightly reducing environments where titanium otherwise might face some problems due to insufficient conditions for formation of the necessary protective oxidefilm on the metalsurface. The formation of a stable and substantially inert protective oxidefilm on the surface is otherwise the secret behind the extraordinary corrosion resistance of titanium . The mechnical properties of commercially pure titanium are in fact controlled by "alloying" to various levels of oxygen and nitrogen to obtain strength levels varying between approximately 290 and 550 MPa. For higher strength levels alloying elements, e.g. Al and V have to be added. Ti3Al2,5V has a tensile strength of minimum 620MPa in annealed condition and minimum 860 MPa in the as cold worked and stress relieved condition. The CP-titanium grades are nominally all alpha in structure, whereas many of the titanium alloys have a two phase alpha + beta structure. There are also titanium alloys with high alloying additions having an entire beta phase structure. While alpha alloys cannot be heat treated to increase strength, the addition of 2,5% copper would result in a material which responds to solution treatment and ageing in a similar way to aluminium-copper.
Common ASTM/ASME Titanium Grades
Grade Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 7 Grade 9 Grade 11 Grade 12 Grade 13 Grade 14 Grade 15 Grade 16 Grade 17 Grade 18 Grade 19 Grade 20 Grade 21 Grade 23 Grade 24
Description Unalloyed titanium, low oxygen, low strength Unalloyed titanium, standard oxygen, medium strength Unalloyed titanium, medium oxygen, high strength Unalloyed titanium, high oxygen, extra high strength Titanium alloy (6% aluminum, 4% vanadium) Unalloyed titanium plus 0.12% to 0.25% palladium, standard oxygen, medium strength Titanium alloy (3% aluminum, 2.5% vanadium), high strength. Mainly aerospace applications Unalloyed titanium plus 0.12% to 0.25% palladium, low oxygen, low strength Titanium alloy (0.3% molybdenum, 0.8% nickel), high strength Titanium alloy (0.5% nickel, 0.05% ruthenium), low oxygen Titanium alloy (0.5% nickel, 0.05% ruthenium), standard oxygen Titanium alloy (0.5% nickel, 0.05% ruthenium), medium oxygen Unalloyed titanium plus 0.04% to 0.08% palladium, standard oxygen, medium strength Unalloyed titanium plus 0.04% to 0.08% palladium, low oxygen, low strength Titanium alloy (3% aluminum, 2.5% vanadium plus 0.04% to 0.08% palladium), Titanium alloy (3% aluminum, 8% vanadium, 6% chromium, 4% zirconium, 4% molybdenum) Titanium alloy (3% aluminum, 8% vanadium, 6% chromium, 4% zirconium, 4% molybdenum) plus 0.04% to 0.08% palladium Titanium alloy (15% molybdenum, 3% aluminum, 2.7% niobium, 0.25% silicon) Titanium alloy (6% aluminum, 4% vanadium, extra low interstitial, ELI) Titanium alloy (6% aluminum, 4% vanadium) plus 0.04% to 0.08% palladium
Grade 25 Grade 26 Grade 27 Grade 28 Grade 29
Titanium alloy (6% aluminum, 4% vanadium) plus 0.3% to 0.8% nickel and 0.04% to 0.08% palladium Unalloyed titanium plus 0.08% to 0.14% ruthenium, standard oxygen, medium strength Unalloyed titanium plus 0.08% to 0.14% ruthenium, low oxygen,low strength Titanium alloy (3% aluminum, 2.5% vanadium) plus 0.08% to 0.14% ruthenium Titanium alloy (6% aluminum, 4% vanadium with extra low interstitial elements (ELI) plus 0.08% to 0.14% ruthenium
Back to Materials Index
Titanium Properties (Listed by Grade and Reference Number) 0.2% Grade/ Proof Ref. Stress No. min KSI Grade 1 25 0.2% Proof Stress min MPa 170
Ultimate Tensile Strength min KSI 35
Ultimate Elongation Tensile Density Density Weldability min Strength min lb/in^3 gm/cc Rating % MPa 240 24 .163 4.51 Excellent
Ferrous Metals Cast Iron Carbon Steel Alloy Steel Stainless Steel Tool Steel HSLA Steel Cast Iron Cast iron is defined as an iron alloy with more than 2% carbon as the main alloying element. In addition to carbon, cast irons must also contain from 1 to 3% silicon which combined with the carbon give them excellent castability. Cast iron has a much lower melting temperature than steel and is more fluid and less reactive with molding materials. However, they do not have enough ductility to be rolled or forged. The precipitation of carbon (as graphite) during solidification is the key to cast iron's distinctive properties. The graphite provides excellent machinability (even at wear-resisting hardness levels), damps vibration, and aids lubrication on wearing surfaces (even under borderline lubrication conditions). Steels and cast irons are both primarily iron with carbon (C) as the main alloying element. Steels contain less than 2% and usually less than 1% C, while all cast irons contain more than 2% C. About 2% is the maximum C content at which iron can solidify as a single phase alloy with all of the C in solution in austenite. Thus, the
cast irons by definition solidify as heterogeneous alloys and always have more than one constituent in their microstructure. In addition to C, cast irons also must contain appreciable silicon (Si), usually from 13%, and thus they are actually iron-carbon-silicon alloys. The high C content and the Si in cast irons make them excellent casting alloys. Range of Compositions for Typical Unalloyed Cast Irons (Values in Percent (%)) Type of Iron Gray Ductile Compacted Graphite Malleable (Cast White) White Carbon 2.5 - 4.0 3.0 - 4.0 2.5 - 4.0 2.0 - 2.9 1.8 - 3.6 Silicon 1.0 - 3.0 1.8 - 2.8 1.0 - 3.0 0.9 - 1.9 0.5 - 1.9 Manganese 0.2 - 1.0 0.1 - 1.0 0.2 - 1.0 0.15 - 1.2 0.25 - 0.8 Sulfur 0.02 - 0.25 0.01 - 0.03 0.01 - 0.03 0.02 - 0.2 0.06 - 0.2 Phosphorus 0.02 - 1.0 0.01 - 0.1 0.01 - 0.1 0.02 - 0.2 0.06 - 0.2
Ferritic stainless steels contain larger amounts of Cr which stabilizes the ferritic phase. Ferritic stainless steels are highly corrosion resistant, but far less durable than austenitic grades and cannot be hardened by heat treatment. They contain between 10.5% and 27% chromium and very little nickel, if any. Typical applications may include appliances, automotive and architectural trim (i.e., decorative purposes), as the cheapest stainless steels are found in this family (type 409). Ferritic Stainless Steels Grade 405 409 429 430 446 C 0.08 0.08 0.12 0.12 0.20 Mn 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 Si Cr Mo P 0.04 0.045 0.04 0.04 0.04 S 0.03 0.045 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.25 N Comments/Applications 0.1-0.3 Al (6xC) Ti min
1.0 11.5-14.5 1.0 10.5-11.75 1.0 14.0-16.0 1.0 16.0-18.0 1.0 23.0-27.0
Properties of Aluminum Alloys

Tabulated in accordance with the Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys (UNS), Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, Pa., 1975. This reference contains the cross reference numbers for AISI, ASTM, FED, MIL SPEC, and SAE specifications. These are typical properties for sizes of about 1/2 inch. A typical value may be neither the mean nor the minimum. It is a value which can be obtained when the purchase specifications are carefully written and with continuous inspection and testing. The values given for fatigue strength, S_f, correspond to 50e7 cycles of completely reversed stress. Aluminum alloys do not have an endurance limit. The yield strength is 0.2% offset value. Multiply strength in kpsi by 6.89 to get strength in MPa
Properties of Aluminum Alloys

UNS Alloy Temper Numbe Yield Strength (kpsi) Tensile Strength (kpsi) Shear Modulus of Rupture (kpsi) Brinell Fatigue Elongation Hardness Strength (kpsi) in 2 in., % (H_b)
r A91100 A91100 A91100 A91100 A91100 A93003 A93003 A93003 A93003 A93003 A93004 A93004 A93004 A93004 A93004 A92011 A92011 A92014 A92014 A92014 A92017 A92017 A92018 A92024 A92024 A92024 -O -H12 -H14 -H16 -H18 -O -H12 -H14 -H16 -H18 -O -H32 -H34 -H36 -H38 -T3 -T8 -O -T4 -T6 -O -T4 -T61 -O -T3 -T4 5 14 20 24 27 6 17 20 24 27 10 22 27 31 34 48 45 14 40 60 10 40 46 11 50 48 13 15.5 22 26 29 16 19 22 26 29 26 31 34 37 40 55 59 27 62 70 26 62 61 27 70 68 9.5 10 14 15 16 11 12 14 15 16 16 17 18 20 21 32 35 18 38 42 18 38 39 18 41 41 5 6 9 9.5 10 7 8 9 9.5 10 14 14.5 15 15.5 16 18 18 13 20 18 13 18 17 13 20 20 45 25 16 14 10 40 20 16 14 10 25 17 12 9 6 15 12 18 20 13 22 22 12 22 16 19 23 28 40 47 55 28 35 40 47 55 45 52 63 70 77 95 100 45 105 135 45 105 120 47 120 120
PROPERTIES OF ALUMINUM DIE CASTING ALLOYS

AA NUMBER A360.0 Ultimate Tensile Strength (ksi) TensileYield Strength (ksi) Elongation (% in 2" G.L.) Hardness (HB) Shear Strength (ksi) Charpy Impact Strength (ft. lb.unnotched) 46 A380.0 47 383 45 A413.0 42 B390.0 40.5 384 48
24
23
22
19
35
24
3.5 75 26
3.5 80 27
3.5 80 25
3.5 120 29 85
1.0 2.5
4.2
3.5
Fatigue Strength (ksi) (limit @ 500 million cycles) Density (lb./in.3) Melting Range (oF) approx. Specific Heat (Btu/lb. oF) Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (in./in./oF) Thermal Conductivity (Btu/fthr.oF) Electrical Conductivity (% IACS) Modulus of Elasticity (106 psi)
18
20
19
20
20
0.095 10351105 0.23
0.098 1000-1100 0.23
0.097 9601080 0.23
0.096 1065-1080
0.099 9451200
0.098 960-1080
11.8
11.7
11.5
10.3
11.7
11.3
65.3
55.6
55.6
67.7
78.6
56
29
31
23
31
25
23
10.3
10.3
10.3
10.3
11.9
10.3
Aluminum Temper Designations

F H H1
As fabricated. No control over the amount of strain hardening. Strain-hardened (wrought products only) to increase strength. Strain-hardened only. Products are strain-hardened to achieve the strength desired without additional thermal treatment. The second digit following the designations H1, H2, H3 indicate the final degree of strain hardening. The number 8 has been assigned to tempers having a final degree of strain-hardening equivalen to that resulting from approxiamtely 75 % reduction in area. Tempers between that of the 0 Temper (annealed) and 8 (full hard) are designated by the numbers 1 through 7. A number 4 (which is halfway between 0 and 8) designation is considered half-hard; number 2 is considered quarter-hard; and the number 6 is three-quarter hard. When the number is odd, the limits of ultimate strength are exactly halfway between those of the even numbered tempers. The third digit indicates a variation of the two digit H temper. It is used when the degree of temper is close to the 2 digit H temper. Applies to alloys which are strain-hardened less than the amount required for a controlled H11 temper. Applies to alloys that acquire some temper from shaping processes which do not have special control over the amount of strain-hardening or thermal treatment, but for which there are mechanical property limits. Strain-hardened and partially annealed. Applies to alloys which are strainhardened more than the desired final amount and then reduced in strength to the desired level by partial annealing. For alloys that soften with age at room temperature, the H2 tempers have the same minimum tensile strength as the corresponding H3 tempers. For other alloys, the H2 tempers have the same minimum tensile strength as the corresponding H1 tempers and slightly higher elongation.
H1x,H2x,H3x
Hxxx H111 H112
H2
H3
Strain-hardened and stabilized. Applies to alloys that are strain-hardened and whose mechanical properties are stabilized by a low temperature thermal treatment that results in slightly lowered tensile strength and improved ductility. This designation is applicable only to those alloys that unless they are stabilized, will gradually soften with age at room temperature. Applies to alloys which are strain-hardened less than the amount required for a controlled H31 temper. Applies to alloys which are strain-hardened less than the amount required for a controlled H32 temper. Applies to products which are fabricated to have good resistance to stress corrosion cracking. Applies to products which are fabricated to have good resistance to stress corrosion cracking. Annealed, recrystallized (wrought products only). Applies to wrought alloys which are annealed to obtain the softest temper, and to cast alloys which are annealed to improve ductility and dimensional stability. Thermally treated to produce stable tempers other than F, O or H. Naturally aged. Product is cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and naturally aged to a substantially stable condition. Annealed (cast products only). Applies to alloys which are cold worked to improve strength after cooling from an elevated temperature shaping process, or in which the effect of cold work in flattening or straightening is significant in mechanical property limits. Solution heat-treated, cold worked and naturally aged to a substantially stable condition to improve strength. Solution heat-treated and naturally aged to a substantially stable condition. Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and the artificially aged.
H311 H321 H323 H343 O T T1
T2
T3 T4 T5
T51
Stress relieved by stretching. Applies to the following products when stretched the indicated amounts after solution heat-treatment or cooled from a high temperature shaping process: Plate1.5-3% permanent set; Rod, bar, shapes, and extruded tubes1-3% permanent set; Drawn tubes 1.5-3% permanent set. Applies directly to plate, and rolled or cold finished rod and bar which receive no further straightening after stretching. Applies to extruded rod, bar, shapes, tubing, and to drawn tubing when designated as follows: T510 Products that receive no further straight ending after stretching; T511 Products that may receive minor straightening after stretching to comply with standard tolerances. Stress-relieved by compressing. Applies to alloys which are stress-relieved by compressing after solution heat-treatment, or cooled from a high temperature shaping process to produce a permanent set of 1 to 5%. Stress-relieved by combined stretching and compressing. Applicable to die forging which are stress-relieved by restring cold in the finish die. Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged. T62 indicates material is solution heat-treated from the O or F temper to demonstrate response to heat-treatment, and artificially aged. Solution heat-treated and then stabilized to carry them beyond the point of maximum strength to provide control of some special property. Solution heat-treated, cold worked, and then artificially aged. Solution heat-treated, artificially aged, and then cold worked. Artificially aged and then cold worked.
T52 T54 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10
T42
(Wrought products only). Applicable to products solution heat-treated and naturally aged which have mechanical properties different from those of the T4 temper. (Wrought products only). Applicable to products solution heat-treated and artificially aged which have mechanical properties different from those of the T6 temper. Solution heat treated. An unstable temper applied only to alloys which spontaneously age at room temperature after solution heat-treatment.
T62 W
Aluminum and its alloys are divided into two broad classes, castings and wrought (mechanically worked products). The latter is sub-divided into heat-treatable and non-heat-treatable alloys, and into various forms produced by mechanical working.
Wrought Aluminum Alloys

Series 1xxx 2xxx 3xxx 4xxx 5xxx 6xxx Main Alloy None (99% alu) Copper Manganese Silicon Magnesium Magnesium & Silicon Moderate to high strength. Corrosion resistant. Nonheat-treatable. Increases strength, formability, corrosion resistance. Heat-treatable. For greatest strength. Heat treatable. Other alloying elements such as copper, magnesium, chromium and zirconium may be specified. Alloy Properties Unalloyed aluminum is highly corrosion resistant, low strength, workable, conductive. Non-heat-treatable. Gives strength, hardness, machinability. Heat-treatable. Adds moderate strength, good workability. Non-heattreatable.
7xxx
Zinc
8xxx 9xxx
Tin, Lithium & Other Effects vary. elements. N/A (This series is unused presently.)
Casting Alloys
Series Main Alloy None (99% alum.) Copper Unalloyed aluminum. Used extensively for applications where excellent strength and hardness at high temperatures are required. Heavy-duty pistons; motorcycle, diesel and aircraft pistons; aircraft generator housings; and air-cooled cylinder heads are typical applications. Other alloying elements such as copper and magnesium are specified. Typical applications are airframe castings, machine parts, truck chassis parts, aircraft and missile components, and structural parts requiring high strength. Alloy Notes
1xx.x
2xx.x
3xx.x 4xx.x 5xx.x 6xx.x
Silicon Silicon
Alloys possess a high and stable combination of strength, shock resistance and ductility. It is Magnesium ideally suited for parts in instruments and computing devices where dimensional stability is of major importance. N/A (This series is unused presently.)
7xx.x 8xx.x 9xx.x
Zinc Tin N/A
Employed when a combination of good mechanical properties without heat treatment is needed. It also shows good shock and corrosion resistance and good machinability and dimensional stability.
(This series is unused presently.)
Applies for plain carbon and low-alloy steels and cast steel and to a limited extent for high-alloy and/or work hardened steel.
Hardness Conversion Table

Tensile Strength (N/mm2) 285 320 350 385 415 450 480 510 545 575 610 640 675 705 740 770 800 820 850 880 900 930 950 995 Brinell Hardness (BHN) 86 95 105 114 124 133 143 152 162 171 181 190 199 209 219 228 238 242 252 261 266 276 280 295 Vickers Hardness (HV) 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 255 265 275 280 290 295 310 56.2 62.3 66.7 71.2 75.0 78.7 81.7 85.0 87.1 89.5 91.5 93.5 95.0 96.7 98.1 99.5 23.1 24.8 26.4 27.1 28.5 29.2 31.0 Rockwell Hardness (HRB) Rockwell Hardness (HRC)
1030 1060 1095 1125 1155 1190 1220 1255 1290 1320 1350 1385 1420 1455 1485 1520 1555 1595 1630 1665 1700 1740 1775 1810 1845 1880 1920 1955 1995 2030 2070 2105 2145 2180
304 314 323 333 342 352 361 371 380 390 399 409 418 428 437 447 456 466 475 485 494 504 513 523 532 542 551 561 570 580 589 599 608 618
320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490 500 510 520 530 540 550 560 570 580 590 600 610 620 630 640 650
32.2 33.3 34.4 35.5 36.6 37.7 38.8 39.8 40.8 41.8 42.7 43.6 44.5 45.3 46.1 46.9 47.7 48.4 49.1 49.8 50.5 51.1 51.7 52.3 53.0 53.6 54.1 54.7 55.2 55.7 56.3 56.8 57.3 57.8
Machinability of Metals
(Based on 100% machinability for AISI 1212 steel)
Carbon steels: 1015
Percentage 72%
1018 1020 1022 1030 1040 1042 1050 1095 1117 1137 1141 1141 annealed 1144 1144 annealed 1144 stressproof 1212 1213 12L14 1215
78% 72% 78% 70% 64% 64% 54% 42% 91% 72% 70% 81% 76% 85% 83% 100% 136% 170% 136%
Alloy steels: 2355 annealed 4130 annealed 4140 annealed 4142 annealed 41L42 annealed 4150 annealed 4340 annealed 4620 4820 annealed 52100 annealed 6150 annealed 8620 86L20 9310 annealed Stainless Steels and Super Alloys: 302 annealed 303 annealed 304 annealed 316 annealed 321 annealed 347 annealed 410 annealed 416 annealed 420 annealed 430 annealed 431 annealed 45% 78% 45% 45% 36% 36% 54% 110% 45% 54% 45% 70% 72% 66% 66% 77% 60% 57% 66% 49% 40% 60% 66% 77% 51%
440A 15-5PH condition A 17-4PH condition A A286 aged Hastelloy X Tool Steels: A-2 A-6 D-2 D-3 M-2 O-1 O-2 Gray Cast Iron: ASTM class 20 annealed ASTM class 25 ASTM class 30 ASTM class 35 ASTM class 40 ASTM class 45 ASTM class 50
45% 48% 48% 33% 19%
42% 33% 27% 27% 39% 42% 42%
73% 55% 48% 48% 48% 36% 36%
Nodular Iron: 60-40-18 annealed 65-45-12 annealed 80-55-06 61% 61% 39%
Aluminum and Magnesium Alloys: aluminum, cold drawn aluminum, cast aluminum, die cast magnesium, cold drawn magnesium, cast 360% 450% 76% 480% 480%
Physical Properties Of Elements

Atomic Weight 26.97 121.76 137.36 9.02 209.00 Melting Point
o
Element Aluminum Antimony Barium Beryllium Bismuth
Symbol Al Sb Ba Be Bi
Boiling o Point F 3272 2516 2084 2732 2642
Densit 3 y g/cm 2.70 6.62 3.50 1.82 9.8
1220 1167 1562 2462 520
660 630 850 1350 271
Boron Cadmium Calcium Carbon Cerium Chromium Cobalt Columbium Copper Gold Iron Lead Lithium Magnesium Manganese Mercury Molybdenum Nickel Palladium Phosphorous Platinum Potassium Rhodium Selenium Silicon Silver Sodium Strontium Sulfur Tantalum Tellurium Thallium Thorium Tin Titanium Tungsten Uranium Vanadium Zinc Zirconium
B Cd Ca C Ce Cr Co Nb Cu Au Fe Pb Li Mg Mn Hg Mo Ni Pd P Pt K Rh Se Si Ag Na Sr S Ta Te Ti Th Sn Ti W U V Zn Zr
10.82 112.41 40.08 12.00 140.13 52.01 58.94 92.91 63.57 197.20 55.84 207.22 6.94 24.32 54.94 200.61 96.00 58.69 106.70 31.02 195.23 39.09 102.91 78.96 28.06 107.88 22.99 87.63 32.06 180.88 127.61 204.39 232.12 118.70 47.90 184.00 238.14 50.95 65.38 91.22
4172 610 1564 1427 3326 2696 3542 1982 1945 2795 621 367 1204 2273 -38 4748 2645 2831 111 3224 144 3551 428 2588 1761 207 1472 235 5162 846 578 3353 450 3272 6098 3074 3110 787 3092
2282 321 851 640 1812 1480 1932 1082 1062 1535 327 186 652 1245 2602 1452 1555 42 1755 62 1882 220 1420 961 97 800 112 2832 451 302 1827 232 1782 3334 1672 1692 419 1682
4622 1408 2522 6512 2552 3992 5252 5972 4259 4712 5430 2948 2437 2007 3452 676 6692 5252 3992 536 7772 1400 4532 1270 4712 3542 1616 2102 832 7412 2534 3002 5432 4100 5432 10526 6332 5432 1661 5252
2.30 8.65 1.55 2.22 6.79 7.14 8.90 8.57 8.94 1930 7.87 11.35 0.53 1.74 7.20 13.55 10.20 8.85 12.00 1.82 21.45 0.86 12.50 4.81 2.40 10.50 0.97 2.60 2.07 16.60 6.24 11.85 11.50 7.30 4.50 19.30 18.70 5.68 7.14 6.40
Melting Temperatures of Common Metals

Metal Titanium Mild Steel Wrought Iron Stainless Steel Hard Steel Gray Cast Iron Ductile Iron Copper Red Brass Silver Yellow Brass Aluminum Alloy Magnesium Alloy Lead Babbitt Melting Point (oF) 3020 2730 2700-2900 2600 2555 2060-2200 2100 1985 1832 1763 1706 865-1240 660-1200 621 480
Thermal Conductivities
Material Silver Copper Brass Aluminum Iron Steel Lead Mercury Ice Thermal Conductivity Thermal Conductivity (cal/sec)/(cm C) (W/m K) 1.01 0.99 ... 0.50 0.163 ... 0.083 ... 0.005 406.0 385.0 109.0 205.0 ... 50.2 34.7 8.3 1.6
Glass,ordinary Concrete Water at 20 C Asbestos Hydrogen at 0 C Helium at 0 C Oxygen Snow (dry) Fiberglass Brick,insulating Brick, red Cork board Wool felt Rock wool Styrofoam Wood Air at 0 C
0.0025 0.002 0.0014 0.0004 0.0004 0.0003 ... 0.00026 0.00015 ... ... 0.00011 0.0001 ... ... 0.0001 0.000057
0.8 0.8 ... ... 0.14 0.14 0.023 ... 0.04 0.15 0.6 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.01 0.12-0.04 0.024
Standard Drill Sizes Decimal Equivalents Drill Decimal 80 79 1/64 78 77 76 75 74 73 72 71 .0135" .0145" .0156" .0160" .0180" .0200" .0210" .0225" .0240" .0250" .0260" Drill Decimal 70 69 68 1/32 67 66 65 64 63 62 61 .0280" .0292" .0310" .0313" .0320" .0330" .0350" .0360" .0370" .0380" .0390" Drill Decimal 60 59 58 57 56 3/64 55 54 53 1/16 52 .0400" .0410" .0420" .0430" .0465" .0469" .0520" .0550" .0595" .0625" .0635" Drill Decimal 51 50 49 48 5/64 47 46 45 44 43 42 .0670" .0700" .0730" .0760" .0781" .0785" .0810" .0820" .0860" .0890" .0935" Drill Decimal 3/32 41 40 39 38 37 36 7/64 35 34 33 .0938" .0960" .0980" .0995" .1015" .1040" .1065" .1094" .1100" .1110" .1130"
Drill Decimal 32 .1160"
Drill Decimal E .2500"
31 1/8 30 29 28 9/64 27 26 25 24
.1200" .1250" .1285" .1360" .1405" .1406" .1440" .1470" .1495" .1520"
5/32 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15
.1562" .1570" .1590" .1610" .1660" .1695" .1730" .1770" .1800"
13 3/16 12 11 10 9 8 7 6
.1850" .1875" .1890" .1910" .1935" .1960" .1990" .2010" .2040"
4 3 7/32 2 1 A B C D
.2090" .2130" .2188" .2210" .2280" .2340" .2380" .2420" .2460"
1/4 F G H I J K 9/32 L
.2500" .2570" .2610" .2660" .2720" .2770" .2810" .2812" .2900"
17/64 .2656"
11/64 .1719"
15/64 .2344"
13/64 .2031"
Drill Decimal M N 5/16 O P Q R S T .2950" .3020" .3125" .3160" .3230" .3320" .3390" .3480" .3580" 19/64 .2969"
Drill Decimal 23/64 .3594" U 3/8 V W X Y Z 7/16 .3680" .3750" .3770" .3860" .3970" .4040" .4130 .4375"
Drill Decimal 29/64 .4531" 15/32 .4688" 31/64 .4844" 1/2 .5000" 33/64 .5156" 17/32 .5313" 35/64 .5469" 9/16 .5625" 37/64 .5781" 19/32 .5938" 39/64 .6094" 5/8 .6250"
Drill Decimal 41/64 .6406" 21/32 .6562" 43/64 .6719" 11/16 .6875" 45/64 .7031" 23/32 .7188" 47/64 .7344" 3/4 .7500" 49/64 .7656" 25/32 .7812" 51/64 .7969" 13/16 .8125"
Drill Decimal 53/64 .8281" 27/32 .8438" 55/64 .8594" 7/8 .8750" 57/64 .8906" 29/32 .9062" 59/64 .9219" 15/16 .9375" 61/64 .9531" 31/32 .9688" 63/64 .9844" 1 1.000"
25/64 .3906"
21/64 .3281"
13/32 .4062" 27/64 .4219"
11/32 .3438"
Millimeter Sizes Decimal Equivalents mm Decimal .35 .40 .45 .50 .55 .60 .65 .70 .0138" .0157" .0177" .0197" .0217" .0236" .0256" .0276" mm Decimal .90 .95 1.0 .0354" .0374" .0394" mm Decimal 1.45 .0571" 1.50 .0591" 1.55 .0610" 1.60 .0630" 1.65 .0650" 1.70 .0669" 1.75 .0689" 1.80 .0709" mm Decimal 2.00 .0787" 2.05 .0807" 2.10 .0827" 2.15 .0846" 2.20 .0866" 2.25 .0886'' 2.30 .0906" 2.35 .0925" mm Decimal 2.55 .1004" 2.60 .1024" 2.65 .1043" 2.70 .1063" 2.75 .1083" 2.80 .1102" 2.85 .1122" 2.90 .1142"
1.05 .0413" 1.10 .0433" 1.15 .0453" 1.20 .0472" 1.25 .0492"
.75 .80 .85
.0295" .0315" .0335"
1.30 .0512" 1.35 .0531" 1.40 .0551"
1.85 .0728" 1.90 .0748" 1.95 .0768"
2.40 .0945" 2.45 .0965" 2.50 .0984"
3.00 .1181" 3.10 .1220" 3.20 .1260"
mm Decimal 3.25 .1280" 3.30 .1299" 3.40 .1339" 3.50 .1378" 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4 .1417" .1457" .1496" .1535" .1575"
mm Decimal 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 .1614" .1654" .1693" .1732" .1772" .1811" .1850" .1890"
mm Decimal 4.9 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 .1929" .1969" .2008" .2047" .2087" .2126" .2165" .2205" .2244"
mm Decimal 5.75 .2264" 5.8 5.9 6 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 .2283" .2323" .2362" .2402" .2441" .2480" .2520" .2559"
mm Decimal 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 7 7.1 7.2 7.3 .2598" .2638" .2677" .2717" .2756" .2795" .2835" .2874"
4.25 .1673"
6.75 .2657"
5.25 .2067"
3.75 .1476"
6.25 .2461"
4.75 .1870"
7.25 .2854"
mm Decimal 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 8 8.1 8.2 .2913" .2953" .2992" .3031" .3071" .3110" .3150" .3189" .3228"
mm Decimal 8.25 .3248" 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 9 .3268" .3307" .3346" .3386" .3425" .3465" .3504" .3543"
mm Decimal 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 .3583" .3622" .3661" .3701" .3740" .3780" .3819" .3858"
mm Decimal 9.9 10 11 12 13 14 .3898" .3937" .4331" .4724" .5118" .5512"
mm Decimal 14.5 .5709" 15 16 17 18 19 .5906" .6229" .6693" .7087" .7480" 15.5 .6102" 16.5 .6496" 17.5 .6890" 18.5 .7283"
9.25 .3642"
10.5 .4134" 11.5 .4528" 12.5 .4921" 13.5 .5315"
7.75 .3051"
8.75 .3445"
9.75 .3839"
mm Decimal 19.5 20 20.5 21 .7677" .7874" .8071" .8268"
mm Decimal 21.5 22 22.5 23 .8465" .8661" .8858" .9055"
mm Decimal 23.5 24 24.5 25 .9252" .9449" .9646" .9843"
Tap Drills Machine Screw Size Aluminum, Brass & Plastics 75% Thread Drill Size 80 64 72 56 64 48 56 40 48 40 44 32 40 32 36 24 32 24 12 .2160 28 32 20 1/4 .2500 28 32 18 5/16 .3125 24 32 16 3/8 .3750 24 32 14 7/16 .4375 20 28 13 1/2 .5000 20 28 12 9/16 .5625 18 24 11 5/8 11/16 3/4 .6250 .6875 .7500 18 24 24 10 .0447 .0538 .0560 .0641 .0668 .0734 .0771 .0813 .0864 .0943 .0971 .0997 .1073 .1257 .1299 .1389 .1517 .1649 .1722 .1777 .1887 .2062 .2117 .2443 .2614 .2742 .2983 .3239 .3499 .3937 3/64 53 53 50 50 47 45 43 42 38 37 36 33 29 29 25 21 16 14 13 7 3 7/32 F I 9/32 5/16 Q U Y Decimal Equiv. .0469 .0595 .0595 .0700 .0700 .0785 .0820 .0890 .0935 .1015 .1040 .1065 .1130 .1360 .1360 .1495 .1590 .1770 .1820 .1850 .2010 .2130 .2188 .2570 .2720 .2812 .3125 .3320 .3438 .3680 .3906 .4040 .4219 .4531 .4688 .4844 .5156 .5156 .5312 .5781 .5781 .6406 .6562 Stainless Steel, Steels & Iron 50% Thread
Clearance Hole Drills All Materials Close Fit Free Fit
Threads Minor Per Dia. Inch
No. or Major Dia. Dia. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 .0600 .0730 .0860 .0990 .1120 .1250 .1380 .1640 .1900
Drill Decimal Drill Decimal Drill Decimal Size Equiv. Size Equiv. Size Equiv. 55 1/16 52 49 48 44 43 41 40 7/64 35 32 31 27 26 20 18 12 10 9 7/32 1 1 J 9/32 L Q S T 25/64 13/32 Z 29/64 15/32 15/32 33/64 17/32 17/32 9/16 19/32 19/32 21/32 11/16 .0520 .0625 .0635 .0730 .0760 .0860 .0890 .0960 .0980 .1094 .1100 .1160 .1200 .1440 .1470 .1610 .1695 .1890 .1935 .1960 .2188 .2280 .2280 .2770 .2812 .2900 .3320 .3480 .3580 .3906 .4062 .4130 .4531 .4688 .4688 .5156 .5312 .5312 .5625 .5938 .5938 .6562 .6875 45/64 49/64 .7031 .7656 23/32 25/32 .6562 .7812 41/64 .6406 21/32 .6562 37/64 .5781 19/32 .5938 33/64 .5156 17/32 .5312 29/64 .4531 15/32 .4687 W .3860 X .3970 P .3230 Q .3320 F .2570 H .2660 2 .2210 1 .2280 52 48 43 37 32 30 27 18 9 .0635 .0760 .0890 .1040 .1160 .1285 .1440 .1695 .1960 50 46 41 35 30 29 25 16 7 .0700 .0810 .0960 .1100 .1285 .1360 .1495 .1770 .2010
.3367 11/32 .3762 25/64 .4056 27/64 .4387 29/64 .4562 15/32 .4603 31/64 .4943 33/64 .5114 33/64 .5135 17/32 .5568 37/64 .5739 37/64 .6364 41/64 .6273 21/32
16 20 13/16 7/8 15/16 1 .8125 .8750 .9375 1.000 20 9 14 20 20 8 12 20 1-1/16 1.0625 1-1/8 1.1250 18 7 12 18 1-3/16 1.1875 18 7 1-1/4 1.2500 12 18 1-5/16 1.3125 18 6 1-3/8 1.3750 12 18 1-7/16 1.4375 18 6 1-1/2 1.500 12 18 1-9/16 1.5625 1-5/8 1.625 18 18 18 5
.6733 11/16 .6887 45/64 .7512 49/64 .7387 49/64 .7874 13/16 .8137 53/64 .8762 57/64 .8466 7/8 .8978 15/16 .9387 61/64 .9943 1.000 .9497 63/64 1.0228 1-3/64 1.0568 1-1/16 1.1193 1-1/8 1.0747 1-7/64 1.1478 111/64
.6875 .7031 .7656 .7656 .8125 .8281 .8906 .8750 .9375 .9531 1.000 .9844 1.0469 1.0625 1.1250 1.1094 1.1719 1.1875 1.2500 1.2187 1.2969 1.3125 1.3750 1.3437 1.4219 1.4375 1.500 1.5625 1.6250 1.5625
45/64 23/32 25/32 51/64 53/64 27/32 29/32 59/64 61/64 31/32
.7031 .7188 .7812 .7969 .8281 .8438 .9062 .9219 .9531 .9688 1-1/64 1.0156 1-1/32 1.0313 61/64 .9531 31/32 .9688 57/64 .8906 29/32 .9062 53/64 .8281 27/32 .8438
1-1/64 1.0156 1-5/64 1.0781 1-3/32 1.0938 1-1/32 1.0313 1-5/64 1.0781 1-9/64 1.1406 1-5/32 1.1562 1-5/64 1.0781 1-9/64 1.1406 1-5/32 1.1562 113/64 113/64 117/64 117/64 121/64 121/64 125/64 125/64 1.2031 1.2031 1.2656 1.2656 1.3281 1.3281 1.3906 1.3906 133/64 1.5156 117/32 1.5312 129/64 1.4531 115/32 1.4688 125/64 1.3906 113/32 1.4062 121/64 1.3281 111/32 1.3438 117/64 1.2656 1-9/32 1.2812 113/64 1.2031 1-7/32 1.2188
1.1818 1-3/16 1.2443 1-1/4 1.1705 1-7/32 1.2728 119/64
1.3068 1-5/16 1.3693 1-3/8 1.2955 1.3978 111/32 127/64
1-7/16 1.4375 129/64 133/64 137/64 141/64 1-5/8 1.4531 1.5156 1.5781 1.6406 1.6250
1.4318 1-7/16 1.4943 1-12 1.5568 1-9/16 1.6193 1-5/8 1.5046 1-9/16
137/64 141/64 145/64 149/64
1.5781 1.6406 1.7031 1.7659
119/32 121/32 123/32 125/32
1.5938 1.6562 1.7188 1.7812
11.6875 11/16 1-3/4 1.750
Coarse Metric Thread Sizes

Thread Size M1 x 0.25 M1.1 x 0.25 Tap Drill (mm) 0.75 0.85 Thread Size M12 x 1.75 M14 x 2 Tap Drill (mm) 10.20 12.00
M1.2 x 0.25 M1.4 x 0.3 M1.6 x 0.35 M1.8 x 0.35 M2 x 0.4 M2.2 x 0.45 M2.5 x 0.45 M3 x 0.5 M3.5 x 0.6 M4 x 0.7 M4.5 x 0.75 M5 x 0.8 M6 x 1 M7 x 1 M8 x 1.25 M9 x 1.25 M10 x 1.5 M11 x 1.5
0.95 1.10 1.25 1.45 1.60 1.75 2.05 2.50 2.90 3.30 3.70 4.20 5.00 6.00 6.80 7.80 8.50 9.50
M16 x 2 M18 x 2.5 M20 x 2.5 M22 x 2.5 M24 x 3 M27 x 3 M30 x 3.5 M33 x 3.5 M36 x 4 M39 x 4 M42 x 4.5 M45 x 4.5 M48 x 5 M52 x 5 M56 x 5.5 M60 x 5.5 M64 x 6 M68 x 6
14.00 15.50 17.50 19.50 21.00 24.00 26.50 29.50 32.00 35.00 37.50 40.50 43.00 47.00 50.50 54.50 58.00 62.00
Metric Fine Thread Sizes

Thread Size M4 x 0.35 M4 x 0.5 M5 x 0.5 M6 x .5 M6 x .75 M7 x .75 M8 x .5 M8 x .75 M8 x 1 M9 x 1 M10 x 0.75 M10 x 1 M10 x 1.25 Tap Drill (mm) 3.60 3.50 4.50 5.50 5.25 6.25 7.00 7.25 7.50 8.00 9.25 9.0 8.8 Thread Size M16 x 1 M16 x 1.5 M18 x 1 M18 x 2 M20 x 1 M20 x 1.5 M20 x 2 M22 x 1 M22 x 1.5 M22 x 2 M24 x 1.5 M24 x 2 M26 x 1.5 Tap Drill (mm) 15.0 15.0 17.0 16.0 19.0 18.5 18.0 21.0 20.5 20.0 22.5 22.0 24.5
M11 x 1 M12 x .75 M12 x 1 M12 x 1.5 M14 x 1 M14 x 1.25 M14 x 1.5
10.0 11.25 11.0 10.5 13.0 12.8 12.5
M27 x 1.5 M27 x 2 M28 x 1.5 M30 x 1.5 M30 x 2 M33 x 2 M36 x 3
25.5 25.0 26.5 28.5 28.0 31.0 36.0
American Standard & ISO Metric Thread Sizes& Tap Drills

*Indicates Size of drill to be used before tapping American Standard Thread Thread Size 0-80 1-64 1-72 2-56 2-64 3-48 3-56 4-40 4-48 5-40 Tap Drill Size (in.) 3/64 53 53 51 50 5/64 46 43 42 39 ISO Metric Thread Thread Size M1 x 0.25 M1.1 x 0.25 M1.2 x 0.25 M1.4 x 0.3 M1.6 x 0.35 M1.8 x 0.35 M2 x 0.4 M2.2 x 0.45 M2.5 x 0.45 M3 x 0.5 Tap Drill Size (mm) 0.75 0.85 0.95 1.10 1.25 1.45 1.60 1.75 2.05 2.50
American Standard Thread Thread Size 5-44 6-32 6-40 8-32 8-36 10-24 10-32 12-24 12-28 Tap Drill Size (in.) 37 36 33 29 29 25 21 17 15
ISO Metric Thread Thread Size M3.5 x 0.6 M4 x 0.7 M4.5 x 0.75 M5 x 0.8 M6 x 1 M7 x 1 M8 x 1.25 M9 x 1.25 M10 x 1.5 Tap Drill Size (mm) 2.90 3.30 3.70 4.20 5.00 6.00 6.80 7.80 8.50
1/4-20
M11 x 1.5
9.50
American Standard Thread Thread Size 1/4-28 5/16-18 5/16-24 3/8-16 3/8-24 7/16-14 7/16-20 1/2-13 1/2-20 9/16-12 Tap Drill Size (in.) 3 F I 5/16 Q U W 27/64 29/64 31/64
ISO Metric Thread Thread Size M12 x 1.75 M14 x 2 M16 x 2 M18 x 2.5 M20 x 2.5 M22 x 2.5 M24 x 3 M27 x 3 M30 x 3.5 M33 x 3.5 Tap Drill Size (mm) 10.20 12.00 14.00 15.50 17.50 19.50 21.00 24.00 26.50 29.50
American Standard Thread Thread Size 9/16-18 5/8-11 5/8-18 3/4-10 3/4-16 7/8-9 7/8-14 1"-8 1"-14 Tap Drill Size (in.) 33/64 17/32 37/64 21/32 11/16 49/64 13/16 7/8 15/16
ISO Metric Thread Thread Size M36 x 4 M39 x 4 M42 x 4.5 M45 x 4.5 M48 x 5 M52 x 5 M56 x 5.5 M60 x 5.5 M64 x 6 M68 x 6 Tap Drill Size (mm) 32.00 35.00 37.50 40.50 43.00 47.00 50.50 54.50 58.00 62.00
Standard NPT Tap Drill Sizes

NPT Size
1/16 1/8 1/4 3/8
Tap Drill Size (in.) "C" "Q"

7/16 9/16
Decimal Equivalent (in.) 0.242 0.332 0.438 0.562
27
- 27 - 18 - 18
1/2 3/4
- 14 - 14
45/64 29/32
0.703 0.906 1.141 1.484 1.719 2.188 2.609 3.234 Pilot Hole in Softwood
1/64 1/32 1/32 3/64 3/64 1/16 1/16 1/16 5/64 5/64 3/32 3/32 7/64 7/64 9/64 9/64 11/64 3/16
1.0 - 111/2 11/4 - 111/2 11/2 - 111/2 2.0 - 111/2 21/2 - 8 3.0 - 8 Screw Size
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 14 16 18 20 24
19/64 131/64 123/32 23/16 239/64 315/64
Body Dia.
0.060 0.073 0.086 0.099 0.112 0.125 0.138 0.151 0.164 0.177 0.190 0.203 0.216 0.242 0.268 0.294 0.320 0.372
Shank Pilot Hole*

1/16 5/64 3/32 7/64 7/64 1/8 9/64 5/32 11/64 3/16 3/16 13/64 7/32 1/4 17/64 19/64 21/64 3/8
Pilot Hole in Hardwood

1/32 1/32 3/64 1/16 1/16 5/64 5/64 3/32 3/32 7/64 7/64 1/8 1/8 9/64 5/32 3/16 13/64 7/32
These dimensions are for standard American wood screws, which are tapered. They are not suitable for screws which are not tapered, such as dry wall screws. All dimensions are in inches. * - The shank pilot hole is one which will clear the thickest part of the screw body.
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Thread Count (TPI) Explained - TPI stands for Threads Per Inch which is simply a count of the number of threads per
inch measured along the length of a fastener. This description is used only with American fasteners. Metric Fasteners use a thread Pitch to designate different thread sizes.
Bolt Size No. or Inches #0 #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #8 #10 #12 1/4 5/16 3/8 7/16 1/2 9/16 5/8 3/4 7/8 1 1-1/8 1-1/4 1-3/8 1-1/2 1-3/4 2 2-1/4 2-1/2 2-3/4 3 3-1/4 3-1/2 3-3/4 4
Threads Per Inch (TPI) Coarse Thread UNC 64 56 48 40 40 32 32 24 24 20 18 16 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 7 6 6 5 4-1/2 4-1/2 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 Fine Thread UNF 80 72 64 56 48 44 40 36 32 28 28 24 24 20 20 18 18 16 14 12 12 12 12 12
Socket Head Cap Screw Sizes

Screw Size No. 0 Decimal Equiv. (Inches)
0.060
Hex Key Size (Inches)

0.05
Head Height Head Diameter (Inches) (Inches)

0.060 0.096
No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 No. 6 No. 8 No. 10 No. 12 1/4" 5/16" 3/8" 7/16" 1/2" 5/8" 3/4" 7/8" 1" 1 1/8"
0.073 0.086 0.099 0.112 0.125 0.138 0.164 0.190 0.216 0.250 0.313 0.375 0.438 0.500 0.625 0.750 0.875 1.000 1.125
1/16 5/64 5/64 3/32 3/32 7/64 9/64 5/32 ??? 3/16 1/4 5/16 3/8 3/8 1/2 5/8 3/4 3/4 7/8
0.073 0.086 0.099 0.112 0.125 0.138 0.164 0.190 0.216 1/4 5/16 3/8 7/16 1/2 5/8 3/4 7/8 1 1 1/8
0.118 0.140 0.161 0.183 0.205 0.226 0.270 0.312 ??? 3/8 15/32 9/16 21/32 3/4 15/16 1 1/8 1 5/16 1 1/2 1 11/16
SAE & ASTM Bolt Grade Identification Marks and Mechanical Properties
Bolt Grade Identification Marking Proof Tensile Nominal Size Load Strength Material (inch) Stress (min Notes (ksi) ksi)
Specs SAE Grade 1 SAE Grade 2 ASTM A307
1/4 to 1 1/2
1/4 thru 3/4 over 3/4 thru 1-1/2
33
55 33 33
60
74 60 60 3 1
1/4 to 1 1/2 SAE Grade 4 1/4 to 1 1/2

SAE - Grade 5 1/4 thru 1 1 1/8 thru 11/2 1 3/4 thru 3
65
85 74 55
115
120 105 90
2,a
ASTM A449 Type 1
2, b
SAE - Grade 5.2
1/4 thru 1
85
120
4, b
1/2 thru 1 ASTM A325 Type 1 1 1/8 to 1-1/2
85
120 2, b
74
105
85
120 4,b
74
105
85
120
5,b
74 105
1/4 thru 2-1/2 ASTM A354 Grade BC 2-3/4 thru 4
105
125 5,b
95
115
SAE Grade 7 1/4 to 1 1/2
105
133
7,b
SAE - Grade 8 1/4 thru 1-1/2
120
150
7,b
ASTM A354 Grade BD
1/4 thru 1-1/2
120
150
6,b
SAE - Grade 8.2
1/4 thru 1
120
150
4,b
ASTM A490 Type 1
1/2 thru 1-1/2
120
150
6,b
ASTM A490 Type 3
1/2 thru 1-1/2
120
150
5,b
Material Notes 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Treatment a - cold drawn b - quenched and tempered Low or Medium Carbon Steel Medium Carbon Steel Low Carbon Low Carbon Martensite Weathering Steel Alloy Steel Medium Carbon Alloy
Bolt Torque Information

Standard Steel Bolt Torques Metric Steel Bolt Torques Hex Cap Screw Torques and Clamp Loads S/S, Monel, Aluminum, Brass, & Bronze Bolt Torques Whitworth Steel Bolt Torques
Standard Steel Bolt Torque Specifications

Standard Dry Torque in Foot-Pounds
Bolt Size (in.) Coarse Threads/ inch SAE Grade 0-1-2 74,000 psi Low Carbon Steel 6 12 20 32 47 69 96 155 206 310 SAE Grade 3 100,000 psi Med. Carbon Steel 9 17 30 47 69 103 145 234 372 551 SAE Grade 5 120,000 psi Med. Carbon Heat T. Steel 10 19 33 54 78 114 154 257 382 587 SAE Grade 6 133,000 psi Med. Carbon Temp. Steel 12.5 24 43 69 106 150 209 350 550 825 SAE Grade 7 133,000 psi Med. Carbon Alloy Steel 13 25 44 71 110 154 215 360 570 840 SAE Grade 8 150,000 psi Med. Carbon Alloy Steel 14 29 47 78 119 169 230 380 600 700
1/4 5/16 3/8 7/16 1/2 9/16 5/8 3/4 7/8 1
20 18 16 14 13 12 11 10 9 8
1-1/8 1-1/4 1-3/8 1-1/2 1-5/8 1-3/4 1-7/8 2
7 7 6 6 5.5 5 5 4.5
480 375 900 1100 1470 1900 2360 2750
872 1211 1624 1943 2660 3463 4695 5427
794 1105 1500 1775 2425 3150 4200 4550
1304 1815 2434 2913 3985 5189 6980 7491
1325 1825 2500 3000 4000 5300 7000 7500
1430 1975 2650 3200 4400 5650 7600 8200
Washer Manufacturing
Stamped metal washers measure typically 0.005 to 0.250 in. thick, with outside diameters to 5 in. Metalforming companies stamp them on presses from 5 to 200 tons from sheetmetal blanks fed manually or automatically, or often from coil stock on progressive dies. Press lines may include automatic uncoiling, feeding and injection systems. Washers can be stamped from any punchable materials, including spring steel, carbon steel, stainless steel, brass and aluminum alloys. Washer designs include wavy, bowed and slotted. Typical styles include fender washers (light, medium and heavy), highstrength structural washers, U-bolt washers, split-lock styles, dock washers and automotive body shims. Order quantities typically start at 100 pieces, although many suppliers will satisfy special requests for smaller quantities. Value-added services offered by washer manufacturers include flat or tumble deburring, heattreating and plating (cadmium, phosphate, mechanical galvanizing and hot-dip galvanizing). Some washer manufacturers also offer fully-equipped A2LA laboratories and meet quality standards for nuclear construction, MIL-Spec work, and SAE and ANSI specs.
Two types of flat washers are defined for general use. Type A is a series of steel washers with broad tolerances, where design refinement is not important. They range from No. 6 to 3-in. hole size and from 3/16 to 5-in. OD. Type A washers are satisfactory for most assemblies. Type B washers are of higher quality and are specified in Narrow, Regular, and Wide diameters for each screw size from No. 0 to 3 in. However, many other standard sizes are available. Series Designations -- N-Narrow, R-Regular, W-Wide
American National Standard (ANSI) Type B Plain Washers

Nominal Decimal Inside Outside Series Thickness Size Equiv. Size Diameter Diameter
N No. 0 0.060" R W N No. 1 0.073" R W No. 2 0.086" N R
0.0680 0.0680 0.0680 0.0840 0.0840 0.0840 0.0940 0.0940
0.1250 0.1880 0.2500 0.1560 0.2190 0.2810 0.1880 0.2500
0.0250 0.0250 0.0250 0.0250 0.0250 0.0320 0.0250 0.0320
W N No. 3 0.099" R W N No. 4 0.112" R W N No. 5 0.125" R W N No. 6 0.138" R W
0.0940 0.1090 0.1090 0.1090 0.1250 0.1250 0.1250 0.1410 0.1410 0.1410 0.1560 0.1560 0.1560
0.3440 0.2190 0.3120 0.4060 0.2500 0.3750 0.4380 0.2810 0.4060 0.5000 0.3120 0.4380 0.5620
0.0320 0.0250 0.0320 0.0400 0.0320 0.0400 0.0400 0.0320 0.0400 0.0400 0.0320 0.0400 0.0400
N No. 8 0.164" R W N No. 10 0.190" R W N No. 12 0.216" R W N .25 0.25" R W N .3125 0.312" R W N .375 0.375" R W N .4375 0.438" R W
0.1880 0.1880 0.1880 0.2030 0.2030 0.2030 0.2340 0.2340 0.2340 0.2810 0.2810 0.2810 0.3440 0.3440 0.3440 0.4060 0.4060 0.4060 0.4690 0.4690 0.4690
0.3750 0.5000 0.6250 0.4060 0.5620 0.7340 0.4380 0.6250 0.8750 0.5000 0.7340 1.0000 0.6250 0.8750 1.1250 0.7340 1.0000 1.2500 0.8750 1.1250 1.4690
0.0400 0.0400 0.0630 0.0400 0.0400 0.0630 0.0400 0.0630 0.0630 0.0630 0.0630 0.0630 0.0630 0.0630 0.0630 0.0630 0.0630 0.1000 0.0630 0.0630 0.1000
N .5 0.500" R W N .5625 0.562" R W N .625 0.625" R W N .75 0.750" R W N .875 0.875" R W N 1 1.000" R W N 1.125 1.125" R W
0.5310 0.5310 0.5310 0.5940 0.5940 0.5940 0.6560 0.6560 0.6560 0.8120 0.8120 0.8120 0.9380 0.9380 0.9380 1.0620 1.0620 1.0620 1.1880 1.1880 1.1880
1.0000 1.2500 1.7500 1.1250 1.4690 2.0000 1.2500 1.7500 2.2500 1.3750 2.0000 2.5000 1.4690 2.2500 2.7500 1.7500 2.5000 3.0000 2.0000 2.7500 3.2500
0.0630 0.1000 0.1000 0.0630 0.1000 0.1000 0.1000 0.1000 0.1600 0.1000 0.1000 0.1600 0.1000 0.1600 0.1600 0.1000 0.1600 0.1600 0.1000 0.1600 0.1600
N 1.25 1.250" R W N 1.375 1.375" R W N 1.5 1.500" R W N 1.625 1.625" R W N 1.75 1.750" R W
1.3120 1.3120 1.3120 1.4380 1.4380 1.4380 1.5620 1.5620 1.5620 1.7500 1.7500 1.7500 1.8750 1.8750 1.8750
2.2500 3.0000 3.5000 2.5000 3.2500 3.7500 2.7500 3.5000 4.0000 3.0000 3.7500 4.2500 3.2500 4.0000 4.5000
0.1600 0.1600 0.2500 0.1600 0.1600 0.2500 0.1600 0.2500 0.2500 0.1600 0.2500 0.2500 0.1600 0.2500 0.2500
N 1.875 1.875" R W N 2 2.000" R W
2.0000 2.0000 2.0000 2.1250 2.1250 2.1250
3.5000 4.2500 4.7500 3.7500 4.5000 5.0000
0.2500 0.2500 0.2500 0.2500 0.2500 0.2500
N 2.25 2.250" R W N 2.5 2.500" R W N 2.75 2.750" R W N 3 3.000" R W
2.3750 2.3750 2.3750 2.6250 2.6250 2.6250 2.8750 2.8750 2.8750 3.1250 3.1250 3.1250
4.0000 5.0000 5.5000 4.5000 5.5000 6.0000 5.0000 6.0000 6.5000 5.5000 6.5000 7.0000
0.2500 0.2500 0.3750 0.2500 0.3750 0.3750 0.2500 0.3750 0.3750 0.3750 0.3750 0.3750
N-Narrow, R-Regular, W-Wide

Finished Hex Nut Dimensions Heavy Hex Nut Dimensions
Dimensions for Finished Hex Nuts, Hex Jam Nuts and Two Way Reversible Lock Nuts
F G H Nominal Or Width Across Thickness Hex Nuts & Width Across Flats Basic Major Corners Reversible Lock Nuts Dia of Thread Basic Max Min Max Min Basic Max Mmin 8 10 1/4 5/16 3/8 0.1640 11/32 0.344 0.332 0.397 0.1900 3/8 0.375 0.362 0.433 0.2500 7/16 0.438 0.428 0.505 0.3125 1/2 0.500 0.489 0.577 0.3750 9/16 0.378 0.413 0.488 0.557 --7/32 17/64 21/64 0.203 0.203 0.226 0.273 0.337 0.187 0.187 0.212 0.258 0.320 H1 Thickness Hex Jam Nuts Basic --5/32 3/16 7/32 Max Min ----0.164 0.150 0.195 0.180 0.227 0.210
0.562 0.551 0.650 0.628
7/16 1/2 9/16 5/8 3/4 7/8 1 1-1/8 1-1/4 1-3/8 1-1/2 1-5/8 1-3/4 2 2-1/4 2-1/2 2-3/4 3
0.4375 11/16 0.688 0.675 0.794 0.768 0.5000 3/4 0.750 0.736 0.866 0.840 0.5625 7/8 0.875 0.861 1.010 0.982 0.6250 0.7500 0.8750 1.0000 1.1250 1.2500 1.3750 1.5000 15/16 1-1/8 1-5/16 1-1/2 1-11/16 1-7/8 2-1/16 2-1/4 0.938 1.125 1.312 1.500 1.688 1.875 2.062 2.250 0.922 1.088 1.269 1.450 1.631 1.812 1.994 2.175 1.083 1.299 1.516 1.732 1.949 2.165 2.382 2.598 1.051 1.240 1.447 1.653
3/8 7/16 31/64 35/64 41/64 3/4 55/64
0.385 0.448 0.496 0.559 0.665 0.776 0.887
0.365 0.427 0.473 0.535 0.617 0.724 0.831 0.939 1.030 1.138 1.245 1.353 1.460 1.675 1.890 2.105 2.319 2.534
1/4 5/16 5/16 3/8 27/64 31/64 35/64 39/64 23/32 25/32 27/32 29/32 31/32 1-3/32 1-7/32
0.260 0.240 0.323 0.302 0.324 0.301 0.387 0.446 0.510 0.575 0.639 0.751 0.815 0.880 0.945 1.009 1.138 1.267 0.363 0.398 0.458 0.519 0.579 0.687 0.747 0.808 0.869 0.929 1.050 1.171
1.859 31/32 0.999 2.066 1-1/6 1.094 2.273 1-11/64 1.206 2.480 1-9/32 1.317 2.686 1-25/64 1.429 2.893 1-1/2 1.540 3.306 1-23/32 1.763 3.719 1-15/16 1.986
1.6250 2-7/16 2.438 2.356 2.815 1.7500 2-5/8 2.625 2.538 3.031 2.0000 3 3.000 2.900 3.464 2.2500 3-3/8 3.375 3.263 3.897
2.5000 3-3/4 3.750 3.625 4.330 4.133 2-5/32 2.209 2.7500 4-1/8 4.125 3.988 4.763 4.546 2-3/8 2.431 3.0000 4-1/2 4.500 4.350 5.196 4.959 2-19/32 2.654
1-11/32 1.396 1.292 1-15/32 1.525 1.413 1-19/32 1.654 1.534
Heavy Hex Nut and Heavy Hex Jam Nut Dimensions

F Nominal Size Width Across Flats Basic Max 1/4 5/16 3/8 7/16 1/2 9/16 5/8 3/4 7/8 1 1 1/8 1 1/4 1 3/8 1 1/2 1 5/8 1/2 Min G Width Across Corners Max H Thickness Heavy Hex Nuts Min H1 Thickness Heavy Hex Jam Nuts Basic Max Min
Min Basic Max
0.500 0.488 0.577 0.556 15/64 0.250 0.218 11/64 0.188 0.156
9/16 0.562 0.546 0.650 0.622 19/64 0.314 0.280 13/64 0.220 0.186 11/16 0.688 0.669 0.794 0.763 23/64 0.377 0.341 15/64 0.252 0.216 3/4 7/8 0.750 0.728 0.866 0.830 27/64 0.441 0.403 17/64 0.285 0.247 0.875 0.850 1.010 0.969 31/64 0.504 0.464 19/64 0.317 0.277
15/16 0.938 0.909 1.083 1.037 35/64 0.568 0.526 21/64 0.349 0.307 1 1/16 1.062 1.031 1.227 1.175 39/64 0.631 0.587 23/64 0.381 0.337 1 1/4 1.250 1.212 1.443 1.382 47/64 0.758 0.710 27/64 0.446 0.398 1 7/16 1.438 1.394 1.660 1.589 55/64 0.885 0.833 31/64 0.510 0.458 1 5/8 1.625 1.575 1.876 1.796 63/64 1.012 0.956 35/64 0.575 0.519 1 1.812 1.756 2.093 2.002 1 7/64 1.139 1.079 39/64 0.639 0.579 13/16 2 2.000 1.938 2.309 2.209 1 7/32 1.251 1.187 23/32 0.751 0.687 1 1.378 1.310 25/32 0.815 0.747 11/32 1 1.505 1.433 27/32 0.880 0.808 15/32 1 1.632 1.556 29/32 0.944 0.868
2 3/16 2.188 2.119 2.526 2.416 2 3/8 2.375 2.300 2.742 2.622 2 9/16 2.562 2.481 2.959 2.828
19/32 1 3/4 1 7/8 2 2 1/4 2 1/2 2 3/4 3 3 1/4 3 1/2 3 3/4 4 2 3/4 2.750 2.662 3.175 3.035 1 1.759 1.679 31/32 1.009 0.929 23/32
2 1 2.938 2.844 3.392 3.242 1.886 1.802 1 1/32 1.073 0.989 15/16 27/32 3 1/8 3.125 3.025 3.608 3.449 3 1/2 3.500 3.388 4.041 3.862 3 7/8 3.875 3.750 4.474 4.275 4 1/4 4.250 4.112 4.907 4.688 4 5/8 4.625 4.475 5.340 5.102 5 1 2.013 1.925 1 3/32 1.138 1.050 31/32 2 1 2.251 2.155 1.251 1.155 13/64 13/64 2 1 2.505 2.401 1.505 1.401 29/64 29/64 2 1 2.759 2.647 1.634 1.522 45/64 37/64 2 1 3.013 2.893 1.763 1.643 61/64 45/64 1 1.876 1.748 13/16 1 2.006 1.870 15/16
5.000 4.838 5.774 5.515 3 3/16 3.252 3.124
5 3/8 5.375 5.200 6.207 5.928 3 7/16 3.506 3.370 5 3/4 5.750 5.562 6.640 6.341 6 1/8 6.125 5.925 7.073 6.755
3 3.760 3.616 2 1/16 2.134 1.990 11/16 3 4.014 3.862 2 3/16 2.264 2.112 15/16
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Screw Thread Limits

Major Diameter Pitch Diameter Minor Diameter Max. 0.0442 0.0447 0.0532 0.0538 0.0554 0.0560 0.0635 0.0641 0.0662 0.0668 0.0727 0.0734 0.0764 0.0771
Screw Size 0-80 0-80 1-64. 1-64. 1-72. 1-72. 2-56. 2-56. 2-64. 2-64. 3-48. 3-48. 3-56. 3-56.
Class Thread 2A 3A 2A 3A 2A 3A 2A 3A 2A 3A 2A 3A 2A 3A
Basic 0.0600 0.0600 0.0730 0.0730 0.0730 0.0730 0.0860 0.0860 0.0860 0.0860 0.0990 0.0990 0.0990 0.0990
Max.
Min.
Basic 0.0519 0.0519 0.0629 0.0629 0.0640 0.0640 0.0744 0.0744 0.0759 0.0759 0.0855 0.0855 0.0874 0.0874
Max. 0.0514 0.0519 0.0623 0.0629 0.0634 0.0640 0.0738 0.0744 0.0753 0.0759 0.0848 0.0855 0.0867 0.0874
Min. 0.0496 0.0506 0.0603 0.0614 0.0615 0.0626 0.0717 0.0728 0.0733 0.0744 0.0825 0.0838 0.0845 0.0858
0.0595 0.0563 0.0600 0.0568 0.0724 0.0686 0.0730 0.0692 0.0724 0.0689 0.0730 0.0695 0.8540 0.0813 0.0860 0.0819 0.8540 0.0816 0.0860 0.0822 0.0983 0.0938 0.0990 0.0945 0.0983 0.0942 0.0990 0.0949
4-40. 4-40. 4-48. 4-48. 5-40. 5-40. 5-44. 5-44.
2A 3A 2A 3A 2A 3A 2A 3A
0.1120 0.1120 0.1120 0.1120 0.1250 0.1250 0.1250 0.1250
0.1112 0.1061 0.1120 0.1069 0.1113 0.1068 0.1120 0.1075 0.1242 0.1191 0.1250 0.1199 0.1243 0.1195 0.1250 0.1202
0.0958 0.0958 0.0985 0.0985 1.0880 1.0880 0.1102 0.1102
0.0950 0.0958 0.0978 0.0985 1.0800 1.0880 0.1095 0.1102
0.0925 0.0939 0.0954 0.0967 0.1054 0.1069 0.1070 0.1083
0.0805 0.0813 0.0857 0.0864 0.0935 0.0943 0.0964 0.0971
Screw Thread Limits

Major Diameter Pitch Diameter Minor Diameter Max. 0.0989 0.0997 0.1065 0.1073 0.1248 0.1257 0.1291 0.1299 0.1379 0.1389 0.1508 0.1517 0.1876 0.1887 0.2052 0.2062 0.2431 0.2443 0.2603 0.2614 0.2970 0.2983 0.3228 0.3239 0.3485 0.3499 0.3749 0.3762
Screw Size 6-32. 6-32. 6-40. 6-40. 8-32. 8-32. 8-36. 8-36. 10-24. 10-24. 10-32. 10-32. 1/4-20. 1/4-20. 1/4-28. 1/4-28. 5/16-18. 5/16-18. 5/16-24. 5/16-24. 3/8-16. 3/8-16. 3/8-24. 3/8-24. 7/16-14. 7/16-14. 7/16-20. 7/16-20.
Class Thread 2A 3A 2A 3A 2A 3A 2A 3A 2A 3A 2A 3A 2A 3A 2A 3A 2A 3A 2A 3A 2A 3A 2A 3A 2A 3A 2A 3A
Basic 0.1380 0.1380 0.1380 0.1380 0.1640 0.1640 0.1640 0.1640 0.1900 0.1900 0.1900 0.1900 0.2500 0.2500 0.2500 0.2500 0.3125 0.3125 0.3125 0.3125 0.3750 0.3750 0.3750 0.3750 0.4375 0.4375 0.4375 0.4375
Max.
Min.
Basic 0.1177 0.1177 0.1218 0.1218 0.1437 0.1437 0.1460 0.1460 0.1629 0.1629 0.1697 0.1697 0.2175 0.2175 0.2268 0.2268 0.2764 0.2764 0.2854 0.2854 0.3344 0.3344 0.3479 0.3479 0.3911 0.3911 0.4050 0.4050
Max. 0.1169 0.1177 0.1210 0.1218 0.1428 0.1437 0.1452 0.1460 0.1619 0.1629 0.1688 0.1697 0.2164 0.2175 0.2258 0.2268 0.2752 0.2764 0.2843 0.2854 0.3331 0.3344 0.3468 0.3479 0.3897 0.3911 0.4037 0.4050
Min. 0.1141 0.1156 0.1184 0.1198 0.1399 0.1415 0.1424 0.1439 0.1586 0.1604 0.1658 0.1674 0.2127 0.2147 0.2225 0.2243 0.2712 0.2734 0.2806 0.2827 0.3287 0.3311 0.3430 0.3450 0.3850 0.3876 0.3995 0.4019
0.1372 0.1312 0.1380 0.1320 0.1372 0.1321 0.1380 0.1329 0.1631 0.1571 0.1640 0.1580 0.1632 0.1577 0.1640 0.1585 0.1890 0.1818 0.1900 0.1828 0.1891 0.1831 0.1900 0.1840 0.2489 0.2408 0.2500 0.2419 0.2490 0.2425 0.2500 0.2435 0.3113 0.3026 0.3125 0.3038 0.3114 0.3042 0.3125 0.3053 0.3737 0.3643 0.3750 0.3656 0.3739 0.3667 0.3750 0.3678 0.4361 0.4258 0.4375 0.4272 0.4362 0.4281 0.4375 0.4294
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Previous page - Smaller Sizes 1/2 on down Screw Thread Limits

Major Diameter Pitch Diameter Minor Diameter Max. 0.4041 0.4056 0.4374 0.4387 0.5119 0.5135 0.5554 0.5568 0.6255 0.6273 0.6718 0.6733 0.7368 0.7387 0.7858 0.7874 0.8446 0.8466 0.8960 0.8978 0.9475 1.0210 1.0725 1.1460 1.1681 1.2709 1.2931 1.3959 1.5019 1.7245
Screw Size 1/2-13. 1/2-13. 1/2-20. 1/2-20. 5/8-11. 5/8-11. 5/8-18. 5/8-18. 3/4-10. 3/4-10. 3/4-16. 3/4-16. 7/8 -9. 7/8 -9. 7/8-14. 7/8-14. 1 -8. 1 -8. 1 -12. 1 -12. 1-1/8-7. 1-1/812. 1-1/4-7 1-1/4-12 1-3/8-6 1-3/8-12 1-1/2-6 1-1/2-12 1-3/4-5 2 - 4-1/2
Class Thread 2A 3A 2A 3A 2A 3A 2A 3A 2A 3A 2A 3A 2A 3A 2A 3A 2A 3A 2A 3A 2A 2A 2A 2A 2A 2A 2A 2A 2A 2A
Basic 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.6250 0.6250 0.6250 0.6250 0.7500 0.7500 0.7500 0.7500 0.8750 0.8750 0.8750 0.8750 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.1250 1.1250 1.2500 1.2500 1.3750 1.3750 1.5000 1.5000 1.7500 2.0000
Max.
Min.
Basic 0.4500 0.4500 0.4675 0.4675 0.5660 0.5660 0.5889 0.5889 0.6850 0.6850 0.7094 0.7094 0.8028 0.8028 0.8286 0.8286 0.9188 0.9188 0.9459 0.9459 1.0322 1.0709 1.1572 1.1959 1.2667 1.3209 1.3917 1.4459 1.6201 1.8557
Max. 0.4485 0.4500 0.4662 0.4675 0.5644 0.5660 0.5875 0.5889 0.6832 0.6850 0.7079 0.7094 0.8009 0.8028 0.8270 0.8286 0.9168 0.9188 0.9441 0.9459 1.0300 1.0691 1.1550 1.1941 1.2643 1.3190 1.3893 1.4440 1.6174 1.8528
Min. 0.4435 0.4463 0.4619 0.4643 0.5589 0.5619 0.5828 0.5854 0.6773 0.6806 0.7029 0.7056 0.7946 0.7981 0.8216 0.8245 0.9100 0.9137 0.9382 0.9415 1.0228 1.0631 1.1476 1.1879 1.2563 1.3127 1.3812 1.4376 1.6085 1.8433
0.4985 0.4876 0.5000 0.4891 0.4987 0.4906 0.5000 0.4919 0.6234 0.6113 0.6250 0.6129 0.6236 0.6149 0.6250 0.6163 0.7482 0.7353 0.7500 0.7371 0.7485 0.7391 0.7500 0.7406 0.8731 0.8592 0.8750 0.8611 0.8734 0.8631 0.8750 0.8647 0.9980 0.9830 1.0000 0.9850 0.9982 0.9868 1.0000 0.9886 1.1228 1.1064 1.1232 1.1118 1.2478 1.2314 1.2482 1.2368 1.3726 1.3544 1.3731 1.3617 1.4976 1.4794 1.4981 1.4867 1.7473 1.7268 1.9971 1.9751
Sensors: Temperature
Temperature Typical applications for temperature sensors include:

y y y y y y y
HVAC - room, duct, and refrigerant equipment Motors - overload protection Electronic circuits - semiconductor protection Electronic assemblies - thermal management, temperature compensation Process control - temperature regulation Automotive - air and oil temperature Appliances - heating and cooling temperature
Temperature Sensors
Sensor Types 1. Thermocouples - Thermocouples are pairs of dissimilar metal alloy wires joined at least at one end, which generate a net thermoelectric voltage between the two ends according to the size of the temperature difference between the ends, the relative Seebeck coefficient of the wire pair and the uniformity of the wire's relative Seebeck coefficient. 2. Thermistors - Thermistors (Resistance Thermometers) are instruments used to measure temperature by relating the change in resistance as a function of temperature. 3. Radiation Pyrometer - A device to measure temperature by sensing the thermal radiation emitted from the object. 4. Radiation Thermometers (Optical Pyrometers and Infrared Thermometers) Optical Pyrometers are devices used to measure temperature of an object at high temperatures by sensing the brightness of an objects surface. 5. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) - RTD's (Resistance Temperature Detectors) are precision, wire-wound resistors with a known temperature resistance characteristic. In operation, the RTD is usually wired into a specific type of circuit (wheatstone bridge). They are nearly linear over a wide range of temperatures and can be made small enough to have response times of a fraction of a second. They require an electrical current to produce a voltage drop across the sensor that can be then measured by a calibrated read-out device. The output of this circuit can be used to drive a meter which has been calibrated in temperature, or to operate a relay to sound an alarm or shut down the motor. The Platinum RTD is the most accurate and stable temperature detector from zero to about 500C. It can measure temperatures up to 800C. The resistance of the RTD changes as a function of absolute temperature, so it is categorized as one of the absolute temperature devices. (In contrast, the thermocouple cannot measure absolute temperature; it can only measure relative temperature.) 6. Fiber Optic Temperature Sensors - Optical-based temperature sensors provide accurate and stable remote measurement of on-line temperatures in hazardous environments and in environments having high ambient electromagnetic fields without the need for calibration of individual probes and sensors.
Optical temperature sensor systems measure temperatures from -200C to 600C safely and accurately even in extremely hazardous, corrosive, and high electro-magnetic field environments. They are ideal for use in these conditions because their glass-based technology is inherently immune to electrical interference and corrosion. Since there is no need to recalibrate individual sensors, operator and technician safety is greatly enhanced as the need for their repeated exposure to field conditions is eliminated. Probes are made from largely non-conducting and low thermal conductance material, resulting in high stability and low susceptibility to interference, and in increased operator safety. Optical cables also have a much higher information-carrying capacity and are far less subject to interference than electrical conductors. 7. Silicon Temperature Sensors - Integrated circuit temperature sensors differ significantly from the other types in a couple of important ways. The first is operating temperature range. A temperature sensor IC can operate over the nominal IC temperature range of -55 C to +150 C. Some devices go beyond this range while others, because of package or cost constraints, operate over a narrower range. The second difference is functionality. A silicon temperature sensor is an integrated circuit, including extennsive signal processing circuitry within the same package as the sensor.
Sensors: Pressure
Pressure Transducer
Pressure sensor applications include flow (HVAC), height of a column of liquid, altitude, depth of a submerged object, position, sound (dbspl), barometric pressure, map, pressure drop, vacuum, volumetric displacement, and weight. A transducer is simply a device (or medium) that converts energy from one form to another. The term is generally applied to devices that take physical phenomenon (pressure, temperature, humidity, flow, etc.) and convert it to an electrical signal. Pressure transducers/sensors use a wide range of operating principles including:
Pressure Transducer - Motorola
1. 2.
Motion transducers use a bellows or Bourdon tube to convert pressure to an output. In one common type, the LVDT, an inductive member is driven into or out of a coil. It contains numerous pivots and linkages, making it nonlinear and susceptible to wear and vibration, but it has the advantage of inherently high output. Pressure potentiometers have characteristics similar to those of LVDTs. In this case, a wiper is driven across a resistive coil, with output determined by wiper position. Compared to an LVDT, it has the added disadvantage of coil wear. If continuously operated in about the same pressure range, it may suddenly short out or produce severely nonlinear output. These sensors are rather inexpensive. Silicon or "chip" transducers are widely used in high-volume applications. There are two types of silicon pressure sensors, capacitive and piezoresistive. Capacitive devices are much more stable, sensitive, and temperature resistant. Piezoresistive types are easier to make and cost less and therefore dominate the market. Capacitance transducers use a flexing diaphragm to produce capacitance changes proportional to applied pressure. Because of their low price, a common application of these devices is in automobiles. One drawback is at normal hydraulic pressure their operation dictates a large diaphragm making them better suited to low-pressure systems. Piezoresistive Sensors are available in both gage and absolute versions. The sensor typically consists of a Wheatstone bridge etched on a silicon diaphragm which outputs a voltage that is proportional to pressure. Electropneumatic transducers are used to provide regulated air pressures for the control of process systems. Typically, electropneumatic transducers are of three basic types: voice-coil beam, voice-coil beam dampened by an oil dashpot, and torque motor. o Voice-coil beam transducers use a nozzle/flapper arrangement to convert a small mechanical motion into a proportional pneumatic signal. o Damped transducers operate in a similar manner except that the arm controlling flapper position is attached to a float suspended in silicone oil.
3. 4. 5. 6.
Torque-motor transducers also have similar operating principles, except that a conventional torque motor replaces the voice-coil beam arrangement to position the flapper.
Sensors: Flow Rate
Flow Rate Venturi Valves A Venturi valve reduces the cross section of a pipe to create a pressure differential from the normal pipe diameter. The pressure differential increases with the velocity of the flow to aid in determining the flow rate.
Transit-Time Flow Measurement Principle A transit-time flowmeter measures the effect of a liquid's flow velocity on bi-directional acoustical signals. An upstream transducer (T1) sends a Flow Rate Sensor signal to a downstream transducer (T2) that in turn sends a signal back. When there is no flow, the time to go from the T1 to T2 is the same as the time going from T2 to T1. However, when there is flow, the effect of the liquid's flow velocity on the acoustical signal is to assist the signal in the up to downstream direction and hinder the signal in the down to upstream direction. This creates the time difference by which the liquid's flow velocity, and ultimately the flowrate, is determined.
Pitot Tubes Pitot tubes have been used in flow measurement for years. Conventional pitot tubes sense velocity pressure at only one point in the flowing stream. Therefore, a series of measurements must be taken across the stream to obtain a meaningful average flow rate.
Flow Transducers Fluid flowing through the sensor spins a magnetic rotor to induce a voltage in a coil. An electronic circuit measures the frequency of the electrical pulses generated and computes the flow rate. This rate is converted to a 0-5 VDC or 0-20 MA output proportional to the flow rate and also used to control a relay. The relay trip point may be preset at the factory or adjusted by the user by turning a potentiometer.
Sensors: Velocity
Velocity Linear Velocity Transducer - LVT

The LVT is based on the principle of magnetic induction and provide reliable velocity measurement in a linear motion. Passing a magnet through the coil form generates a voltage proportional to the magnets velocity and field strength. This output signal is used to carefully monitor component velocities in various applications.
Tachometer
The tachometer measures the angular velocity of a rotating shaft using one of two methods. The first type connects a DC generator (motor) to the shaft which produces a voltage proportional to the increase in shaft angular velocity. The second type utilizes a magnet with a pickup coil. As the magnet passes the coil a pulse is generated. The pulse magnitude and frequency are proportional to the angular speed.
Handheld Tachometer
Sensors: Force
Force Load Cells / Force Transducers

Load Cells are intended for determination of static or dynamic tensile and compressive loads and come in many different forms including compression, tension, simple beam and single point. Force transducers can be used as load cells, but can also be used in weighing applications and measuring compression or tension. Load cells can be built utilizing either transducers, LVDTs, strain gauges or piezoelectric sensors.
Tension Load Cell
Strain Gauges
Strain gauges are used for the measurement of tensile and compressive strain in a body and can therefore pick up expansion as well as contraction. Strain is caused in a body by internal or external forces, pressures, moments, heat, or structural changes in the material. In general, most types of strain gages depend on the proportional variance of electrical resistance to strain: the piezoresistive or semi-conductor gage, the carbon-resistive gage, the bonded metallic wire, and foil resistance gages. The bonded resistance strain gage is by far the most widely used in experimental stress analysis. They typically consist of a grid of very fine wire or foil bonded to the backing or carrier matrix. The carrier matrix attaches to test specimens with an adhesive. When the
Strain Gauges
specimen is mechanically stressed (loaded), the strain on the surface is transmitted to the resistive grid through the adhesive and carrier layers. The strain is then found by measuring the change in resistance. The bonded resistance strain gage is low in cost, can be made with a short gage length, is only moderately affected by temperature changes, has small physical size and low mass, and has fairly high sensitivity to strain.
Sensors: Acceleration
Acceleration
An accelerometer is an electromechanical transducer which produces at its output terminals, a voltage or charge that is proportional to the acceleration to which it is subjected. The piezoelectric elements (similar to small crystals) within the accelerometer have the property of producing an electrical charge which is directly proportional to the strain and thus the applied force when loaded either in tension, compression or shear. Applications include measurement of Acceleration, Angular Acceleration, Velocity, Position, RPM or Angular Rate, Frequency, Impulse and Impulse Energy, Force, Tilt and Orientation, and Motion Detection. Accelerometers
Manufacturing: Surface Finishing
Intro
Finish Machining
Surface Treatments
Platings Coatings
Online Resources
Surface Finishing Coatings

Air Spray Painting Electrocoating Porcelain Enameling Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) Low Temperature Arc Vapor Deposition (LTAVD) Powder Coating Conversion Coating Pad Printing Silk screen printing Diamond Coating (CVD) Physical Vapor Deposition - (PVD) Thermal Spraying Diffusion Coating Polyurethane Coatings
Diamond Coatings CVD
To the scientist, the diamond is impressive because of its wide range of extreme properties. It is the hardest known material, has the lowest coefficient of thermal expansion, is chemically inert and wear resistant, offers low friction, has high thermal conductivity, is electrically insulating and optically transparent from the ultra-violet (UV) to the far infrared (IR). Given these many notable properties, it should come as no surprise to learn that diamond already finds use in many diverse applications including, of course, its use as a precious gem, but also as a heat sink, as an abrasive, and as inserts and/or wear-resistant coatings for cutting tools. Obviously, given its many unique properties it is possible to envisage many other potential applications for diamond as an engineering material, but progress in implementing many such ideas has been hampered by the comparative scarcity of natural diamond. Hence the long running quest for routes to synthesise diamond in the laboratory. So called 'industrial diamond' has been synthesised commercially for over 30 years using >high-pressure high-temperature (HPHT) techniques, in which diamond is crystallised from metal solvated carbon at P~50-100 kbar and T~1800-2300 K.
Some of the outstanding properties of diamond
1. Extreme mechanical hardness (~90 GPa). 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Strongest known material, highest bulk modulus (1.2 x 1012 N/m2), Lowest compressibility (8.3 x 10-13 m2/ N) Highest known value of thermal conductivity at room temperature (2 x 103 W / m / K). Thermal expansion coefficient at room temperature (0.8 x 10-6 K) is comparable with that of Invar. Broad optical transparency from the deep UV to the far IR region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Good electrical insulator (room temperature resistivity is ~1016 O cm). Diamond can be doped to change its resistivity over the range 10-106 O cm, so becoming a semiconductor with a wide bad gap of 5.4 eV. Very resistant to chemical corrosion. Biologically compatible. Exhibits low or 'negative' electron affinity.
World interest in diamond has been further increased by the much more recent discovery that it is possible to produce polycrystalline diamond films, or coatings, by a wide variety of chemical vapor deposition (CVD) techniques using, as process gases, nothing more exotic than a hydrocarbon gas (typically methane) in an excess of hydrogen. This CVD diamond can show mechanical, tribological, and even electronic properties comparable to those of natural diamond. There is currently much optimism that it will prove possible to scale CVD methods to the extent that they will provide an economically viable alternative to the traditional HPHT methods for producing diamond abrasives and heat sinks, whilst the possibility of coating large surface areas with a continuous film of diamond will open up whole new ranges of potential application for the CVD methods.
Intro
Finish Machining
Surface Treatments
Platings Coatings
Online Resources

Conversion Coating Conversion coating is a metal finishing process which involves the application of a coating (e.g., by spray or dip tank) to a base metal to increase corrosion protection and to prepare the surface for additional coatings, or the formulation of a special surface appearance. Conversion coatings include chromating, phosphating, metal coloring and/or immersion plating. Chemical conversion coatings are deposited on aluminum by different methods such as dipping, spraying or roll coating. The purpose is to form a continuous film, normally an oxide, which provides a good base for painting and adhesive bonding. Desirable properties of the conversion coatings are:
y y y y
Ability to form physical and chemical bonds to paints and adhesives Good resistance against hydration High stability over a wide pH range Corrosion protection of the substrate
Electrocoating
Electrocoating, which is also referred to as electrodeposition, electrophoretic deposition, or electropainting, is an organic finishing process that uniformly applies thin-film primers and one-coat finishes to metallic substrates. Electrocoating resembles electroplating in that it utilizes an electrical current to deposit a coating onto substrates. However, electrocoating deposits waterborn paint onto substrates rather than metal ions. The overall process consists of four main process steps: pretreating, electrocoating, rinsing, and baking. The electrocoating process may be anodic or cathodic, depending on the charge applied the substrate. Although the processes are virtually the same, properties of the resultant coating are dissimilar. Anodic systems, which were the first to be used for electrocoating, apply paint to positively charged substrates. The negatively charged pigment and resin particles deposit onto the substrate (anode). One disadvantage of this process is that substrate metals dissolve and become incorporated into the coating, which affects surface properties. Cathodic electrocoating deposits paint onto negatively charged substrates and offers several advantages over anodic electrocoating. For example, metal dissolution of the substrate does not occur, cathodic electrocoating has the ability to deposit over contaminants, corrosion resistance is improved, and a better color consistency occurs over welded areas.
Parts Going Into Electrocoating Bath
Electrocoating Process
The electrocoat process can be divided into four distinct steps:
1. 2. 3. 4.
Pretreatment Electrocoat Bath Post Rinses Baking
Pretreatment - cleaning and phosphating the metal

The pretreatment zone cleans and phosphates the metal to prepare the surface for electrocoating. Cleaning and phosphating are essential to achieving the performance requirements desired by today's end user of the product. A high quality zinc phosphate system using the immersion method is primarily used where steel and iron parts are to be coated.
Electrocoat Bath - applying coating in bath

The electrocoat bath and ancillary equipment zone is where the coating is applied and the process control equipment operates. The electrocoat bath consists of 80-90% deionized water and 10-20% paint solids. The deionized water acts as the carrier for the paint solids which are under constant agitation. The solids consist of resin and pigment. Resin is the backbone of the final paint film and provides corrosion protection, durability and toughness. Pigments are used to provide color and gloss.
Post Rinses - rinsing off excess paint solids

The post rinses provide both quality and conservation. During the electrocoat process, paint is applied to a part at a certain film thickness, regulated by the amount of voltage applied. Once the coating reaches the desired film thickness, the part insulates and the coating process slows down. As the part exits the bath, paint solids cling to the surface and have to be rinsed off to maintain efficiency and aesthetics. The excess paint solids are called "drag out" or "cream coat." These excess paint solids are returned to the tank to create a coating application efficiency above 95%.
Bake Oven - thermally curing the paint film

The bake oven receives the parts after they exit the post rinses. The bake oven cross links and cures the paint film to assure maximum performance properties. The minimum bake schedule is 20 minutes with the part temperature at 375F for most electrocoat technologies. However, there is also a "low temperature cure" electrocoat material. This material has a minimum cure of 20 minutes at a part temperature of 180F so that many assemblies containing seals, bushings, bearings, or oil can use the electrocoat process.
Process Advantages E-coat provides an excellent base for a variety of topcoats. It provides an incredible "dual application advantage," creating a more decorative and durable finish. In addition, e-coat offers an "environomic" solution - no heavy metals, no HAPS and low VOCs. It can be used on a wide variety of substrates including -
1. Cold Rolled/Hot Rolled Steel 2. Galvanized Steel 3. Iron Castings 4. Zinc Castings 5. Copper/Brass 6. Conductive Composites 7. Aluminum Extrusions and Castings 8. Rare Earth Magnets (NdFeB) 9. NiZn Plated Steel 10. Stainless Steel 11. Magnesium 12. Chrome Plate.
Electrocoating readily conforms to complex configurations and yet maintains engineered tolerances on parts ensuring intended operating functions. Some examples include: Internal Surfaces, Deep Recesses, Weldments, Fasteners, Small Parts, Large Parts, Uniform Coating- No Sags or Runs.
Intro
Finish Machining
Surface Treatments
Platings Coatings
Online Resources

Powder Coating
Powder coating is a dry finishing process, using finely ground particles of pigment and resin that are generally electrostatically charged and sprayed onto electrically grounded parts. The charged powder particles adhere to the parts and are held there until melted and fused into a smooth coating in a curing oven. Before coating, the parts to be coated are first pretreated similarly to conventional liquid coated parts. The pretreatment process is normally conducted in series with the coating and curing operations. There is essentially two common ways of applying powder coating: by electrostatic spray and by fluidized bed powder coating. There are several other processes that have been developed, but they are far less used. These include flame spraying, spraying with a plasma gun, airless hot spray, and coating by electophoretic deposition. The fluidized bed is the original powder coating technique. It is still the primary technique used for the application of thermoplastic powders. The fluidized bed is also used for the application of some thermoset powders where high film build is required. Thermoset powders designed for electrical insulation often use the fluidized bed technique. The parts are preheated to a temperature significantly higher than the melting point of the powder. The parts are then immersed into a "fluidized bed" of the coating powder where the plastic powder is melted onto the part. Electrostatic spray is the primary technique used for thermoset powders. The particles of powder are given an electrical charge in the powder coating gun. The target part is attached to a fixture that is grounded. The electrically charged powder particles are attracted to the grounded part and attach themselves like little magnets to the part. The particles build-up on the surface of the part until it is covered with charged particles and the part surface is charged. At this point the oncoming particles are actually repelled by the charged particles on the part and the coating process stops. This provides an even film thickness.
Materials
There are two types of powder coatings - thermoplastic and thermosetting. A thermoplastic powder coating is one that melts and flows when heat is applied, but continues to have the same chemical composition once it cools and solidifies. Thermoplastic powders exhibit excellent chemical resistance, toughness, and flexibility. They are applied mainly by the fluidized bed application technique, in which heated parts are dipped into a vat where the powders are fluidized by air, and are used in many thick film applications. They are generally applied to a surface that has been preheated to a temperature significantly higher than the melting point of the powder. As a thermoplastic powder material is applied to the hot surface it will melt and "fusion bond" to the surface and then "flow out" into a strong, continuous film. As the film cools it develops its physical properties. Nylonpowder coating materials are the most commonly used thermoplastic powders. Thermosetting powder coatings are based on lower molecular weight solid resins, and melt when exposed to heat. After they flow into a uniform thin layer, however, they chemically crosslink within themselves or with other reactive components to form a reaction product of much higher molecular weight. These newly formed materials are heat stable and, unlike the thermoplastic products after curing, will not soften back to the liquid phase when heated. Thermosetting powders are derived from three generic types of resins: epoxy, polyester and acrylic. From these resin types, several coating systems are derived. Resins used in thermosetting powders can be ground into fine particles necessary for spray application and a thin film finish. Most of the technological advancements in recent years have been with thermosetting powders.
Epoxy - Epoxy Powder Coatings exhibit inherent toughness, corrosion resistance, chemical resistance, flexibility, adhesion and abrasion resistance. Epoxy powder is normally used where a tough durable film is required and the product will not be exposed to direct sunlight for long periods of time. An epoxy coating will form a chalk like appearance on the surface with lengthy exposure to sunlight. Typical applications include: - Appliances - Business Machines - Electrical Enclosures - Hospital Equipment - Office Furniture - Oil Filters - Power Tools - Shelving
- Tool Boxes
Urethane Powder Coatings feature characteristics of excellent gloss retention and long-term resistance to humidity and corrosion in thin film applications. Typical applications include: - Agricultural Equipment - Air Conditioners - Construction Equipment - Electrical Enclosures - Lawn and Garden Equipment - Lawn Furniture - Light Fixtures - Office Furniture - Recreational Equipment - Under-hood Automotive - Wheels and Rims
Polyester Powder Coatings feature characteristics of long-term exterior durability, high performance mechanical properties and overbake resistance. Polyester powder is widely used for decorative components where good resistance to the ultraviolet rays from sunlight is important. Many automotive trim components and other exterior components are coated with polyester powders. Typical applications include: - Agricultural Equipment - Appliances - Construction Equipment - Electrical Enclosures - Lawn and Garden Equipment - Lawn Furniture - Recreational Equipment - Under-hood Automotive - Wheels and Rims
Acrylic powder is specified where the decorative requirements and resistance to ultraviolet rays from sunlight for a longer period of time is critical. Many critical automotive trim components are coated with acrylic powder.
Thermal spraying
Thermal sprayed coatings are used extensively for a wide range of industrial applications. The technique generally involves the spraying of molten powder or wire feedstock, the melting being achieved by oxy-fuel combustion or an electric arc (plasma). The molten particles are accelerated by the flame and impact onto a properly prepared substrate, usually metallic. Solidification occurs rapidly so the as-sprayed deposit is ultra-fine grained. The materials which are sprayed include most metal alloys and ceramics. Thermal spray processing is a well established means of forming coatings of thicknesses greater than about 50 micrometers: socalled "thick coatings". A wide range of materials can be thermal sprayed for a variety of applications, ranging from gas turbine technology (heat engines) to the electronics industry. Thermal sprayed coatings have been produced for at least 40 years, but the last decade has seen a virtual revolution in the capability of the technology to produce truly high performance coatings of a great range of materials on many different substrates. This enhancement of the technology has been achieved largely through the introduction of new spray techniques, the enhancement of spray process controls, by employing state-of-the-art methods of feedstock materials production, and through the use of modern techniques of quality assurance.
Process
The basic steps involved in any thermal coating process are substrate preparation, masking and fixturing, coating, finishing, inspection, and stripping (when necessary). Substrate preparation usually involves scale and oil/grease removal, as well as surface roughening. Roughening is necessary for most of the thermal spray processes to ensure adequate bonding of the coating to the substrate. The most common method is grit blasting usually with alumina. There are three basic categories of thermal spray technologies:
1. 2. 3.
Combustion Torch (flame spray, high velocity oxy-fuel, and detonation gun) Electric (wire) Arc Plasma Arc
Thermal Spray
This process is basically the spraying of molten material onto a surface to provide a coating. Material in powder form is melted in a flame (oxy-acetylene or hydrogen most common) to form a fine spray. When the spray contacts the prepared surface of a substrate material, the fine molten droplets rapidly solidify forming a coating. This flame spray process carried out correctly is called a "cold process" (relative to the substrate material being coated) as the substrate temperature can be kept low during processing avoiding damage, metallurgical changes and distortion to the substrate material. The main advantage of this flame spray process over the similar Combustion wire spray process is that a much wider range of materials can be easily processed into powder form giving a larger choice of coatings. The flame spray process is only limited by materials with higher melting temperatures than the flame can provide or if the material decomposes on heating.
Electric (wire) Arc

In the Arc Spray Process a pair of electrically conductive wires are melted by means of an electric arc. The molten material is atomised by compressed air and propelled towards the substrate surface. The impacting molten particles on the substrate rapidly solidify to form a coating. This arc spray process carried out correctly is called a "cold process" (relative to the substrate material being coated) as the substrate temperature can be kept low during processing avoiding damage, metallurgical changes and distortion to the substrate material. Electric arc spray coatings are normally denser and stronger than their equivalent combustion spray coatings. Low running costs, high spray rates and efficiency make it a good tool for spraying large areas and high production rates. Disadvantages of the electric arc spray process are that only electrically conductive wires can be sprayed and if substrate preheating is required, a separate heating source is needed. The main applications of the arc spray process are anti-corrosion coatings of zinc and aluminium and machine element work on large components.
Plasma Arc
The Plasma Spray Process is basically the spraying of molten or heat softened material onto a surface to provide a coating. Material in the form of powder is injected into a very high temperature plasma flame, where it is rapidly heated and accelerated to a high velocity. The hot material impacts on the substrate surface and rapidly cools forming a coating. This plasma spray process carried out correctly is called a "cold process" (relative to the substrate material being coated) as the substrate temperature can be kept low during processing avoiding damage, metallurgical changes and distortion to the substrate material. The plasma spray process is most commonly used in normal atmospheric conditions and referred as APS. Some plasma spraying is conducted in protective environments using vacuum chambers normally back filled with a protective gas at low pressure, this is referred as VPS or LPPS. Plasma spraying has the advantage that it can spray very high melting point materials such as refractory metals like tungsten and ceramics like zirconia unlike combustion processes. Plasma sprayed coatings are generally much denser, stronger and cleaner than the other thermal spray processes with the exception of HVOF and detonation processes. Plasma spray coatings probably account for the widest range of thermal spray coatings and applications and makes this process the most versatile. Disadvantages of the plasma spray process are relative high cost and complexity of process.
Manufacturing: Metal Forming
Metal Forming Processes
Online Resources
Metal Forming Processes

Roll Forming Forging Extrusion & Drawing Sheet Metal Forming Powder Metallurgy
Sheetmetal Forming
The stamping of parts from sheet metal is a straightforward operation in which the metal is shaped or cut through deformation by shearing, punching, drawing, stretching, bending, coining, etc. Production rates are high and secondary machining is generally not required to produce finished parts within tolerances. This versatile process lends itself to low costs, since complex parts can be made in a few operations at high production rates. Sheet metal has a high strength-toweight factor, enabling production of parts that are lightweight and strong. Specific Sheetmetal Forming Processes-
Sheet Metal Forming Processes

Deep Drawing Metal Spinning Electro-hydraulic Forming Peen Forming Electro-magnetic Forming Press Brake Forming Explosive Forming Shearing Fine Blanking Stretch Forming Hydroforming Superplastic Forming Magnetic Pulse Forming Tube Bending

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Back to Index Stainless Steel Categories: Martensitic Introduction Martensitic Ferritic Austenitic Duplex Specialist Grades

11.51.0 0.5 13.0

416 420 431 440A 440B 440C

0.03 As 440A, higher hardness 0.03 As 440B, higher hardness

Steel Alloy Designation System AISI-SAE Designation Number

Type and Description Carbon steels

10xx 11xx 12xx 15xx

13xx 23xx 25xx

Mn 1.75 Nickel steels Ni 3.50 Ni 5.00 Nickel-chromium steels

Ni 1.25; Cr 0.65, 0.80 Ni 1.75; Cr 1.07

Ni 3.50; Cr 1.50, 1.57 Ni 3.00; Cr 0.77 Molybdenum steels

40xx 44xx 41xx

W 1.75; Cr 0.75 Silicon-manganese steels

B denotes boron steels Leaded steels

L denotes leaded steels

G10150 Hot Rolled G10150

G10180 Hot Rolled G10180

G10350 Hot Rolled G10350 G10350 G10350 G10350

G10400 Hot Rolled G10400

599 916 434

675 1006 620

201 293 187

102 153 101

620 903 475

703 1054 696

223 302 207

99 234 162 89 94 58 132

111 260 182 120 130 91 155

682 1612 1116 613 648 400 909

765 1791 1254 827 896 627 1068

223 498 363 248 256 183 302

Hot G61500 Rolled, Annealed G61500 Drawn

107 152 115

661 889 537

737 1047 792

223 302 223

Hot G92550 Rolled, Annealed

Common ASTM/ASME Titanium Grades

Grade 25 Grade 26 Grade 27 Grade 28 Grade 29

Back to Materials Index

Ultimate Tensile Strength min KSI 35

Properties of Aluminum Alloys

Properties of Aluminum Alloys

PROPERTIES OF ALUMINUM DIE CASTING ALLOYS

0.095 10351105 0.23

0.098 1000-1100 0.23

0.097 9601080 0.23

Aluminum Temper Designations

Hxxx H111 H112

H311 H321 H323 H343 O T T1

T52 T54 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10

Wrought Aluminum Alloys

3xx.x 4xx.x 5xx.x 6xx.x

7xx.x 8xx.x 9xx.x

Zinc Tin N/A

(This series is unused presently.)

Hardness Conversion Table

Carbon steels: 1015

45% 48% 48% 33% 19%

42% 33% 27% 27% 39% 42% 42%

73% 55% 48% 48% 48% 36% 36%

Physical Properties Of Elements

Element Aluminum Antimony Barium Beryllium Bismuth