pipingdesigners.

com Training Seminar Section - I A: Valves By: Anton Dooley

A valve is a mechanical device that regulates the flow of fluids (either gases, fluidised solids, slurries or liquids) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various passageways. Valves are used in a myriad of industrial, military, commercial, and residential applications. There are many different types of valves: Ball valve, which is good for on/off control; Butterfly valve, particularly in large pipes; Gate valve, mainly for on/off control; Globe valve, which is good for regulating flow; check valve or Non-return valve, allows the fluid to pass in one direction only; A pressure relief valve or safety valve operates automatically at a set differential pressure to correct a potentially dangerous situation, typically over-pressure. High purity valves, are flow control devices that meet the industry criteria for purity of materials and design.

Section - I A1: Articles related to Valves

By: United Valve (http://www.unitedvalve.com/art-valve_testing.htm)
THE INCREASE IN GLOBALLY SOURCED PRODUCTS AND MUCH-REDUCED DOMESTIC MANUFACTURING HAS CAUSED EVERYONE IN THE VALVE SUPPLY CHAIN TO REQUEST AND REQUIRE MORE TESTING. HERES A LOOK AT SOME OF THE MOST COMMON VALVE TESTING STANDARDS IN USE TODAY ..... (read more ......)

Valve Testing

Why Valve Qualification Programs?

By: United Valve (http://www.unitedvalve.com/artvalve_qualification_06.htm)
As the valve world continues to turn and tilt its production towards new countries and their untested manufacturing plants, the potential backlash is a rise in quality issues. In decades past, when bottom-dollar pricing was not the chief procurement driver, higher quality cast steel valves, produced in the United States, Great Britain, and Japan could be counted upon. Unfortunately, the global economic realities of the past 10 years have caused many of these companies to either cease production in their native countries or go out of business altogether. ..... (read more ......)

The Ever-Popular Gate Valve

By: United Valve (http://www.unitedvalve.com/art-gate-valve.htm)
This low-tech valve may not have changed much in the last 100 years, but the gate valve plays a major role in virtually every refinery, chemical plant and industrial facility in the world.

The most popular style of valve in the world of flow control is the gate valve. They are the on/off switches of the fluid control industry and they are found in every refinery, chemical plant, power plant and industrial facility. Gate valves exist for one primary purpose- to stop flow. Because of this, they are often referred to as stop or block valves. Gate valves are manufactured in a wide range of sizes- from through 144. ..... (read more ......)

The Gate Valves Long History

By: United Valve (http://www.unitedvalve.com/art-gate-valvehistory.htm)

The ubiquitous gate valve has a long history of serving the flow control industry in the United States. From its humble beginnings during the middle of the 19th century, to its universal usage today, the gate valve has soldiered on behind the scenes of Americas industrial pageantry. The first valve patent in America was for a gate valve. It was issued in 1839 to New Haven resident, Charley W. Peckham. Although Mr. Peckham s patent was for a sluice gate valve, it was a gate valve nonetheless. It wasnt until 1840 that the first gate valve as we would recognize it today was patented. It was called a stop cock and was issued to Theodore Scowden of Cincinnati, Ohio. Mr. Scowdens valve was actually a unidirectional gate valve with a primitive bolted bonnet. ..... (read more ......) This low-tech valve may not have changed much in the last 100 years, but the gate valve plays a major role in virtually every refinery, chemical plant and industrial facility in the world. The most popular style of valve in the world of flow control is the gate valve. They are the on/off switches of the fluid control industry and they are found in every refinery, chemical plant, power plant and industrial facility. Gate valves exist for one primary purpose- to stop flow. Because of this, they are often referred to as "stop" or "block" valves. Gate valves are manufactured in a wide range of sizes- from " through 144". It is not recommended to operate gate valves in the partially open position, or to use them in throttling service. When a gate valve is partially open, it closure element (disc or wedge) can vibrate against the seats and become scratched causing them to lose their seating integrity. The chief advantage of a gate valve is that it offers virtually no resistance to flow in the open position. Only a full port ball valve can equal the gate valve's flow characteristics. Due to their symmetrical design and equilateral seating, gate valves can be used to stop flow from either direction. They are available in every material from the shiny brass construction of the diminutive " water valves on the hardware store shelf, to the exotic high alloy models found in nuclear power installations. Gate valves have been an important piece of fluid control equipment for over 150 years. In fact, the very first valve patent issued in the United States was for a "gate valve". Since those humble beginnings in the 19th century, the gate valve has answered the fluid control call with relatively little basic design change. From the outside, most gate valves look somewhat similar. However, inside there are a host of different design possibilities. Most gate valves consist of a body and bonnet that contains a closure element, called a disc or a gate. The closure element is attached to a stem that passes through the bonnet of the valve, ultimately interfacing with a handwheel or other device to operate the stem. Pressure around the stem is contained through the use of packing material which is compressed into a packing area or chamber.

Trim
The word "trim" is often overheard when valve professionals are talking about industrial gate valves. Trim has nothing to do with how slim and fit a valve is, rather it refers to the internal components of a valve that are exposed to great stress or subject

to a harsh combination of erosion and corrosion. In a gate valve the trim components are the stem, disc seating area, body seats and backseat, if applicable. Common utility bronze or brass valves usually have trim parts of the same material as the body and bonnet. Cast and ductile iron valves have either all iron trim components or occasionally bronze trim. The term for an iron valve with bronze trim is "iron body, bronze mounted" or IBBM for short. Because of their weldability, steel valves can be furnished with a number of different trims. Stellite, Hastelloy, 316ss, 347ss, Monel, and Alloy 20 are some of the materials regularly used for gate valve trim. During most of the 19th century, valves were predominantly supplied with screwed end connections, even in sizes as large as 12" NPT. Since that time the flanged end connection has become the most popular. Other end connection types in use today include screwed, ring-type-joint (RTJ), Victaulic, Greyloc and water works "mechanical joint".

Disc Design
Gate valves can have one of two different disc designs: parallel or tapered type. Both operate on the principle of a closure element (disc or gate) sliding into a slot in the pipeline and closing off the fluid path. The tapered disc of the "wedge gate" valve is machined to match a pair of body seats set at the same angle, usually about 10o. If machined correctly, as the tapered disc engages the seats, it locks firmly into place, stopping the flow. Three types of wedge gates are available: solid disc, one piece flexible type, and two piece split design. The solid wedge has been around the longest and at one time virtually all wedge gates were the solid type. The drawback to a solid design is that it does not have any flexibility and if there is any valve body/seat distortion due to extreme temperature fluctuations or pipe stresses, the solid disc can become jammed in the seats. The solid disc is still standard on bronze, cast iron, water service and compact carbon steel valves (API 602 type). Today, solid discs are usually only available as special order items on large diameter gate valves. The flexible wedge type is just that- flexible. By the addition of a groove or slot around its periphery, the flexible disc can adapt to temperature changes and adverse piping stresses without binding. The flexible design also is a little easier to manufacture, in that minor imperfections in the seating surface angles can be compensated for by the disc's flexibility. The "flex-wedge" design is by far the most common type seen on commodity gate valves used in industrial applications. The split wedge type consists of a two-piece design with mating surfaces on the back side of each disc half. These mating surfaces allow the downward stem thrust to be uniformly transferred to the disc faces and onto the seats. This flexible design also provides protection against jamming due to thermal expansion. A disadvantage to the split design is that in "dirty" services, residue or debris can cake in between the disc halves, causing the valve to improperly seat or even jam. Split wedge designs are commonly found on stainless steel and high alloy valves, as well as many small bronze valves. Wedge gates are guided by grooves or ribs cast or welded into the body of the valve. These wedge guides keep the disc in alignment as it opens or closes and also keeps the disc from sliding against the downstream seat during opening and closing. The second disc design is the parallel type. Unlike the wedge type gate valve, which relies on the stem thrust to "wedge" the disc into the seats to seal, the parallel seat valve needs some assistance to seal properly. The sealing assistance is usually in the form of a spring loaded or mechanically activated spreading action between the two

disc halves as the valve closes fully. On most parallel seat designs the friction and sealing force is relieved as the gate disengages from the seats. The most common use for parallel disc valves today is in the pipeline industry, where elastomer seat seals and ambient operating temperatures make valve virtually leak proof. Parallel gates are also used in some high pressure, high temperature steam applications, to help reduce the possibility of locking the disc in the closed position due to a radical change in temperature. Regardless of disc design or type, the gate valve closure element must come in perfect contact with seats in the valve body. The body seats may be welded, screwed, pressed or swaged in, or be integral with the valve body. Most industrial steel gate valves utilize seat rings that are welded into the valve body. For most of the 20th century the norm was screwed in seat rings in steel valves. However, advances in welding and valve repair techniques made the screwed-in rings obsolete. Seat rings and valve discs are also often overlaid with corrosion or abrasion resistant alloys to increase their service life.

Body-Bonnet Design
Gate valves are normally available in five different body/bonnet joint designs. They are: screwed, union, bolted-bonnet, welded-bonnet & pressure-seal. The screwed joint is the simplest design. However it is only used for inexpensive bronze valves that rarely if ever require disassembled. The union joint is also primarily used on bronze valves, but the union design allows for easier disassembly for repair and maintenance. The bolted-bonnet joint is the most popular joint and it is used on the vast majority of gate valves in industrial use today. Unlike threaded and union bonnet valves, the bolted-bonnet connection requires a gasket to seal the joint between the body and bonnet. On lower pressure valves, sheet gasket materials are used. ANSI Class 150 steel valves usually employ a corrugated soft iron or graphite/corrugated soft iron gasket. Valves of class 300 and higher employ either a spiral-wound or ring joint type gasket. The pressure-seal joint is energized by the fluid pressure in the valve body acting upon a wedge shaped, soft iron or graphite gasket wedged between the body and bonnet. On a pressure-seal valve, the higher the body cavity pressure, the greater the force on the gasket. Pressure-seal bonnets are used extensively for high-pressure hightemperature applications, such as the power industry. Pressure-seal valves are much lighter than their corresponding bolted bonnet designs. Due to the pressure energization of the seal ring, they are normally not used in pressure classes below ANSI class 600. Welded bonnets are a very popular body-bonnet joint for compact steel valves in sizes " through 2" and pressure classes 800 through 2500, where disassembly is not required. The higher pressure welded-bonnet type valves rely on threads to handle the force generated by the body cavity pressure, while a small peripheral weld bevel actually contains the pressure. Like pressure-seal valves, welded-bonnet valves are much lighter than their boltedbonnet counterparts.

Stem Design
Three different bonnet/stem designs are predominant in gate valve construction. They are: inside screw, rising stem (ISRS), non-rising stem (NRS), and outside screw and yoke (OS&Y).

 The ISRS bonnet/stem design is the most popular design in use today on bronze valves. Due to the fact that it exposes the stem threads to the process fluid and potential corrosion damage which could cause a stem to disc failure, the ISRS design is not used for critical service industrial applications. The NRS type is another special purpose type that is used in applications where there is limited vertical clearance above the handwheel, because on an NRS valve, the stem does not rise up as the valve is opened. Most NRS valves today are manufactured of either iron or bronze. Some applications such as marine use, where clearances are tight, often use NRS steel gate valves. The most common stem/bonnet design in use on industrial valves is the OS&Y. The OS&Y design is preferred for corrosive environments because the threads are outside the fluid containment area. It also differs from other designs in that the handwheel is attached to a bushing at the top of the valve yoke, and not to the stem itself, thus the handwheel does not rise as the valve is opened. Also in the gate valve family are knife and sluice gates. The bonnetless knife gate is especially suited for use in slurries such as in pulp and paper mills. Knife gates are very thin, only slightly wider than there closure element (disc). Because of their unique geometry and thin cross-section, knife gates are limited to low pressure applications. In appearance, the sluice gate doesn't look like it even belongs in the gate valve family, however based upon its sliding disc design; it is characterized as a gate valve. Sluice gates are limited to very low pressures, in most cases, simple head pressure. They are used primarily in waste water and irrigation systems.

Valve Standards
Gate valves standards are produced by several standards making organizations, for a multitude of industries. Here are some of the better known gate valve specifications: American Petroleum Institute *API 600 "Steel Gate Valves, Flanged & Butt welding Ends", it is a companion document to ISO 10434. *API 602 "Compact Steel Gate Valves" *API 603 "Corrosion Resistant Bolted Bonnet Gate Valves" *API 6D "Specification for Pipeline Valves", it is a companion document to ISO 14314. Manufacturers Standardization Society *SP-70 "Cast Iron Gate Valves" *SP-80 "Bronze Gate, Globe, Angle and Check Valves" *SP-81 "Stainless Steel Bonnetless, Flanged, Knife Gate Valves" American Waterworks Association *AWWA C500 "Metal-Seated Gate Valves for Water Supply Service" *AWWA C509 "Resilient-Seated Gate Valves for Water Supply Service" *AWWA C515 "Resilient-Seated Gate Valves for Water Supply Service" American Society of Mechanical Engineers *B16.34 "Valves- Flanged, Threaded and Welding End"

Materials of Construction
Gate valves are manufactured in virtually every metal from Aluminum to Zirconium. They are also manufactured in a variety of engineering plastics. The most common materials however, are steel, iron and bronze. Bronze offers the greatest machinability and the lowest manufacturing cost. The features that make bronze easy to machine, its lower strength and softness, also make the valve only suitable for lower pressure applications. The predominant service for bronze valves is on water and utility lines where pressures are lower than about 300 psi.

Iron valves are in between bronze and steel as far as strength goes. The iron is slightly harder to machine, but the iron castings are relatively easy to pour. Iron for valves is commonly two types; grey or cast iron and malleable iron. In refinery and petrochemical service iron valves are usually restricted to low pressure water lines. The high carbon content and better rust resistance of iron valves makes them more suitable for buried service than steel valves. For industrial valves, steel is the material of choice. A broad spectrum of steels are utilized for valve construction, from the lowest grade WCB, to the chrome/moly's. Unlike the brasses, bronzes and irons, most steels and low alloys are readily weldable, which makes them easier to modify, repair and in some cases even easier to manufacture. Gate valves are also manufactured in a number of exotic alloys from Titanium to Zirconium. There have been several attempts to make the gate valve obsolete and take away its market share, but they have only met with limited success. The first challenger to the gate valve throne was the ball valve, which came into prominence during the middle part of the 20th century. Ball valves have been substituted for gate valves in many lower pressure and lower temperature applications, but in some cases they are more expensive to manufacture and repair. The elastomer seats of the ball valve also limit them to temperatures below about 500 degrees F. Butterfly valves have supplanted gate valves in some of the larger (48" and above) low pressure applications, such as water works usage. The metal-seated butterfly valve has also been successful in certain critical service applications that once were solely the realm of the gate valve, but their high initial cost and very high repair costs make them unlikely to ever completely replace the venerable gate valve.

Gate Valve Actuation

The most common method of opening and closing (actuating) a valve is through a handwheel attached to the yoke or bonnet. This works fine on moderate size valves operating at reasonable pressures, but some severe operating situations call for more muscle. For example, an 18", class 1500, main steam isolating valve in a power plant operating at 1750 psi and 1000 degrees F. requires a huge amount of torque to open under pressure. The only solution is remote actuation- usually in the form of an electric motor or hydraulic actuator. Additional gate valve actuation can be provided by pneumatic cylinders. In some cases these sit directly on top of the yoke and are attached directly to the stem, to provide a quick-opening form of actuation. For additional leverage a standard gate valve might have a manual gear operator attached to it to decrease the amount of force required to open and close it under pressure. These devices are called bevel gears. Repair of Gate Valves Industrial gate valves are often used in harsh environments and sometimes these valves need to be repaired. The decision to repair or replace a valve usually is a result of comparing the replacement cost to the repair cost. When the repair cost exceeds 50-65% of the cost of a new valve, the decision is usually to replace the valve, unless the delivery is unacceptable. Generally speaking, all bronze valves, except for expensive cryogenic designs, are replaced rather than repaired. Iron valves, except for the largest sizes, are also replaced rather than repaired. Steel and alloy gate valves are the most repaired types. Steel valves smaller than 12", class 150 are usually not repaired, unless replacements are not readily available. On the other hand, high alloy gate valves as small as " size may be repaired because of their high cost and long lead time. Some gate valves, such as large diameter, butt-weld end and pressure-seal types are often repaired in the field. These field repairs are often difficult and pose logistical challenges, but compared to the cost of removing them from the line and shipping them to a repair facility, field repair is more economical option. Gate valves are still the primary choice for many service applications. Their cost of manufacture to value ratio is still very high. On typical petrochemical and refining projects today, the percentage of gate valves on the requisition is about 60-70%.

Although science and technology has made tremendous leaps during the past 50 years, most gate valves are still being produced to the same basic designs developed a hundred years ago. And until someone invents a Buck Rogers laser valve with no moving parts, tens of thousands of gate valves will still be manufactured each year, in plants from South Carolina to Southeast Asia.

References:
API 600 Steel Valves - Flanged & Butt welded Ends API 600 is the primary steel gate valve purchase specification. Valve design and construction criteria are detailed, as well as materials and trim designations. An appendix contains information pertaining to pressure seal valves. ISO Standard 10434 is essentially the same as API 600, only published in the ISO format. API 602 Compact Steel Gate Valves- Flanged, Threaded, Welding and Extended-Body Ends API 602 is the 4" & smaller forged steel gate valve purchase specification. Valve design and construction criteria are detailed, as well as materials and trim designations. Future versions of this document are expected to include requirements for bellows seal gate valves. API 603 Class 150, Cast, Corrosion-Resistant, Flanged-End Gate Valves API 603 covers light walled gate valves in size NPS 1/2" through 24", in classes 150, 300 & 600. These valves are used in applications where the thicker API 600 casting is not needed. API 608 Metal Ball Valves-Flanged and Butt-Welding Ends API 608 is the purchase specification for class 150 and class 300 metal ball valves. Valve design and construction criteria are detailed. Important Note- ball valve working pressures should be based on seat material, not valve class. API 609 Butterfly Valves, Lug-Type and Wafer Type API 609 is the purchase specification for butterfly valves with lug-type and wafer-type configurations designed for installation between ANSI B16 flanges, through Class 600. API 598 Valve Inspection & Testing API 598 covers the testing and inspection requirements for gate, globe, check, ball, plug & butterfly valves. Steel valve pressure ratings found in ASME/ANSI B16.34 are required to determine API 598 test pressures for steel valves. API 6D Specification for Pipeline Valves (Gate, Plug, Ball and Check Valves) Specification for Pipeline Valves (Gate, Plug, Ball and Check Valves) API 6D is the primary standard for valves used in pipeline service, including gate, plug, ball and check valves. Occasionally refinery and petrochemical purchasers will reference the more stringent testing requirements of 6D although the valve may have built under API 600, 602, 608 or 609 design criteria. ASME/ANSI B16.34 Steel Valves - Flanged & Butt welded Ends ASME B16.34 is the base document from which steel valve pressure/temperature ratings are derived. It also offers additional valve specification data including nondestructive examination procedures for upgrading valves to Special Class. Note: Gate valves manufactured under B16.34 wall thickness minimums may not meet the minimum wall thickness requirement of API 600 & API 602 for class 150, 300 and 600. ASME/ANSI B16.10 Face-to-Face Dimensions of Ferrous Valves B16.10 lists the face to face dimensions of all flanged and butt-weld end valves. Screwed and socket weld end valve face-to-face dimensions are not included in this specification. MSS SP-55 Quality Standard for Steel Castings for Valves, Flanges and Fittings and Other Piping Components SP-

55 details the visual inspection criteria for castings. This specification is listed as part of the procedure under API 598. NACE MR-0175 Standard Material Requirements for Sulfide Stress Cracking Resistant Metallic Materials For Oilfield Equipment MR0175 is the "standard" for materials used in "sour" environments such as found in piping systems in many refineries. It lists materials, mechanical properties and heat treatments for metals used in Hydrogen Sulfide bearing hydrocarbon service. The Ever-Popular Gate Valve, By: Greg Johnson

Valve Repair, a Changing & Challenging Business

By: United Valve (http://www.unitedvalve.com/artvm_valve_repair.htm)
Who Moved my Cheese? The heck with who moved my cheese, who moved my valve repair customers! Those of us in the valve repair business can certainly relate to Dr. Spencer Johnsons book, Who Moved My Cheese, which deals with handling change. The way our business is rapidly changing, it feels like just about the time we figure out what the customer needs and how best to meet that need, some new paradigm takes over in the maintenance arena and voila the rules have changed again! In the 50s and 60s, to be successful in the valve repair business all that was required was some mechanical ability, good people skills and a nice fishing boat or a prolific deer hunting lease. Since then, we have seen the industry morph its way through end-user AMLs, manufacturers authorizations, OEM service centers, API Valve Repair Standards, ISO 9000, preventative maintenance and run-to-failure mode. The only constant through it all has been that there are still valves being repaired. ..... (read more ......)

Valve Modification

By: United Valve (http://www.unitedvalve.com/artvalve_modification.htm)

In a perfect world of valve supply and demand, an end-user would be able to purchase any combination of valve configurations from the distributor with only a few days notice. The commonly-stocked standard trim valves would share shelf space with the most unusual trimmed or end-configured valves. However, in this world of globally procured commodity steel valves and just-in-time inventories, it is not a financially viable option. So in order to meet the demand for these specials in the United States, the valve modification industry was created. ..... (read more ......)

Valve Owners Survival Kit

By: United Valve (http://www.unitedvalve.com/artvalve_survival.htm)

Its a jungle out there, so the saying goes. Unfortunately, that jungle extends to and includes your work environment. And if you are responsible for some part of a chemical processing facility, the vines and beasts of that jungle wrap around and through the pipe racks, instrument panels and valves you call home every workday. If this sounds familiar to you then you probably wont turn down a little survival help. ..... (read more ......)

Valve Repair in the 21st Century

By: United Valve (http://www.unitedvalve.com/artvalve_repair_21st.htm)
Once upon a time, most large refineries and chemical plants had their own valve shops, complete with a full compliment of experienced valve repair technicians. These service departments took care of most of the plants repair needs, although oftentimes valves were simply replaced rather than refurbished. ..... (read more ......)

Valve Standards in The Petrochemical & Refining Industry

By: United Valve (http://www.unitedvalve.com/artvalve_standards.htm)
Valves in petrochemical and refining installations are subject to numerous standards and specifications issued by many supporting organizations. Today's valve standards are dynamic documents that reflect sound engineering practice, changes in market demands and changes in technology and manufacturing procedures. ..... (read more ......)

By: Greg Johnson (Published with the author's kind permission)

This low-tech valve may not have changed much in the last 100 years, but the gate valve plays a major role in virtually every refinery, chemical plant and industrial facility in the world. The most popular style of valve in the world of flow control is the gate valve. They are the on/off switches of the fluid control industry and they are found in every refinery, chemical plant, power plant and industrial facility. Gate valves exist for one primary purpose- to stop flow. Because of this, they are often referred to as "stop" or "block" valves. Gate valves are manufactured in a wide range of sizes- from " through 144". It is not recommended to operate gate valves in the partially open position, or to use them in throttling service. When a gate valve is partially open, it closure element (disc or wedge) can vibrate against the seats and become scratched causing them to lose their seating integrity. The chief advantage of a gate valve is that it offers virtually no resistance to flow in the open position. Only a full port ball valve can equal the gate valve's flow characteristics. Due to their symmetrical design and equilateral seating, gate valves can be used to stop flow from either direction. They are available in every material from the shiny brass construction of the diminutive " water valves on the hardware store shelf, to the exotic high alloy models found in nuclear power installations. Gate valves have been an important piece of fluid control equipment for over 150 years. In fact, the very first valve patent issued in the United States was for a "gate valve". Since those humble beginnings in the 19th century, the gate valve has answered the fluid control call with relatively little basic design change. From the outside, most gate valves look somewhat similar. However, inside there are a host of different design possibilities. Most gate valves consist of a body and bonnet that contains a closure element, called a disc or a gate. The closure element is attached to a stem that passes through the bonnet of the valve, ultimately interfacing with a handwheel or other device to operate the stem. Pressure around the stem is contained through the use of packing material which is compressed into a packing area or chamber.

Section - I A2: The Ever Popular Gate Valve

Trim
The word "trim" is often overheard when valve professionals are talking about industrial gate valves. Trim has nothing to do with how slim and fit a valve is, rather it refers to the internal components of a valve that are exposed to great stress or subject to a harsh combination of erosion and corrosion. In a gate valve the trim components are the stem, disc seating area, body

seats and backseat, if applicable. Common utility bronze or brass valves usually have trim parts of the same material as the body and bonnet. Cast and ductile iron valves have either all iron trim components or occasionally bronze trim. The term for an iron valve with bronze trim is "iron body, bronze mounted" or IBBM for short. Because of their weldability, steel valves can be furnished with a number of different trims. Stellite, Hastelloy, 316ss, 347ss, Monel, and Alloy 20 are some of the materials regularly used for gate valve trim. During most of the 19th century, valves were predominantly supplied with screwed end connections, even in sizes as large as 12" NPT. Since that time the flanged end connection has become the most popular. Other end connection types in use today include screwed, ring-type-joint (RTJ), Victaulic, Greyloc and water works "mechanical joint".

Disc Design
Gate valves can have one of two different disc designs: parallel or tapered type. Both operate on the principle of a closure element (disc or gate) sliding into a slot in the pipeline and closing off the fluid path. The tapered disc of the "wedge gate" valve is machined to match a pair of body seats set at the same angle, usually about 10o. If machined correctly, as the tapered disc engages the seats, it locks firmly into place, stopping the flow. Three types of wedge gates are available: solid disc, one piece flexible type, and two piece split design. The solid wedge has been around the longest and at one time virtually all wedge gates were the solid type. The drawback to a solid design is that it does not have any flexibility and if there is any valve body/seat distortion due to extreme temperature fluctuations or pipe stresses, the solid disc can become jammed in the seats. The solid disc is still standard on bronze, cast iron, water service and compact carbon steel valves (API 602 type). Today, solid discs are usually only available as special order items on large diameter gate valves. The flexible wedge type is just that- flexible. By the addition of a groove or slot around its periphery, the flexible disc can adapt to temperature changes and adverse piping stresses without binding. The flexible design also is a little easier to manufacture, in that minor imperfections in the seating surface angles can be compensated for by the disc's flexibility. The "flex-wedge" design is by far the most common type seen on commodity gate valves used in industrial applications. The split wedge type consists of a two-piece design with mating surfaces on the back side of each disc half. These mating surfaces allow the downward stem thrust to be uniformly transferred to the disc faces and onto the seats. This flexible design also provides protection against jamming due to thermal expansion. A disadvantage to the split design is that in "dirty" services, residue or debris can cake in between the disc halves, causing the valve to improperly seat or even jam. Split wedge designs are commonly found on stainless steel and high alloy valves, as well as many small bronze valves. Wedge gates are guided by grooves or ribs cast or welded into the body of the valve. These wedge guides keep the disc in alignment as it opens or closes and also keeps the disc from sliding against the downstream seat during opening and closing. The second disc design is the parallel type. Unlike the wedge type gate valve, which relies on the stem thrust to "wedge" the disc into the seats to seal, the parallel seat valve needs some assistance to seal properly. The sealing assistance is usually in the form of a spring loaded or mechanically activated spreading action between the two disc halves as the valve closes fully. On most parallel seat designs the friction and sealing force is relieved as the gate disengages from the seats.

The most common use for parallel disc valves today is in the pipeline industry, where elastomer seat seals and ambient operating temperatures make valve virtually leak proof. Parallel gates are also used in some high pressure, high temperature steam applications, to help reduce the possibility of locking the disc in the closed position due to a radical change in temperature. Regardless of disc design or type, the gate valve closure element must come in perfect contact with seats in the valve body. The body seats may be welded, screwed, pressed or swaged in, or be integral with the valve body. Most industrial steel gate valves utilize seat rings that are welded into the valve body. For most of the 20th century the norm was screwed in seat rings in steel valves. However, advances in welding and valve repair techniques made the screwed-in rings obsolete. Seat rings and valve discs are also often overlaid with corrosion or abrasion resistant alloys to increase their service life.

Body-Bonnet Design
Gate valves are normally available in five different body/bonnet joint designs. They are: screwed, union, bolted-bonnet, welded-bonnet & pressure-seal. The screwed joint is the simplest design. However it is only used for inexpensive bronze valves that rarely if ever require disassembled. The union joint is also primarily used on bronze valves, but the union design allows for easier disassembly for repair and maintenance. The bolted-bonnet joint is the most popular joint and it is used on the vast majority of gate valves in industrial use today. Unlike threaded and union bonnet valves, the bolted-bonnet connection requires a gasket to seal the joint between the body and bonnet. On lower pressure valves, sheet gasket materials are used. ANSI Class 150 steel valves usually employ a corrugated soft iron or graphite/corrugated soft iron gasket. Valves of class 300 and higher employ either a spiral-wound or ring joint type gasket. The pressure-seal joint is energized by the fluid pressure in the valve body acting upon a wedge shaped, soft iron or graphite gasket wedged between the body and bonnet. On a pressure-seal valve, the higher the body cavity pressure, the greater the force on the gasket. Pressure-seal bonnets are used extensively for high-pressure hightemperature applications, such as the power industry. Pressure-seal valves are much lighter than their corresponding bolted bonnet designs. Due to the pressure energization of the seal ring, they are normally not used in pressure classes below ANSI class 600. Welded bonnets are a very popular body-bonnet joint for compact steel valves in sizes " through 2" and pressure classes 800 through 2500, where disassembly is not required. The higher pressure welded-bonnet type valves rely on threads to handle the force generated by the body cavity pressure, while a small peripheral weld bevel actually contains the pressure. Like pressure-seal valves, welded-bonnet valves are much lighter than their boltedbonnet counterparts.

Stem Design
Three different bonnet/stem designs are predominant in gate valve construction. They are: inside screw, rising stem (ISRS), non-rising stem (NRS), and outside screw and yoke (OS&Y). The ISRS bonnet/stem design is the most popular design in use today on bronze valves. Due to the fact that it exposes the stem threads to the process fluid and potential corrosion damage which could cause a stem to disc failure, the ISRS design is not used for critical service industrial applications.

 The NRS type is another special purpose type that is used in applications where there is limited vertical clearance above the handwheel, because on an NRS valve, the stem does not rise up as the valve is opened. Most NRS valves today are manufactured of either iron or bronze. Some applications such as marine use, where clearances are tight, often use NRS steel gate valves. The most common stem/bonnet design in use on industrial valves is the OS&Y. The OS&Y design is preferred for corrosive environments because the threads are outside the fluid containment area. It also differs from other designs in that the handwheel is attached to a bushing at the top of the valve yoke, and not to the stem itself, thus the handwheel does not rise as the valve is opened. Also in the gate valve family are knife and sluice gates. The bonnetless knife gate is especially suited for use in slurries such as in pulp and paper mills. Knife gates are very thin, only slightly wider than there closure element (disc). Because of their unique geometry and thin cross-section, knife gates are limited to low pressure applications. In appearance, the sluice gate doesn't look like it even belongs in the gate valve family, however based upon its sliding disc design; it is characterized as a gate valve. Sluice gates are limited to very low pressures, in most cases, simple head pressure. They are used primarily in waste water and irrigation systems.

Valve Standards
Gate valves standards are produced by several standards making organizations, for a multitude of industries. Here are some of the better known gate valve specifications: American Petroleum Institute *API 600 "Steel Gate Valves, Flanged & Butt welding Ends", it is a companion document to ISO 10434. *API 602 "Compact Steel Gate Valves" *API 603 "Corrosion Resistant Bolted Bonnet Gate Valves" *API 6D "Specification for Pipeline Valves", it is a companion document to ISO 14314. Manufacturers Standardization Society *SP-70 "Cast Iron Gate Valves" *SP-80 "Bronze Gate, Globe, Angle and Check Valves" *SP-81 "Stainless Steel Bonnetless, Flanged, Knife Gate Valves" American Waterworks Association *AWWA C500 "Metal-Seated Gate Valves for Water Supply Service" *AWWA C509 "Resilient-Seated Gate Valves for Water Supply Service" *AWWA C515 "Resilient-Seated Gate Valves for Water Supply Service" American Society of Mechanical Engineers *B16.34 "Valves- Flanged, Threaded and Welding End"

Materials of Construction
Gate valves are manufactured in virtually every metal from Aluminum to Zirconium. They are also manufactured in a variety of engineering plastics. The most common materials however, are steel, iron and bronze. Bronze offers the greatest machinability and the lowest manufacturing cost. The features that make bronze easy to machine, its lower strength and softness, also make the valve only suitable for lower pressure applications. The predominant service for bronze valves is on water and utility lines where pressures are lower than about 300 psi. Iron valves are in between bronze and steel as far as strength goes. The iron is slightly harder to machine, but the iron castings are relatively easy to pour. Iron for valves is commonly two types; grey or cast iron and malleable iron. In refinery and petrochemical service iron valves are usually restricted to low pressure water lines. The high carbon content and better rust resistance of iron valves makes them more suitable for buried service than steel valves.

For industrial valves, steel is the material of choice. A broad spectrum of steels are utilized for valve construction, from the lowest grade WCB, to the chrome/moly's. Unlike the brasses, bronzes and irons, most steels and low alloys are readily weldable, which makes them easier to modify, repair and in some cases even easier to manufacture. Gate valves are also manufactured in a number of exotic alloys from Titanium to Zirconium. There have been several attempts to make the gate valve obsolete and take away its market share, but they have only met with limited success. The first challenger to the gate valve throne was the ball valve, which came into prominence during the middle part of the 20th century. Ball valves have been substituted for gate valves in many lower pressure and lower temperature applications, but in some cases they are more expensive to manufacture and repair. The elastomer seats of the ball valve also limit them to temperatures below about 500 degrees F. Butterfly valves have supplanted gate valves in some of the larger (48" and above) low pressure applications, such as water works usage. The metal-seated butterfly valve has also been successful in certain critical service applications that once were solely the realm of the gate valve, but their high initial cost and very high repair costs make them unlikely to ever completely replace the venerable gate valve.

Gate Valve Actuation

The most common method of opening and closing (actuating) a valve is through a handwheel attached to the yoke or bonnet. This works fine on moderate size valves operating at reasonable pressures, but some severe operating situations call for more muscle. For example, an 18", class 1500, main steam isolating valve in a power plant operating at 1750 psi and 1000 degrees F. requires a huge amount of torque to open under pressure. The only solution is remote actuation- usually in the form of an electric motor or hydraulic actuator. Additional gate valve actuation can be provided by pneumatic cylinders. In some cases these sit directly on top of the yoke and are attached directly to the stem, to provide a quick-opening form of actuation. For additional leverage a standard gate valve might have a manual gear operator attached to it to decrease the amount of force required to open and close it under pressure. These devices are called bevel gears. Repair of Gate Valves Industrial gate valves are often used in harsh environments and sometimes these valves need to be repaired. The decision to repair or replace a valve usually is a result of comparing the replacement cost to the repair cost. When the repair cost exceeds 50-65% of the cost of a new valve, the decision is usually to replace the valve, unless the delivery is unacceptable. Generally speaking, all bronze valves, except for expensive cryogenic designs, are replaced rather than repaired. Iron valves, except for the largest sizes, are also replaced rather than repaired. Steel and alloy gate valves are the most repaired types. Steel valves smaller than 12", class 150 are usually not repaired, unless replacements are not readily available. On the other hand, high alloy gate valves as small as " size may be repaired because of their high cost and long lead time. Some gate valves, such as large diameter, butt-weld end and pressure-seal types are often repaired in the field. These field repairs are often difficult and pose logistical challenges, but compared to the cost of removing them from the line and shipping them to a repair facility, field repair is more economical option. Gate valves are still the primary choice for many service applications. Their cost of manufacture to value ratio is still very high. On typical petrochemical and refining projects today, the percentage of gate valves on the requisition is about 60-70%. Although science and technology has made tremendous leaps during the past 50 years, most gate valves are still being produced to the same basic designs developed a hundred years ago. And until someone invents a Buck Rogers laser valve with no moving parts, tens of thousands of gate valves will still be manufactured each year, in plants from South Carolina to Southeast Asia.

References:
API 600 Steel Valves - Flanged & Butt welded Ends API 600 is the primary steel gate valve purchase specification. Valve design and construction criteria are detailed, as well as materials and trim designations. An appendix contains information pertaining to pressure seal valves. ISO Standard 10434 is essentially the same as API 600, only published in the ISO format. API 602 Compact Steel Gate Valves- Flanged, Threaded, Welding and Extended-Body Ends API 602 is the 4" & smaller forged steel gate valve purchase specification. Valve design and construction criteria are detailed, as well as materials and trim designations. Future versions of this document are expected to include requirements for bellows seal gate valves. API 603 Class 150, Cast, Corrosion-Resistant, Flanged-End Gate Valves API 603 covers light walled gate valves in size NPS 1/2" through 24", in classes 150, 300 & 600. These valves are used in applications where the thicker API 600 casting is not needed. API 608 Metal Ball Valves-Flanged and Butt-Welding Ends API 608 is the purchase specification for class 150 and class 300 metal ball valves. Valve design and construction criteria are detailed. Important Note- ball valve working pressures should be based on seat material, not valve class. API 609 Butterfly Valves, Lug-Type and Wafer Type API 609 is the purchase specification for butterfly valves with lug-type and wafer-type configurations designed for installation between ANSI B16 flanges, through Class 600. API 598 Valve Inspection & Testing API 598 covers the testing and inspection requirements for gate, globe, check, ball, plug & butterfly valves. Steel valve pressure ratings found in ASME/ANSI B16.34 are required to determine API 598 test pressures for steel valves. API 6D Specification for Pipeline Valves (Gate, Plug, Ball and Check Valves) Specification for Pipeline Valves (Gate, Plug, Ball and Check Valves) API 6D is the primary standard for valves used in pipeline service, including gate, plug, ball and check valves. Occasionally refinery and petrochemical purchasers will reference the more stringent testing requirements of 6D although the valve may have built under API 600, 602, 608 or 609 design criteria. ASME/ANSI B16.34 Steel Valves - Flanged & Butt welded Ends ASME B16.34 is the base document from which steel valve pressure/temperature ratings are derived. It also offers additional valve specification data including nondestructive examination procedures for upgrading valves to Special Class. Note: Gate valves manufactured under B16.34 wall thickness minimums may not meet the minimum wall thickness requirement of API 600 & API 602 for class 150, 300 and 600. ASME/ANSI B16.10 Face-to-Face Dimensions of Ferrous Valves B16.10 lists the face to face dimensions of all flanged and butt-weld end valves. Screwed and socket weld end valve face-to-face dimensions are not included in this specification. MSS SP-55 Quality Standard for Steel Castings for Valves, Flanges and Fittings and Other Piping Components SP55 details the visual inspection criteria for castings. This specification is listed as part of the procedure under API 598. NACE MR-0175 Standard Material Requirements for Sulfide Stress Cracking Resistant Metallic Materials For Oilfield Equipment MR0175 is the "standard" for materials used in "sour" environments such as found in piping systems in many refineries. It lists materials, mechanical properties and heat treatments for metals used in Hydrogen Sulfide bearing hydrocarbon service.

Section - I B: Pipe By: James O. Pennock

Definition: Pipe is a hollow "tube" used for conveying products and pressure. The products include fluids, gas, slurry, powders, pellets and more. The pressure is hydraulic power. We usually designate the "tube" as pipe in the applicable line class but the definition includes any similar component designed as tubing, which is used for the same application. History: One of the earliest methods of conveying fluids in the history of mankind was by pipe. The earliest pipe on record was the use of bamboo for moving small quantities of water as a continues flow. As man progressed, he began using hollow logs for his piping needs. Probably the first recorded use of metal in piping systems was the use of lead or bronze during the "Bronze" age. During the excavation at Pompeii, complete water distribution systems fabricated from lead have been uncovered. These systems, include probably the first use of metal plug valves, are still workable. Without piping our modern civilization and their attendant conveniences could not exist. Today piping is used in almost every aspect of our lives. Our drinking water is produced in plants full of piping and then comes to us through a vast network of pipes. The waste from our homes and businesses flows away through another network of pipes and is then treated in a plant full of piping. The fuel we use for travel or for heating was collected, processed and distributed using pipe. No mater what you think about, power, food, paint, medicine, paper products, plastics, chemicals, and many more are all made in plants full of piping. Our safety is also dependent on the piping in the fire water systems in our neighborhoods and buildings. Materials of construction: The various kinds of material from which pipe is, or can be, made is proved to be endless; among them are the more common carbon steel, along with chromes, stainless steel, iron, brass, copper, lead, aluminum, glass, rubber and various types of plastic material. Over the years some of these materials have been combined to form lined pipe systems. These include carbon steel pipe lined with glass, carbon steel pipe that is lined with various plastics; carbon steel pipe lined with concrete. Each one, plain or lined has certain advantages and disadvantages. Many things enter into making a choice of materials. Among the most important of these are commodity, pressure, temperature, size, ease of assembly availability and economics. Pipe sizes: Many years ago pipe was sized by its true inside diameter. i.e., a 1" pipe was actually 1" inside diameter. However, as time went on and the methods of manufacturing were improved and made more standard, and because it became necessary to increase wall thickness to accommodate higher pressures and temperatures, it became necessary to size pipe by "nominal" size rather than actual size. Because it was deemed too expensive to have a set of thread dies for each wall thickness in the smaller sizes, the outside diameter (O.D.) was held constant. Thus wall thickness changes affect the internal diameter only and leave the O. D. constant for standardized fitting engagements. Nominal size refers to the name by which we call a particular size pipe. Nominal size and actual outside diameter of a pipe differs for size 12" and under. For sizes 14" and larger the actual outside diameter and the nominal size are identical. Pipe comes in a very wide range of sizes. It is not uncommon to see piping as small as " or as large as 66". Pipe mills can and will make almost any size for a price. This does not always prove to be the economical choice because odd size fittings may not be available. It is best to stick to the closest and most commercially available or common size to meet the need. The smaller common sizes in pipe include ", ", 1", 2", 3", 4", 6", 8" 10" and 12". The larger sizes, 14" and above increase in 2" increments. The Nominal size pertains to calling the pipe size by name only. The actual outside diameter or O. D. is different for the 12" and under sizes. Example: Nominal Size Actual O. D.

15/16" 2" 2-3/8" 3" 3-1/2" 4" 4-1/2" 1"

123/4" 14" 14" 12"

For all pipe sizes the inside diameter varies as the wall thickness increases thus the thicker the wall, the smaller the inside diameter. Weight: Many years ago the only "weights" of pipe available were classed as standard weight, extra heavy and double extra heavy. Within the last seventy-five years or so it became increasingly evident that this system was limited in scope and did not meet the needs of the growing state of the industry. This was the direct result of the increasingly higher pressures and temperatures of the commodities being handled. Consequently the use of schedule numbers came into being. Today, both weight and schedule are the way of identifying the wall thickness. Length: Based on common practice pipe usually can be furnished in "single random" lengths, "double random" lengths, and under certain circumstances (pipeline work for example) in even longer lengths. A single random will run from about 16' to 22' in length. A double random will run from about 35' to 40' in length. Pipe can be ordered to a specified fixed length but this will cost more. Methods of manufacture: Pipe is made two ways. It is made by taking a flat plate, called a skelp, and rolling it into a tube shape and then welding the two edges together to form a tube. This pipe is commonly called "welded pipe" or ERW pipe. The other way is to take a solid bar or billet and pierce a hole through the length. This pipe is commonly called seamless pipe. Determining wall thickness: The wall thickness for pipe is generally covered in the piping material specifications by calling out the Schedule Number for a large majority of sizes. However, as pressure and temperature increase, and sometimes the corrosion allowance, it becomes necessary to calculate the required wall thickness for a specific case. Please note that generally as the specifications change into higher-pressure classes, wall thickness calculations must be made for smaller size pipe. Wall thicknesses are by strict adherence to the rules set forth in the code for Pressure Piping. For more detailed information on specific pipe sizes and it's various wall thicknesses, schedules and pipe weights see the "tools," "piping", "pipe chart" on this website

Grades: In steel pipe, the word "grade" designates divisions within different types based on carbon content or mechanical properties (tensile and yield strengths). The tensile strength is the ultimate amount of stretching the steel can bear without breaking. The yield strength is the maximum amount of stretching steel can bear before it becomes permanently deformed or before it loses its ability to return to its original shape. Grade A steel pipe has lower tensile and yield strengths than Grade B steel pipe. This is because it has a lower carbon content. Grade A in more ductile and is better for cold bending and close coiling applications. Grade B steel pipe is better for applications where pressure, structural strength and collapse are factors. It is also easier to machine because of its higher carbon content. It is generally accepted that Grade B welds as well as Grade A. Ends: Steel pipe can generally be specified with a specific end preparation at the time of purchase. Three end preps are standard. There is plain end (PE). This would be the choice for small sizes where socket welded fittings will be used to join pipe to pipe or pipe to fittings. This is also the default end prep if no end prep is specified. There is threaded end (TE). This would be the choice for small sizes where the pipe to pipe or pipe to fitting assembly is to be threaded. There is also bevel end (BE). This would be the choice for most all 3" and larger steel pipe (or other metallic pipe) where "butt welding will be used to join pipe to pipe or pipe to fittings. Discussion: The information given above is what you should know about pipe. There are also some things that you should understand about pipe. There is a big difference between what you know about a subject and what you understand about that subject. With pipe, most novice designers think that all they have to do is "draw" or "place" the pipe symbol (on that pipe support beam symbol) in whatever CAD system they are currently using and they are done. They do not understand what that pipe symbol really means. That pipe is (or represents) what will be almost a living thing and as such it will have a growing problem. It will be installed at a certain ambient temperature and then on start-up it will operate at a totally different temperature. That difference between the installation temperature and the operating temperature will cause the pipe to expand or contract. No matter what the designed tries to do he or she cannot stop this action. This

expansion (or contraction) will cause stress, strain and force in both the piping system and the pipe support system. This pipe will also have a weight problem. The pipe it self has a certain weight. The pipe next to it may be the same size but it may not weight the same. This pipe may be both high pressure and high temperature. This means that the wall schedule may be much thicker therefore it will weigh more. Let's say we do have two lines side by side. They are both 14", one (Line A) is a low temperature, low pressure cooling water line and the other (Line B) is a high pressure, high temperature hydrocarbon process line. The span for both lines is 25'. Example:

Item

Line Line B A 189.1 42.6 15 6170 lbs.

Pipe 54.6 weight/foot Water 59.7 weight/foot Insulation 0 weight/foot Total weight 2857 of span lbs.

This does not include any forces that may be imposed by the total piping configuration on this specific pipe support. However, it does indicate that there must be some close coordination with the structural department so they do not assume that all 14" lines are equal. As for the piping designer, does this line need extra space for movement? Do either or both of these lines need a pipe guide at this specific pipe support? Does either of these lines need anchors at this specific pipe support? If an anchor is required will the anchor forces on each side of the support be the same or will the anchor farces be unbalanced? Both cases must be brought to the attention of the structural group. With the hot line there is normally an insulation shoe required which is added material and which changes the dimensional reference point for the centerline of this line and can cause design errors if not understood and allowed for. For additional information about pipe see the "Standards" tab on this website.

Section - I C: Fittings (Just the basics) By: James O. Pennock

Definition:
A fitting is a pipe item used for changing direction, branching or attaching in a piping system. There are many different types of fittings and they are produced in all the same sizes and weights (schedules) as the pipe. Fittings are commonly segregated into three groups; Butt-weld, Socket-weld and Screwed. Only the most common will be discussed in this article.

Materials of construction:
Like pipe, fittings are fabricated from several different types of material and usually match the material of the pipe to which they are being attached. Some fittings are Cast Iron, some are Malleable Iron, some are Forged Steel and others are even fabricated from rolled Steel Plate. The most used materials are again common carbon steel, along with chromes, stainless steel, iron, brass, copper, lead, aluminum, glass, rubber and various types of plastic and plastic lined metal materials.

Fitting Types:

Normally, fittings fall into three basic types or categories. These are In-line, On-line and Closures. The In-line fittings include elbows (Ells), Tees, Couplings and Reducers. The On-line fittings include a wide variety of "OLet" fittings used primarily for making branch connections. The closure fittings are various types of caps and plugs used to close the end of a pipe system. We also will discuss some cases where there are alternates to these normal categories.

Butt-Welded Fittings
Elbows (Ells): An Elbow is a piping fitting used for changing direction. There are five basic versions of elbows. The first and by far the most common is the 90 long radius Ell. The second is the 45 long radius Ell. The third is the 90 short radius Ell. The fourth is the long radius reducing Ell. The fifth version is the long radius 180 Return Bend. The basic Butt-Weld Ell is manufactured in 90 or 45 configurations as a standard. However for special order and extra cost, the large sizes can be made in other degrees of turn. The standard Butt-Weld elbows (90, 45 and 180 ) can be altered to meet any special angle needs of a piping system. Elbows like pipe can be flame cut or machine cut to the required angle. The rough end is then ground or machine beveled to the proper angle for welding. There is normally no harm to the fitting when this is done. The terms "Long Radius" and "Short Radius" are important to understand. "Long Radius" means that the center to end dimension is one and a half times the nominal pipe size. Example: Nominal Line Size (and Centertend of short radius Ell) 4" 10" 14" 20" 24" Center-to-end of long radius Ell 6" 15" 21" 30" 36"

"Short Radius" means that the center to end dimension is equal to the nominal pipe size. This means that the center-to-end for a 4" short radius Ell is 4", for a 10" Ell the center-to-end is 10" and so on. The long radius Ell is the default standard. All elbows shown in a system are assumed to be long radius 90 Ells unless noted otherwise. This means that the designer must call out any and all exceptions to this rule. If the Ell is a 90 long radius Ell then the elbow symbol is all that is required. However, if the Ell is a 45 Ell then the designer must add the notation "45 Ell" next to the elbow symbol. If the Ell is a 90 short radius Ell then the designer must place the notation S. R. next to the elbow symbol. Also if the elbow has been trimmed to any odd angle this too must be noted next to the fitting. As stated above the 90 long radius Ell is the default standard and is the most used. The designed should use the long radius Ell at all times unless conditions exist that force another choice. The short radius 90 Ell should only be used when tight space does not allow the long radius. The 45 Ell is normally used where a simple offset is required for some purpose. The 180 Ell is used mostly by equipment manufacturers to form heating or cooling coils. Return Bends are not normally required by the piping designer unless there is a requirement to fabricate a complex configuration. The purpose of the 90 long radius Reducing Ell is to do the job of an elbow and a reducer. (Reducers will be covered later.) As such this Ell is made with one end of one size and the other end one or two line sizes smaller. The using of the reducing Ell is not cheaper; it only takes less room. The "long radius" dimension for the 90 long radius reducing Ell is based on the size of the large end. Because the long radius and short radius designation of the 90 Ells are based on the nominal pipe size the designer quickly learns the center-to-end dimensions. The center-to-end dimensions for the 45 Ell are normally found only on a chart. However, there is a short-cut way to "know" these dimensions. You see, these dimensions are also based on the nominal pipe size. This short-cut method works for all 45 Ells from 4" to 24" line size. You can do this in your head. You simply divide the line size in half three times. Take the answer from the first time and the third time and total them up. That will be the dimension for the 45 Ell fitting. Example:

Column #1 (Line size)

Column #2( Column #3( Column #4( Col. #1) Col. #2) Col. #3)

Column #5 -Fitting dimension (Total of Col. #2 & Col. #4) 2 " 5" 6 " 8 " 12

4" 8" 10" 14" 20"

2" 4" 5" 7" 10"

1" 2" 2 " 3 " 5"

" 1" 1 " 1 " 2-"

Tees:
The primary purpose of a Tee fitting is to make a branch from a pipe line (or run). The branch may need to be the same size as the run or it may need to be one or more sizes smaller than the run. Because of economics (the cost of special orders) the use of Tees is normally limited to size-to-size or Straight Tee, (all three connections are the same size) or Reducing Tees where the branch outlet is only one size smaller than run size. Methods for making branches of other smaller sizes will be discussed later. The dimensions of Tees are not as simple as they are for Ells. For Tees you must look them up on a fitting chart. The dimension found there is however standardized between all manufacturers. For Straight Tees the center-to-end dimension of both ends and for the branch outlet is the same. For Reducing Tees the center-toend of the branch outlet is different from that of the run. Reducers: A Reducer is a fitting used to change the line size one or more sizes smaller (or larger). There are two versions of Reducers. There is Concentric Reducers- where the centerline of the inlet and the outlet are the same. There is Eccentric Reducers- where the centerline of the inlet is different than the centerline of the outlet. With the Eccentric Reducer, one side is flat. Depending on how it is installed you may have bottom flat (BF) or top flat TF). You may also have a need to have (*) side flat (*= north, south, east or west). It is about a toss-up as to which is used more. Concentric Reducers are used mostly in situations where the reducer is in a vertical run of pipe. Eccentric Reducers are used in horizontal runs of pipe such as pipeways or in pump suctions. The dimensions for reducers must be looked up but are normally standardized among the manufacturers for a given size. The length of a reducer is the same for a range of sizes (Example: The end-to-end dimension for 10" x 4", 10" x 6" and 10" x 8" reducers is 7"). As you can see the length of a Reducer is very short in relation to the diameter. Caps: The weld Cap is a fitting used to close the end of a pipe. The closed end of the Cap is semi-elliptical in shape. The dimension of a weld cap is a look-up item. Weld caps are most often found at the bottom of a piping configuration called a "Boot." A boot is a short length of pipe with a pipe Cap that is attached to the bottom of steam line and provides for the collection of condensate.

Alternates:
Here are a few alternates to the normal methods of doing business discussed above. Miters: We talked about elbows as a way to change direction. You can change direction without using elbows. You might do this with a Miter Ell (or Mitre, both spellings are correct). A Miter Ell is where no fitting is used. Miters are normally used in large size/low pressure piping. You fabricate the Miter or change in direction from pipe segments (or pieces) that are cut at specific angles depending on the number of pieces and welds required. This is really effective when really odd angles are required. Two of the pieces are the incoming pipe and the out-going pipe. There may be no middle piece or there may be one (or more) other short middle pieces depending on the angle of the turn. A simple turn of 45 might be made with a two-piece/one weld miter. Other changes in direction might be three piece/two weld miters, three piece/two weld miters and so on. The number of welds is always one less than the number of pieces.

Depending on the size and schedule of the pipe a Miter might be cheaper than buying fittings. In small diameter piping the miter is more expensive (labor costs) and there is more pressure drop through a small miter than a small fitting. Miters are also not recommended for high temperature lines because miters are more susceptible to overstressing. Stub-in (Stub-on): We talked about using Straight Tees and Reducing Tees as a way to make branches from a line. For low pressure (or reasonably low pressure) there is another way to make branches from a line. This method uses only pipe. It is normally used only for low pressure/low temperature applications where the branch is reducing. The ASME B31.3 (and other piping B31 Code sections) recognize two basic versions of the pipe to pipe branch. One method is where the run pipe has a hole cut the outside diameter of the branch pipe. This opening is then beveled for a "full penetration weld" The branch pipe is saddle cut (with no bevel) to match the I. D. of the run pipe. They are then fitted together and welded. The second method is where the diameter of the hole in the run pipe is the same I. D. as the I. D. of the branch pipe. This hole does not get a bevel. The end of the branch pipe is saddle cut to fit the run pipe and is then beveled for a full penetration weld. With the first method, the branch pipe is inserted in the run pipe. With the second method, the branch pipe is set on the run pipe. Both are still commonly referred to as "Stub-ins" Both of these can come non-reinforced (as described above) or reinforced. The reinforced version is normally only required for higher stress situations. The reinforcement is a "ring" plate cut from some scrape run pipe or the same material as the run pipe. At the center is a hole the same size as the branch pipe. If cut from flat plate it is then shaped to fit around the run pipe. The width of the ring is normally one half the diameter of the branch pipe. The ring is intended to replace the material that was removed when the hole was cut in the run pipe. A small diameter hole (1/4" NPT) is normally drilled (and tapped) in the ring to act as a vent during the welding process and to allow for Hydrotesting of the welds. The ring is then welded to the branch pipe and the run pipe with full penetration welds. The small hole is fitted with a plug after work is completed.

O-let fittings:
Another way to make branch connections on pipe and vessels is by using an "O-Let" fitting. An "O-Let fitting is designed for use on 3" and larger welded pipe. The main feature of the typical O-Let fitting is the built-up base design which eliminates the need of any other form of branch reinforcement. The O-let fitting is manufactured in a number of styles. These are: Weld-O-Let - (common) - This fitting is best described as an odd shaped "donut." It's purpose is to make selfreinforced branch outlets on a larger (one size or more) run of pipe. The base of the common weld-o-let has a saddle shape to fit the run pipe. The outlet end of the weld-o-let has a beveled-end allowing for butt welding a pipe or fitting. Weld-O-Lets come in a wide range of sizes and materials. The size call-out is normally the run (header) size by the branch size (Example: 24" x 4" WOL). It may be of some interest to know that most O-Let fittings are made with the base that covers a range of header sizes. This means that the 24" x 4" WOL will also fit on all pipe sizes from 24" pipe to 36" pipe. Thread-O-Let - The Thread-O-Let is made much the same as the Weld-O-Let except that the outlet is threaded to match the normal tapered pipe threads. The threaded outlet sizes are normally limited to the smaller (2" and under) pipe sizes. Sock-O-Let - The Sock-O-Let is also made much the same as the Weld-O-Let except that the outlet has a socket to match the socket welded piping fittings and pipe. The socket outlet sizes are normally limited to the smaller (2" and under) pipe sizes. Latrolet - A Latrolet is a weld on branch fitting that is attached to the run pipe at a 45 angle. The angle attachment is sometimes required on high pressure relief systems. A Latrolet may be ordered with; a Butt-weld outlet end, a threaded outlet end or a socket weld end. Elbowlet - The Elbowlet is made to be fitted on the back side of a long radius 90 elbow. An Elbowlet may also be ordered with; a Butt-weld outlet end, a threaded outlet end or a socket weld outlet end. Nip-O-Let - A Nip-O-Let is a fitting that has the reinforced base for attaching to the run pipe and then has a short pipe extension with a threaded or plain outlet end. The Nip-O-Let does come in a range of sizes, however they are limited to the smaller sizes. This fitting is normally used for vent, drain and pressure gage connections.

Flange-O-Let - This fitting is much like the Nip-O-Let but has a flanged outlet end. The purpose is the same as for the Nip-O-Let.

Couplings: (as a branch outlet fitting)

The common pipe Coupling (to be discussed later) can also be used in the making of small size branches from a larger header or run pipe. One end of the (Threaded or Socket Weld) Coupling is shaped to match the O. D. of the larger pipe. This shaped end is then ground to form a beveled end which allows for a full penetration weld. Screwed and Socket-Welded Fittings These fittings perform the same function as the Butt-Weld fittings. There function is the same but the method of joining and the dimensioning is different. Normally these fittings are used in sizes 1-1/2" (or 2") and smaller. Welded fittings are specified the same as the pipe, by weight, schedule or wall thickness. Screwed and SocketWeld fittings are specified per the pressure class. Thread engagements as well as the depths of the sockets for different pipe sizes are different and must be looked-up on an approved dimension table. Threaded fitting pressure classes: 125# Cast Iron 250# Cast Iron 150# Malleable Iron 300# Malleable Iron 2000# Forged Steel * 3000# Forged Steel * 6000# Forged Steel * Most common The Cast Iron and Malleable Iron fittings are basically used for air and water services at a low temperature and pressure. Forged fittings are normally used for higher pressures and temperatures as well as for the more complex commodities. The majority of the screwed fittings will have female (internal) threads per NPT (National Pipe Thread). The exception will be the swages and the plugs - they will have male (external) threads. Socket-Weld fittings are manufactured in two classes. 3000# Forged Steel 6000# Forged Steel Socket-Weld fittings have a deep socket into which the pipe slips and aligns itself. The weld is then made on the outer surface of the pipe and fitting. This eliminate the need for or use of special clamps or tack welding for alignment prior to the final fit-up welding. At the bottom of the socket a 1/16" gap is left to compensate for expansion when the weld is made. This gap is called a root-gap. The swage does not have an internal socket; it will fit into the socket of a fitting or be butt-welded to a pipe. The dimensions for screwed and socket-weld fittings must be looked up on a standard fitting dimension chart. There are no dimension short-cuts for these fittings.

Common Screwed an Socket-Weld fittings:

Elbows (Ells): Here again we have a fitting whose purpose is to change direction. There are only two versions. There is the 90 Ell and the 45 Ell. With the Screwed and Socket-Weld Ells there is no long radius or short radius. They are just as they are and they cannot be "trimmed" to allow for odd angles.. Tees: The Screwed and Socket-Weld Tee fittings are used for making branches. They do come in straight and some reducing sizes. Swages: The Screwed and Socket-Weld Swage comes in both the concentric and the eccentric shapes. Swages do have an important feature that every designer needs to know and accept. Where a Butt-Weld reducer is short relative to the diameter, the swage is very long relative the diameter. Screwed and Socket-Weld swages are made by the same people and in some cases by the same machine. Some are then threaded and some are left with a plain end or beveled for welding. The extra length on the Screwed Swage allows space for the pipe wrench. Caps and Plugs: Caps and Plugs are intended to provide for the closer of the end of a pipe or fitting.

Nipples: A Nipple is a name given to a short length of pipe. It is not really a fitting in the same context as an elbow or a Tee. Nipples are cut from pipe and can be purchased in 4", 6" and 12" standard lengths. Pipe Nipples can also be made by the piping crew in the field. Unions: The Union is basically used as a dismantling fitting, and in many cases it is necessary for assembly. The field crew may install extra Unions at their own discretion to expedite and facilitate the construction of socket-weld and screwed piping.

Section - 1 D: Flanges, Gaskets & Bolts (Just the basics) Revision 1 By: James O. Pennock
Note: This article covers ASME B 16.5 Standard Piping Flanges up to 24" NPS. Flanges larger than 24" fall under ASME B16.47 and while they have the same attributes they will be covered at a later time. Definition: A flange is defined as a plate type device, normally round, that is attached to the end of a pipe, fitting, valve or other object to facilitate the assembly and disassembly of a piping system. For many years the only practical method of joining steel pipe had been by connecting threaded pipe ends with couplings. Improvements in the welding of carbon steel reduced labor costs and provided a completely sealed and much stronger joint. In most present day piping systems, threaded joints are usually limited to pipe sizes 2" and smaller. Larger pipe (3" and larger) is normally joined by butt-welding of continuous pipe and fittings or by flanges at joints that may require dismantling. Flanges (3" and larger) are also the default standard for connecting to most equipment connections and valves. Materials of construction: Flanges are manufactured in all the different materials to match the material of the pipe and fittings to which they are being attached. While some flanges are made of Cast Iron. The vast majority of flanges are forged carbon steel. Forged Flange Ratings: Forged steel flanges are made in seven primary ratings. These primary ratings are as follows: o Class 150 o Class 300 o Class 400 o Class 600 o Class 900 o Class 1500 o Class 2500 The Primary Rating is on a pressure/temperature relationship. Example: A Class 150 Forged Flange is used for 150 PSIG at 500 F. This same flange may also be used for 275 PSIG at 100 F. This same flange could also be used at 100 PSIG at 750 F. Note the inverse relationship. When the pressure goes up, the temperature goes down and vice versa. Pressure ratings are used as a guide to safely design piping systems and also to standardize manufactured piping components. The same ratings hold true for screwed and socket-weld flanges. Cast Iron Flange Ratings: The two most common ratings for Cast Iron flanges are Class 125 and Class 250. Other flange ratings are available but are not as common. Cast Iron flanges are generally found associated with low pressure cast iron valves and nozzles on cast iron equipment such as some pumps and turbines. Mating forged steel flanges to cast iron flange can pose a potential for damage to the "weaker" cast iron. The main point to remember now is that a Class 125 Cast Iron flange will mate to a Class 150 forged steel flange, and a Class 250 Cast Iron flange will mate to a Class 300 forged steel flange. The solution to the potential damage problem will be discussed later in flange facings. Flange Dimensions: A flange has many dimensions. The most critical is the "length" of the flange. This dimension will vary with each

type of flange and will be covered in the section below covering Flange Types. All other dimensions for a flange will normally be the same across all flange types but will vary with each flange rating. These common dimensions include: o Flange Outside Diameter o Flange Thickness o Bolt Circle o Number of Bolts o Bolt Hole Size o Bolt Size Bolt Hole Location: The ASME B16.5 has a standard for bolt holes that are used by all (US) manufacturers for flange sizes up through 24" For instance; the number of bolt holes required varies with the size and rating of the flange. But the number and size is the same no matter the type of flange. The bolt holes are evenly spaced around the flange on a concentric bolt circle. There will always be an even number of bolt holes, in graduations of 4 (i.e., 4, 8, 12, 16, etc.). Unless specifically noted otherwise by the piping designer (and then only if for good reason) all flange bolt holes shall straddle the "natural" centerlines. This is the flange bolt hole orientation rule. This "natural" centerline rule for flange is known, understood and followed by all responsible equipment manufacturers and pipe fabricators. The rule is as follows: o For a vertical flange face (the flange face in vertical and the line is horizontal) the bolt holes shall be oriented to straddle the vertical and horizontal centerlines. o For a horizontal flange face (the flange face is horizontal and the line is vertical up or vertical down) the bolt holes shall be oriented to straddle the (plant) north/south centerlines. Care must be taken to check all equipment vendor outlines to identify any flange orientations that do not match this rule. When an exception is found the vendor can be requested to change his bolt hole orientation. This is not always successful and if not then the piping designer must insure that the piping fabrication documents call for the correct orientation. This rule of bolt holes straddling the natural centerlines is sometimes referred to as "Two-Hole" the flange. This means that the two of the holes straddle the centerline. To "One-Hole" a flange means that the flange has been rotated so that one hole is right on the natural centerline. I assure you that 99.999% of the time that to "One Hole" a flange is a mistake and will add cost to the field. It also makes the piping foreman very unhappy.

Flange Types:
Weld Neck Flanges: Weld Neck Flanges are distinguished from other flange types by their long tapered hub and gentle transition of thickness in the region of the butt weld that joins them to pipe or a fitting. A weld-neck flange is attached to a pipe or a fitting with a single full penetration, "V" bevel weld. The long tapered hub provides an important reinforcement of the flange proper from the standpoint of strength and resistance to dishing. The smooth transition from the flange thickness to the pipe wall thickness by the taper is extremely beneficial under conditions of repeated bending caused by line expansion or other variable forces, and produces an endurance strength of welding neck flanged assemblies equivalent to that of a butt-welded joint. This type of flange is preferred for severe service conditions, whether loading conditions are substantially constant or fluctuate between wide limits. The weld neck flange is used in each of the seven flange ratings and has the advantage of requiring only one weld to attach it to the adjacent pipe or fitting. The key dimension for a weld neck flange is the length through the hub from the beveled end to the contact face of the flange. This "length" includes the bevel, the tapered hub, and the thickness of the plate part of the flange and the raised face. To obtain the correct dimension you must look at a correctly constructed flange dimension chart (see the "Tools" button on this website) or a flange manufacturers catalog. Electronic piping design software will normally already have the correct dimension built-in. It is important to understand and remember that the (1/16") raised face on the Class 150 raised face and on the Class 300 raised face flanges is normally included in the length dimension. However, the " raised face is not included in the chart or catalog length dimension for the Class 400 and higher pressure rated flanges. The raised face dimension for Class 400 flanges (and up) normally must be added to the chart or catalog length to arrive at the true total length of these higher-pressure flanges. Slip-on Flanges: Slip-On (SO) Flanges are preferred by some contractors, over the Weld-neck, because of the lower initial cost. However, this may be offset by the added cost of the two fillet welds required for proper installation. The strength of the slip-on flange is ample for it's rating, but its life under fatigue conditions is considered to be only one-third that of the weld-neck flange.

The slip-on flange may be attached to the end of a piece of pipe or to one or more ends of a pipefitting. The slip-on flange is positioned so the inserted end of the pipe or fitting is set back or short of the flange face by the thickness of the pipe wall plus 1/8 of an inch. This allows for a fillet weld inside the SO flange equal to the thickness of the pipe wall without doing any damage to the flange face. The back or outside of the flange is also welded with a fillet weld. A variation of the Slip-On flange also exists. This is the Slip-On Reducing Flange. This is simply a larger (say a 14") Slip-On flange blank that, instead of the Center (pipe) hole being cut out (or drilled out) for 14" pipe it is cut out for a 6" (or some other size) pipe. The SO Reducing flange is basically used for reducing the line size where space limitations will not allow the length of a weld neck flange and reducer combination. The use of the Slip-On Reducing Flange should only be used where the flow direction is from the smaller size into the larger size. Lap Joint Flanges: A Lap Joint Flange is a two piece device that is much like a weld-neck flange but also like a loose slip-on flange. One piece is a sleeve called a 'Stub-end" and is shaped like a short piece of pipe with a weld bevel on one end and a narrow shoulder on the other end called the hub. The hub is the same outside diameter as the raised face (gasket contact surface) of a weld neck flange. The thickness of the hub is normally about " to 3/8". The back face of the hub has a rounded transition (or inside fillet) that joins the hub to the sleeve. The other piece of a Lap Joint Flange is the backing flange. This flange has all the same common dimensions (O.D., bolt circle, bolt hole size, etc.) as any other flange however it does not have a raised face. One side, the backside, has a slight shoulder that is square cut at the center or pipe hole. The front side has flat face and at the center hole an outside fillet to match the fillet of the "Stub-end" piece. The flange part of the Lap-joint flange assembly is slipped on to the stub-end prior to the sleeve being welded to the adjoining pipe or fitting. The flange itself is not welded or fixed in any way. It is free to spin for proper alignment with what ever it is joining to. The "Stub-end" can normally be purchased in two lengths. There is a short version, about 3" long and a long version of about 6" long. It is prudent for the piping designer to know which version is in the piping specification. Because of it's two piece configuration, the Lap Joint Flange offers a way to cut cost or simplify work. The cost saving comes when the piping system requires a high cost alloy for all "wetted" parts to reduce corrosion. The sleeve or Stub-end can be the required higher cost alloy but the flange can be the lower cost forged carbon steel. The work simplification comes into the picture where there are cases that require frequent and rapid disassembly and assembly during the operation of a plant. The ability to spin that backing flange compensates for misalignment of the bolt holes during reassembly. Screwed (or Threaded) Flanges: Screwed flanges look very much like a Slip-On flange in some ways. The main difference is the Screwed flange was bored out initially to match a specific pipe inside diameter. The backside of this center opening is then threaded with the proper sized tapered pipe thread. This flange is primarily used to make flanged joints where required in small sizes in threaded pipe specs Socket Weld Flanges: Socket Weld flanges also look very much like a Slip-On flange. Here the main difference is the Socket Weld flange was also bored out initially to match a specific pipe inside diameter. Here however, the backside of this center opening is then counter bored to form the proper size socket to take the pipe O.D. This flange is primarily used to make flanged joints where required in small sizes in socket welded pipe specs Blind Flanges: Blind flanges are a round plate with all the proper bolt holes but no center hole. This flange is used to provide positive closer at the ends of pipes, valves or equipment nozzles.

Flange Faces:
Face Types: Flanges faces come in different forms. Some forms are more common and others are old and out of date forms. These old forms may be ordered but possibly only to match an existing piece of old equipment. Flange face forms are: o Flat Face (FF) - The Flat Face is primarily used on Cast Iron flanges. With this face the whole contact face of the flange is machined flat. o Raised Face (RF) - The Raised Face is most common of all flange faces. The flange has a raised area machined on the flange face equal to the contact area of a gasket. o Ring-type Joint (RTJ) - This is a form of flange face that is becoming obsolete. This type has a higher raised portion on the face into which a ring groove is then machined.

o Tongue and Groove (T&G) - This is also a form of flange face that in becoming obsolete. With this type the flanges must be matched. One flange face has a raised ring (Tongue) machined onto the flange face while the mating flange has a matching depression (Groove) machined into it's face. o Male-and -Female (M&F) - This is another form of flange face that is obsolete. With this type the flanges must also be matched. One flange face has an area that extends beyond the normal flange face (Male). The companion flange or mating flange has a matching depression (Female) machined into it's face. Dissimilar flange faces such as the RTJ, T&G and the F&M shall never be bolted together. The primary reason for this is that the contact surfaces do not match and there is no gasket that has one type on one side and another type on the other side. Don't even think about it! Flat face flanges are never to be bolted to a raised face flange. If you need to bolt a Forged steel flange to cast iron then you must call for the forged steel flange to be machined off to a flat face. For more information on this see this link to Goulds pumps Flange Face Finish: The part of a flange where the gasket touches is called the contact surface. This area is the most critical area to the prevention of leaks. This area of a flange must be protected from the time it is machined clear through all the various shipping, storage, fabrication and installation periods. Flange faces are machined with standard finishes. No doubt your piping material engineer could request another special finish but that would only add extra cost. The most common finish for the contact face of a flange is a concentric (or phonographic) groove. This pattern is machined into the flange face and provides the grip for the gasket. Gaskets: You can have Class 600 stainless steel flanges and have the bolts fully tight and if you do not have a gasket (or the proper gasket) you will have a lot of leaks. Having the gasket and the right gasket is very important. Gaskets provide the tight seal that retains the pressure and keeps the gas or liquid in the pipe. In a vacuum system it keeps the outside air from getting in. Gaskets are designed and later chosen considering all the same issues as were used to select the pipe. These include pressure, temperature, and corrosiveness of the commodity, among others. Gaskets are made of a wide range of materials. These include rubber, elastomers and graphite. The Spiral Wound gasket has a graphite or Teflon material wound with a metal strip which is then held in shape by a flat metal ring. This metal retainer ring also acts as a centering tool to insure that the casket is not misaligned or blocks the product flow. Gaskets for Ring Type Joint flanges are simply a solid metal ring. There are two basic cross-sectional shapes for the RTJ gasket. These are "Oval" and "Hexagonal." Bolts: Bolting is the final element of a complete flange joint assembly. Here again we have some variations. The most common is the Stud Bolt. Next is normally the Cap Screw. And finally we have the Machine Bolt. Stud Bolts: The Stud Bolt is a long threaded rod (with no head on either end) and two nuts. The Stud Bolt is used in all locations where you have two normal flanges with access to the backside of both flanges and both ends of the stud. Cap Screws: The Cap Screw is a fully threaded rod with a head on one end. No nut is used with the Cap Screw. The Cap Screw is normally used in all locations where a flange is being attached to a piece of equipment where there are only tapped holes (i.e.: no access to the backside). Cap Screws are also used to attach threaded-lug type wafer valves (Butterfly Valves) between a pair of flanges. For this application the length of the Cap Screw selected is critical. Two Cap Screws are used at each lug position, one from one side and one from the other side. The Cap Screw must be long enough to go through the flange, the raised face and half of the threaded lug minus 1/16 of an inch. This leaves a 1/8 inch total gap between the ends of the two cap screws when the screws are tight. Machine Bolts: A Machine Bolt is a rod with a hexagon head on one end and threads on some of the length. Machine Bolts are normally made of a lower strength material than Stud Bolts and are therefore considered only where low strength bolting is required. These applications most often include Cast Iron flanges.

Section - 1 E: Gaskets & Bolts By: Anton Dooley

Gaskets and Bolts

Introduction Now that we have covered the different types of flanges, let's briefly cover the subject of gaskets and bolts. We shall only cover what a piper is required to know. We will first discuss gaskets and then bolts. GASKETS A gasket forms the seal necessary between flange connections to prevent leaks; There are different types of gaskets. The type of gasket is dependent upon three things: 1. Pressure and Temperature of the line; 2. Commodity of the line; 3. Facing of the flanges they are placed between. Example: A line at 800 would take a different type of gasket than would a line at150, even though they both could have raised face flanges. Also, it naturally follows that a flat face flange would take a different type of gasket than would a ring joint flange. Who Selects the Gasket Material? The Piping Material Engineer selects the type of gasket necessary for a particular line and we find this information in the Piping Material Specification. There are three general types of gaskets. 1. Raised face 2. Full face 3. "Ring Joint Flange" gasket Raised Face Gaskets First, let's discuss the raised faced gasket. It is used on flanges with raised faces. It's outside diameter is fabricated so as to align itself within the bolts. The material used may be either metallic or nonmetallic. The most common metallic gaskets are: Corrugated, metal, corrugated double jacket asbestos filled, and spiral wound. Non metallic gaskets would be of materials such as graphite, cardboard or rubber. Full Face Gaskets The second type of gasket is the full face gasket. They are normally used for flat faced flanges and the O.D. extends to the outer edge of the flange face with holes provided for the bolts. Why would we use a full faced gasket on flat faced flanges? Flat faced flanges are sometimes made of cast iron, which is brittle. Unless a full faced gasket is used, we run the risk of cracking the flange as the bolts are tightened. The common materials used for this type of gasket are: Graphite, cardboard or rubber. Both the raised faced gasket and full faced gasket have varying thicknesses, based on pressures and temperatures.

In order to calculate the dimensions to flanges or valves on our isometric, we have to know the thickness, so we can either add or subtract it to arrive at a dimension on the iso. The most common compressed thicknesses are 1/16" and 1/8". The material specifications will indicate the gasket compressed thickness. Metal Ring Joint Flange Gasket The third type of gasket is the metal ring gasket. The cross section of the ring is either oval or octagonal. It fits into machined groves in the flange faces, namely ring joint. This type of gasket is made of solid metal and is used in high pressure or high temperature service.

BOLTS In conjunction with gaskets, there are two different types of bolts that are used with flanged connections. Stud Bolts Machine Bolts The material of the bolts will not be important in Piping Design for the most part, but there is a maximum temperature at which the machine bolt can be used. Above that, we usually go to stud bolts. The temperature depends upon the material and it again is selected by the Material Engineers. Bolt Lengths The Piping Designer needs to be aware of the length of the bolt for material purposes and to verify there is adequate clearance for bolt removal. Generally this length is pre-defined, but may need to be adjusted in certain situations Boss and Cap Screws There will be particular instances when cap screws will be used instead of bolts; for example, at a turbine or compressor where flange connections may be the "boss type." Here you would have just a machined surface with tapped holes to accommodate cap screws. BOLT IDENTFICATION Machine Bolt: Machine bolts have a square forged head and requires only one hex nut. Stud Bolt: Stud bolts do not have heads. They are completely threaded from end to end and require two hex nuts to install. Cap Screws: Cap screws have hex heads on them and are stronger than machine bolts and require only one hex nut. Stud bolts are the most common type of bolt used in Piping. They have these three advantages: 1. The stud bolt is more easily removed if corroded. 2. Confusion with other bolts at the site is avoided. 3. Stud bolts in the less frequently used sizes and materials can be readily made from round stock. In conclusion, the most important thing about gaskets and bolts is the thickness of the gasket (as far as we in Piping Design are concerned). This information is found in the Piping Material Specification.

Section - II A: General Guidelines for Equipment and

Piping Location, Spacing, Distances and Clearances By: James O. Pennock

This article should only be used as a guide. It's intended purpose is to help the piping designer who is responsible for placement of one specific item in a typical refinery, chemical or petrochemical process plant or someone who may need help in developing a total plot plan for a complex unit. The guidelines given here are based on my many years of experience with one of the world's largest engineering, design and construction companies along with the U. S. OSHA Part 1910 and the NFPA (National Fire Protection Association) Code No. 30. The latest editions of these codes and any other applicable national, regional and local codes should be referred to and used because they may be more stringent. The subjects covered in this article have been arranged in alphabetical order in the hope it will make them easier to locate. Access (See Maintenance) Columns (See Vertical Vessels) Compressors, Centrifugal Locate centrifugal compressor as close as possible the suction source. Top suction and discharge lines either should be routed to provide clearance for overhead maintenance requirements, or should be made up with removable spool pieces. Support piping so as to minimize dead load on compressor nozzles; the load should be within the recommended allowance of the compressor manufacturer. Centrifugal compressors should have full platforming at operating level. Heavy parts such as upper or inner casing and rotor should be accessible to mobile equipment. Review the equipment arrangement for access and operation. Locate lube and seal oil consoles adjacent to and as close as possible to the compressor. Oil return lines from the compressor and driver should have a minimum slope of 1/2 inch per foot to the inlet connection of seal traps, degassing tanks, and oil reservoir. Pipe the reservoir, compressor bearing, and seal oil vents to a safe location at least 6 feet above operator head level. Compressors, Reciprocating Locate reciprocating compressors so suction and discharge lines that are subject to vibration (mechanical and acoustical) may be routed at grade and held down at points established by a stress and analog study of the system. Accessibility and maintenance for large lifts such as cylinder, motor rotor, and piston removal should be by mobile equipment if the installation is outdoors or by traveling overhead crane if the installation is indoors (or covered). Horizontal, straight line, reciprocating compressors should have access to cylinder valves. Access should be from grade or platform if required. Depending on unit size and installation height, horizontal-opposed and gas engine driven reciprocating compressors may require full platforming at the operating level. Control Valves Locate control valve stations accessible from grade or on a platform. In general, the (flow, level, pressure, temperature) instruments or indicators showing the process variables should be visible from the control valve. Cooling Towers Locate cooling towers downwind of buildings and equipment to keep spray from falling on them. Orient the short side of the tower into the prevailing summer wind for maximum efficiency. This means that the air flow (wind) will travel up the long sides and be drawn in to both sides of the cooling tower equally. When the wind is allowed to blow directly into one long side it tends to blow straight through and results in lower efficiency. Locate cooling towers a minimum of 100 feet (30m) from process units, utility units, fired equipment, and process equipment. Cradles (See Insulation Shoes and Cradles) Equipment Arrangement (General) Arrange equipment, structures, and piping to permit maintenance and service by means of mobile equipment. Provide permanent facilities where maintenance by mobile equipment is impractical.

Group offsite equipment, pumps, and exchangers to permit economical pipe routing. Locate this equipment outside of diked storage areas. Exchanger, Air Cooler (Fin Fans) Air Coolers are in typically used in the cooling of the overhead vapor from tall vertical vessels or towers such as Crude Fractionators and Stripper Columns. The natural flow tends to follow gravity, where the tower overhead is the high point then down to the Air Cooler, then down to the Accumulator and finally the Overhead Product transfer pumps. With this in mind the Air Coolers are normally located above pipeways. This conserves plot space and allows the pipe rack structure with it's foundation to do double duty with only minor up grade to the design. If the pipe rack is not used then plot space equal to the size of the Air Cooler is required. In addition a totally separate foundation and stand alone structure is required. Exchanger, "G" Fin (Double Pipe) These exchangers can be mounted almost anywhere any they can be mounted (with process engineer approval) in the vertical when required. A G-Fin Exchanger is recognizable by its shape. One segment looks like two long pieces of pipe with a 180 degree return bend at the far end. It is one finned pipe inside of another pipe with two movable supports. This type of exchanger can be joined together very simply to form multiples in series, in parallel or in a combination of series/parallel to meet the requirements of the process. This exchanger is not normally used in a service where there is a large flow rate or where high heat transfer is required. The key feature with this exchanger is the maintenance. The piping is disconnected from the tube side (inner pipe). On the return bend end of this exchanger there is a removable cover. When the cover is removed this allows for the tube (inside pipe) to be pulled out. This exchanger is normally installed with the piping connections toward the pipe rack.

Exchangers, Reboiler (Kettle Reboiler) Locate kettle reboilers at grade and as close as possible to the vessel they serve. This type of reboiler is identifiable by its unique shape. It has one end much like a normal Shell and Tube exchanger then a very large eccentric, bottom flat transition to what looks like a normal horizontal vessel. You could also call it a "Fat" exchanger. The flow characteristics on the process side of a kettle reboiler are the reason for the requirement for the close relationship to the related vessel. Reboilers normally have a removable tube bundle and should have maintenance clearance equal to the bundle length plus 5 feet (1.5m) measured from the tube sheet. Exchangers, Shell and Tube Shell and tube exchangers should be grouped together wherever possible. Stacked shell and tube exchangers should be limited to four shells high in similar service; however, the top exchanger should not exceed a centerline elevation of 18 feet (5.5m) above high point of finished surface, unless mounted in a structure. Keep channel end and shell covers clear of obstructions such as piping and structural members to allow unbolting of exchanger flanges, and removal of heads and tube bundles. Exchangers with removable tube bundles should have maintenance clearance equal to the bundle length plus 5 feet (1.5m) measured from the tube sheet to allow for the tube bundle and the tube puller. Maintenance space between flanges of exchangers or other equipment arranged in pairs should be 1'- 6" (0.5m) (min.). Exchanger maintenance space from a structural member or pipe should not be less than 1'- 0" (300mm) (min.). Furnaces (Fired Equipment) Locate fired equipment, if practical, so that flammable gases from hydrocarbon and other processing areas cannot be blown into the open flames by prevailing winds. Horizontal clearance from hydrocarbon equipment (shell to shell) 50'- 0" (15m) Exception: Reactors or equipment in alloy systems should be located for economical piping arrangement. Provide sufficient access and clearance at fired equipment for removal of tubes, soot blowers, air preheater baskets, burners, fans, and other related serviceable equipment. Clearance from edge of roads to shell 10'- 0"(3m) Pressure relief doors and tube access doors should be free from obstructions. Orient pressure relief doors so as not to blow into adjacent equipment. The elevation of the bottom of the heater above the high point of the finished surface should allow free passage for operation and maintenance. Furnace Piping Locate snuffing steam manifolds and fuel gas shutoff valves a minimum of 50 feet (15m) horizontally from the heaters they protect. Burner Valving for a Floor Fired Furnaces: Combination oil and gas firing valves should be operable from burner observation door platform. For those fired by gas only, the valves should be near the burner and should be operable from grade. Burner Valving for a Side Fired Furnaces: Locate firing valves so they can be operated while the flame is viewed from the observation door. Flare Stacks Locate the flare stack upwind of process units, with a minimum distance of 200 feet (60m) from process equipment, tanks, and cooling towers. If the stack height is less than 75 feet (25m), increase this distance to a minimum of 300 feet (90m). These minimum distances should be verified by Company Process Engineering.

Future Provisions Space for future equipment, pipe, or units should not be provided unless required by the client or for specific process considerations. When applicable this requirement should be indicated on the plot plan and P&IDs. Insulation Shoes and Cradles Locate Insulation shoes anywhere a line crosses a support for hot insulated piping when the piping is 3 inch (80mm) and larger carbon and alloy steel lines with design temperatures over 650 degrees F (350C). Large diameter lines (20 inches (500mm) and over), stainless steel lines where galvanic corrosion may exist, lines with wall thickness less than standard weight, and vacuum lines should be analyzed to determine if shoes or wear plates are needed. Provide cradles at supports for insulated lines in cold service and for acoustical applications. Ladders & Cages Maximum height of a ladder without a cage should not exceed 15'-0" (4.5m) Maximum vertical distance between platforms 30'- 0" (9m) Cages on ladders over 15'-0" (4.5m) high shall start at 8'-0" (2.5m) above grade. Minimum toe clearance behind a ladder 0'- 7" (200mm) Minimum handrail clearance 0'- 3" (80mm) Level Instruments Locate liquid level controllers and level glasses so as to be accessible from grade, platform, or permanent ladder. The level glass should be readable from grade wherever practical. Wherever possible, orient level instruments on the side toward the operating aisle. Loading Racks Locate loading and unloading facilities that handle flammable commodities a minimum of 200 feet (60m) from away from process equipment, and 250 feet (75m) from tankage. Maintenance Aisles (at grade) Equipment maintenance aisle for hydraulic crane (12T capacity) should have a horizontal clearance width of 10'- 0" (3m) (min.) and a vertical clearance of 12'- 0" (3.5m) (min.). Where a fork lift and similar equipment (5000 lbs / 230kg capability) is to be used the horizontal clearance should be 6'- 0" (2m) (min.) and the vertical clearance should be 8'- 0" (2.5m) (min.). Where maintenance by portable manual equipment (A-frames, hand trucks, dollies, portable ladders or similar equipment) is required the horizontal clearance should be 3'- 0" (1m) (min.) and the vertical clearance 8'- 0" (2.5m) (min.). Operating Aisle (at grade) Minimum width 2'- 6" (800mm) Headroom 7'- 0" (2.1m) Orifice Runs and Flanges Locate Orifice runs in the horizontal. Vertical orifice runs may only be used with the approval of Company Control Systems Engineering. Orifice flanges with a centerline elevation over 15 feet (4.5m) above the high point of finished surface, except in pipeways, should be accessible from a platform or permanent ladder. Locate orifice taps as follows: Air and Gas -Top vertical centerline (preferred) -45 degrees above horizontal centerline (alternate)] Liquid and Steam -Horizontal centerline (preferred) -45 degrees below horizontal centerline (alternate] (Note: The piping isometrics should show the required tap orientations) Personnel Protection Locate eye wash and emergency showers in all areas where operating personnel are subject to hazardous sprays or spills, such as acid. Personnel protection should be provided at uninsulated lines and for equipment operating above 140 degrees F (60 C) when they constitute a hazard to the operators during the normal operating routine. Lines that are infrequently used, such as snuffing steam and relief valve discharges, may not require protective shields or coverings. Pipe Clearance between the outside diameter of flange and the outside diameter of pipe to the insulation should not be less than 0'- 1"* (25mm) Clearance between the outside diameter of pipe, flange, or insulation and structural any member should not be less than 0'- 2"* (50mm) *With full consideration of thermal movements

Platforms Minimum width for ladder to ladder travel: 2'- 6" (800mm) Headroom: 7'- 0" (2.1m) Headroom from stairwell treads: 7'- 0" (2.1m) Minimum clearance around any obstruction on dead end platforms: 1'- 6" (500mm) Pressure Instruments Locate all local pressure indicators so they are visible from grade, permanent ladder, or platform. Those located less than 15 feet (4.5m) above high point of finished surface should be accessible from grade or a portable ladder. Those located in a pipeway should be considered accessible by portable ladder. Those over 15 feet (4.5m) above high point of finished surface should be accessible from a platform or permanent ladder. Process Units The relation of units, location of equipment, and routing of pipe should be based on economics, safety, and ease of maintenance, operation, and construction requirements. The alignment of equipment and routing of pipe should offer an organized appearance. Process Unit Piping Locate all pipe lines in major process units on overhead pipeways. In certain instances, pipes may be buried, providing they are adequately protected. Lines that must be run below grade, and must be periodically inspected or replaced, should be identified on the P&IDs and placed in covered concrete trenches. Cooling water lines normally may be run above or below ground, based on economics. Domestic or potable water and fire water lines should be run underground. Pumps Locate pumps close to the equipment from which they take suction. Normally, locate pumps in process units under pipeways. Design piping to provide clearance for pump or driver removal. Similarly, on end suction pumps, piping should permit removing suction cover and pump impeller while the suction and discharge valves are in place. Arrange suction lines to minimize offsets. The suction lines should be short and as direct as possible, and should step down from the equipment to the pump. Suction lines routed on sleeperways may rise to pump suction nozzle elevation. Orient valve handwheels or handles so they will not interfere with pump maintenance or motor removal. Valve handwheels or handles should be readily operable from grade. Maintenance and operating aisles with a minimum width of 2'-6" (800mm) should be provided on three sides of all pumps. Pump Strainers Provide temporary conical type strainers in 2 inch (50mm) and larger butt weld pump suction lines for use during startup. Arrange piping to facilitate removal. Use permanent Y-type strainers on 2 inch (50mm) and smaller screwed or socket weld pump suction piping. Railroads Headroom over through-railroads (from top rail) 22'- 6"** (7m) Clearance from track centerline to obstruction 10'- 0"** (3m) (** Verify conformance with local regulations) Relief Valves (Pressure, Safety and Thermal) Locate all relief valves so they are accessible. Wherever feasible, locate them at platforms that are designed for other purposes. Relief valves with a centerline elevation over 15 feet (4.5m) above high point of finish surface (except in pipeways) should be accessible from platform or permanent ladder. Pressure relief valves that discharge to a closed system should be installed higher than the collection header. There should be no pockets in the discharge line. Safety relief valves (in services such as steam, etc.) that discharge to the atmosphere should have tail pipes extended to a minimum of 8 feet (2.5m)above the nearest operating platform that is within a radius of 25 feet (7.5m). This requirement may be waived, provided a review of the proposed arrangement indicates that it does not present a hazard. Review all pressure and safety relief valves discharging flammable vapors to the atmosphere within 100 feet (30m) of fired equipment for vapor dissipation. Pressure and Safety relief valves, 1-1/2 inch (40mm) and larger, should only be installed with the stem and body vertical position. Thermal relief valves, 1 inch (25mm) and smaller, may be installed with the stem and body in a horizontal position when it is impractical to install it in the vertical position. Roads Major process plants normally have three classes of roads. They might be called Primary roads, Secondary roads and Maintenance access ways. Clearance or distance required

Road type Primary Secondary (*) Maintenance access

Vertical

Width

Shoulder

Side or off road 10'-0" (3m) 5'-0" (1.5m)

21'-0" (6.5m) 20'-0" (6m) 10'-0" (3m) 10'-0" (3m)

5'-0" (1.5m) 20'-0" (6m) (not req'd)

12'-0" (3.7m) 12'-0" 3.7m) 3'-0" (1m)

(*) Normally secondary plant roads may be used as tube pull areas. Safety Access Provide a primary means of egress (continuous and unobstructed way of exit travel) from any point in any building, elevated equipment, or structure. A secondary means of escape should be provided where the travel distance from the furthest point on a platform to an exit exceeds 75 feet (25m). Access to elevated platforms should be by permanent ladder. Safety cages should be provided on all ladders over 15'-0" (4.5m) The need for stairways should be determined by platform elevation, number of items requiring attention, observation and adjustment, and the frequency of items. Ladder safety devices such as cable reel safety belts and harnesses, may be investigated for use on boiler, flare stack, water tank, and chimney ladders over 20 feet (6m) in unbroken lengths in lieu of cage protection and landing platforms. Sample Connections Locate all sample connections so they are readily accessible from grade or platform. In general, where liquid samples are taken in a bottle, locate the sample outlet above a drain funnel to permit free running of the liquid before sampling. Hot samples should be provided with a cooler. Sleeper Pipe Supports Normally, route piping in offsite areas on sleepers. Stagger the sleeper elevations to permit ease of crossing or change of direction at intersections. Flat turns may be used when entire sleeper ways change direction. Spectacle Blinds Locate spectacle blinds to be accessible from grade or platform. Blinds located in a pipeway are considered accessible. Blinds that weigh over 100 lbs (45kg) should be accessible by mobile equipment. Where this is not possible, provide davits or hitching points. Closely grouped flanges with blinds should be staggered. Steam Traps Locate all steam traps at all pocketed low points and at dead ends of steam headers. Also, provide traps periodically on excessively long runs of steam piping, for sufficient condensate removal, and to ensure dry quality steam at destination. Steam traps should be accessible from grade or a platform. Steam traps located in pipeways should be considered accessible by portable ladder. Tankage Locate any tankage containing hydrocarbon or other combustible fluids or gasses a minimum distance of 250'0" (115m) from any process unit, rail loading facility or truck loading facility. The minimum spacing of offsite storage tanks and dike requirements should be in accordance with the latest edition of the National Fire Protection Association, Code No. 30, and OSHA part 1910.106 (b), where applicable. Temperature Instruments Locate temperature test wells, temperature Indicators and thermocouples to be accessible from grade or a portable ladder. Those located in a pipeway should be considered accessible by a portable ladder. Those located over 15 feet (7m) above high point of finished surface should be accessible from a platform or permanent ladder. Locate all local temperature indicators (TI) should be visible from grade, ladder, or platform. Towers (See Vertical Vessel) Utility Stations Provide and locate utility stations with water, steam, or air as indicated below: All areas should be reachable with a single 50 foot (20m) length of hose from the station. Provide water outlets at grade level only, in pump areas, and near equipment that should be water washed during maintenance. Provide steam outlets at grade level only in areas subject to product spills, and near equipment that requires steaming out during maintenance. Provide air outlets in areas where air-driven tools are used such as at exchangers, both ends of heaters, compressor area, top platform of reactors, and on columns at each manway. Hose, hose rack, and hose connections should be provided by the client or be purchased to match the clients existing hardware.

Valve Handwheel Clearance Clearance between the outside of hand wheel and any obstruction (knuckle clearance) should be 0'- 3" (80mm) Valve Operation Locate operating valves requiring attention, observation, or adjustment during normal plant operation (noted on the P&IDs) so they may be within easy reach from grade, platform, or permanent ladder as follows: - 2" (50mm) and smaller may be located reachable from a ladder. - 3" (80mm) and larger must be reachable and operable on a platform Operating valves with the bottom of handwheel is over 7 feet (2.1m)above high point of finished surface or operating platform may be chain-operated. The centerline of handwheel or handles on block valves used for shutdown only, located less than 15 feet (4.5m) above high point of finished surface, and those located in pipeways, may be accessible by portable ladder. The centerline of handwheel or handles on block valves used for shutdown only and located over 15 feet (4.5m) above high point of finished surface, except those located in pipeways, should be operable from permanent ladder or platform. In general, keep valve handwheels, handles, and stems out of operating aisles. Where this is not practical, elevate the valve to 6'- 6" (plus or minus 3 inches) clear from high point of finished surface to bottom of handwheel. Vents and Drains The P&IDs should indicate, locate and size all vents, drains, and bleeds required for process reasons and plant operation. Provide plugged hydrostatic vents and drains without valves at the high and low points of piping. Provide valved bleeds at control valve stations, level switches, level controllers, and gage glasses per job standard. Vertical Vessel (Column) Piping and Platforms Locate vertical vessels in the equipment rows on each side of the pipeway in a logical order based on the process and cost. The largest vessel in each equipment row should be used to set the centerline location of all vertical vessels in that equipment row. This largest vertical vessel should be set back from the pipe rack a distance that allows for; any pumps, the pump piping, an operation aisle between the pump piping and any piping in front of the vessel, the edge of the vessel foundation and half the diameter of this the largest vessel. Set all other vertical vessels in this same equipment row on the same centerline. Provide a clear access area at grade for vessels with removable internals or for vessels requiring loading and unloading of catalyst or packing. Provide vessel davits for handling items such as internals and relief valves on vessels exceeding a height of 30 feet (9m) above the high point of the finished surface, and on vessels not accessible by mobile crane. Orient davits to allow the lowering of appurtenances into the access area. Walkways Walkways should have a 2'-6' (1m) horizontal clearance (not necessarily in a straight line) and headroom of 7'- 0" (2.1m) James O. Pennock is a former Piper with more than 45 years experience covering process plant engineering, design, training, pipe fabrication and construction. He is now retired and lives in Florida, USA.

Section - II C: Introduction to Vessels and Vessel Orientation By: James O. Pennock

The question on many minds may be "Why does Piping do Vessel Orientation?" We can answer that question two ways. The first answer would be, because of the traditional role of Piper and the content of the vessel orientation activity itself. The traditional role of the Piper has always been the bringing together of multidiscipline information to create the plant layout and piping plans. The activity of vessel orientation has the same multi-discipline focus. The second way to answer the question is to ask "If not the Piper, then who?" Civil? Structural? Electrical? Instrumentation? No, they are not logical candidates. Structural? The structural engineer does engineer the support for some vessels but they do not truly design the support. Process? While the process engineer does have a great deal of interest and input in the workings of a vessel, their interest is more from a function and performance focus. Vessels? Why doesn't the vessel engineer do the vessel orientation? Or better yet, why doesn't the Vendor do the vessel orientation? The response to that is in all of the non-vessel factors that influence the vessel orientation activity. What are non-vessel factors?

Non-vessel factors include: A. Site -- Vessel orientation is influenced by where the vessel is located on the site B. Relationship to related equipment -- Proper vessel orientation must consider the location and method of connection to related equipment C. Support -- Vessel orientation of many vessels includes the method of support D. P&ID interpretation -- The person responsible for vessel orientation must be very proficient in reading and understanding a P&ID E. Internals to external object relationships -- Internals effect the nozzle locations that in turn connect to the piping. The piping is subject to thermal expansion, and must be supported. The piping must meet all the process requirements from the P&ID, and must be in compliance with the Plant Layout Design Specification. The piping must also be supported, and must meet the all the applicable Code criteria, etc. F. Operations and Maintenance -- Vessel orientation must be compatible with the requirements of the operators and the people who must maintain the vessels. This brings us back to answer number one. Vessel orientation requires the bringing together of and the coordination of data and requirements from many disciplines. Piping in their Plant Layout role is already functioning in this mode. Most major engineering and design firms (in our Industry) have found that Piping Design is the most logical and most efficient group for developing complex vessel orientations. The ideal scenario for the development of a vessel orientation is like a chain. The links of the chain are like the steps required completing the finished design. With the ideal scenario you would not start step two until step one is completed and so on. The ideal circumstances means that the Plot Plan has been firmed up and approved, the P&IDs have been developed, reviewed, and issued approved for design (AFD). It means that the unit piping transposition has been developed. It means that Process has completed their input to the vessel datasheet and Vessels has completed their preliminary work. Occasionally, the piping designer has been required to initiate a vessel orientation under other than the most ideal of circumstances. In some cases the vessel orientation has been started before the P&IDs were ready for the first Client P&ID review. Starting Vessel orientation before the source documents are ready will expose the job to risks, errors, recycle and increased costs. As much as we try to avoid this situation, it can still happen. Premature starts in vessel orientation are due to the requirement for early purchase of vessels identified as long delivery. The Construction schedule of any project is based on the delivery of key equipment and materials. The construction schedule in turn will impact the start-up schedule. Once the Client has awarded the project, they are anxious to get their plant "on-stream" as soon as possible. The sooner they get on-stream, the sooner they can recover the capitol investment and see the expected profits. The delivery time for vessels such as: alloy reactors, heavy wall high pressure vessels, or crude vacuum columns often take more than a year from PO (purchase order) release to shipment. In the past, one way to expedite the overall schedule, the Client has pre-purchased the vessels prior to the award of the project. There is a potential risk for increased cost in this scenario also. Under normal circumstances a Vessel fabricator will not normally do any rolling and cutting of plate until the order has reached a certain milestone. They will need the final checked, corrected and approved vessel drawings. This includes all the nozzles, pipe supports, pipe guides, ladders, platforms, etc. The Vendor's fabrication and delivery performance clock does not start ticking until they get the drawings back approved. A project with a fast track schedule or pre-purchased vessels will put a lot of pressure on the piping design group. Piping should normally have time to properly develop the Plot Plan, the P&ID transposition, the other related piping layouts, in order to come up with the best vessel orientations for economics, operability, and maintenance. As piping designers you owe it to the Client, your company, as well as to yourself to do the best job you know how. This philosophy is true when doing vessel orientations as with any other piping design activity. You should check into all aspects of the vessel piping and the orientation. You need to start by collecting, verifying, and using the proper information. During Plot Plan development, the piping designer must take into consideration many items that can also have a bearing on the vessel other than the orientation itself. Such items include: Lay-down space -- Prior to erection, tall columns require space for final assembly Erection equipment -- The cranes (or other lifting devices) planned to lift and set the vessels require vast amounts of space Plant road limitations; Rack heights, shoulder clearances, logistics Special vessels such as Reactors have several factors, which should be kept in mind. The most important one, of course, is to keep the alloy piping as short as possible by locating the Reactors near the Heaters. Catalyst handling facilities is another important consideration. This is true whether the catalyst is to be loaded by crane or by vessel mounted monorail. The removal of spent catalyst, usually by tote bin, truck, or conveyor, is

another space consideration. We all need to remember space is money to the Client. Wise use of plot space can save the Client money by reducing installation costs and operating costs. Vessel Configurations Vessels come in a wide variety of configurations. The variety is expressed in their sizes, shape, and function. They also will have a wide range of pressure, temperature and metallurgy. This list is only intended to highlight the main examples. Vertical Vessels with no internals (A.k.a.: Tanks, Drums, and Pots) Example: Mix Tank, Air Receiver, Volume Bottle, Flash Drums, Fuel Gas K. O. Pot, Feed Surge Drum, and Dump Tank Discussion: This type of vessel will normally be small (< 24" diameter x 3' - 0" T-T) to medium sized (24"dia to 48" diameter x < 10" - 0" T-T). They may be mounted to the support surface (grade, floor, or platform) via a traditional vessel skirt, attached legs, or lugs. When located at grade this vessel may be mounted directly on the concrete paving or floor depending on vessel weight and soil conditions. Vertical Vessels with simple Internals Simple internals such as Demister Pads Example: Feed Knockout Drum, Separator Drum, Filter, and Coalescer Drum Discussion: This type of vessel will normally be medium (24"dia to 48" diameter x < 10" - 0" T-T) to large sized (Over 48" diameter and over 10' - 0" T-T). They may be mounted to the support surface (grade or platforms) via a traditional straight vessel skirt, a flared skirt, attached legs, or lugs. When located at grade this vessel will normally be mounted on an octagon foundation. Vertical Trayed Vessels with straight sides Example: Fractionator, Contactor, and Stripper Discussion: This type of vessel can be as small as two or three feet in diameter or may be very large at 20' 0" or more in diameter. The diameter, height, number of trays, type of trays along with the other related items depends on the function. These vessels will normally be supported at grade via a traditional vessel skirt. This vessel will normally be supported on the traditional 9" to 1' - 0" high octagon concrete foundation. Vertical Trayed Vessels - Coke Bottle (two diameters w/ transition) Example: Splitter, Stabilizer, Lean Oil Still, and Absorber Column Discussion: This type of vessel will have two diameters. The Coke Bottle Vessel is a multi purpose vessel. The larger section will have different internals and function differently than the smaller section. The bottom of the Column will normally be the larger diameter with a conical transition piece to join the two. This type vessel will normally be mounted at grade via a traditional vessel skirt and be supported on an octagon foundation. Variation: A variation of this type vessel is the Inverted Coke Bottle. The Inverted Coke Bottle Vessel will normally have a short skirt at the transition point and be mounted on an elevated platform in a structure. The smaller (lower) section will hang down inside the structure. Vertical Packed Tower Vessels Example: Dryers, Feed Purifiers, Discussion: these types of vessel will normally be medium sized. Packing may be a manufactured mesh or a granulated natural material. The location and orientation of this type of vessel must consider the loading and removal of the packing. These vessels may operate at ambient, temperatures, the lower normal process temperatures, or at high temperatures. These vessels may be mounted to the support surface (grade or platforms) via a traditional vessel skirt, attached legs, or lugs. When located at grade this vessel will normally be mounted on an octagon foundation. Vertical (Refinery Type) Reactor Vessels Example: Reactor, Converters Discussion: This type of vessel will normally be medium to large sized, high pressure (> 500 psig) and high temperature (> 600o F). These vessels will be filled with one or more layers or beds of various materials that will act as a catalyst. The sidewalls and heads on this type of Reactor may be five to seven inches thick. Refinery Reactors may be mounted to the support surface on a short vessel skirt, on lugs, or on legs. The bottom head and nozzle must be elevated to allow for removal of the catalyst. The location and orientation of this type of vessel must consider the loading and removal of the catalyst. These vessels will normally operate at very high process temperatures and will be located in close proximity to fired heaters. Vertical (PharmBio & Fine Chemical Type) Reactor Vessels Example: Reactor, Mix Tank, and Cook Tank Discussion: This type of vessel will normally have a diameter and height of similar dimensions. The ratio of nozzles to vessel size will be very high. These vessels will have added complexities with the requirements for mixers and jacketing. These vessels will normally be mounted to the support surface on lugs, a collar, or on legs. These vessels are normally located on an upper level of an enclosed structure or building. The bottom head and nozzle must be elevated to allow for operator access, gravity flow to other equipment, or critical pump NPSH requirements.

Vertical Vessels - Bins and Silos Example: Agricultural Product Storage, Dry Chemical Storage Discussion: Bins and Silos are used for dry material storage. These vessels are normally thin walled, operate at atmospheric pressure, and made of materials other than carbon steel. These vessels will normally have a cone bottom. The configuration of the cone is based on the angle of repose of the commodity to be stored. These vessels may be supported via skirt, legs, or lug mounted in an elevated structure. These vessels may have flat, cone, or dome roofs. Horizontal Vessels at grade Example: Condensate Collection Drum, Separator, and Settler Drum Discussion: This type of vessel will normally be small to medium sized. They may be mounted to the support surface (grade or platforms) on extended vessel saddles. The extended saddle allows for clearance for bottom connections at a lower cost. When located at grade this vessel may be mounted on a foundation or the paving (depending on vessel weight and soil conditions). Horizontal Vessels - Elevated without Boots Example: Steam Drum, and Feed Surge Drum Discussion: these types of vessel will normally be medium to large sized. They will be mounted to the support surface (foundation or platforms) on traditional vessel saddles. When located near grade this vessel will normally be mounted on an elevated foundation. The NPSH requirements of the related pumps are critical to setting of the support elevation. Horizontal Vessels - Elevated with Boots Example: Stripper Receiver, Accumulator, Interstage K. O. Drum, and Flare K. O. Drum Discussion: these types of vessel will normally be medium to large sized. They will be mounted to the support surface (foundation or platforms) on traditional vessel saddles. When located near grade this vessel will normally be mounted on an elevated foundation. Access is normally required for the Boot operating valves and instruments. The NPSH requirements of the related pumps are critical to setting of the support elevation. Horizontal - Underground or Pit Vessels Example: Dump Tank, Kill Tank, and Hazardous Material Storage Tank Discussion: This type of vessel may be small, medium, or large in size. They will be mounted to the support surface on traditional vessel saddles. When located at grade this vessel will normally be mounted on a low foundation. When located in a pit, the pit size must allow for safety, operation, and maintenance. Pit mounted installations may also require sumps and drainage pumps. Underground (buried) installations may require double wall tanks with leak detection provisions. API Storage Tanks Example: Feed Storage, Intermediate Product Storage, Off-Spec Product Storage, Finished Product Storage, Batch Storage, Fire (or other) Water Storage Discussion: These are the traditional Tank Farm tanks. There are a number of sub-types, which include Cone Roof Atmospheric; Cone Roof with captured venting, Open Floating Roof, Enclosed Floating Roof, and Double Wall LNG Storage Tanks. These tanks have specific location, support, piping connection, safety, and access criteria based on the commodity to be stored. Special Example: Spheres, Spheroids, and Bullets Discussion: These vessel types have special location and orientation criteria and should be handled on an Ad Hoc basis. Vessel Supports There is a wide variety in the methods used to support vessels. There include: a. Skirts b. Saddles c. Ring Girders d. Lugs e. Legs f. Portables on Casters g. Pads h. Direct Bury Each of these support types may also have variations Vertical Vessel Components The pressure containment elements of the vessel are based of the process requirements for pressure, temperature, commodity, corrosion rate, plant life criteria, and the applicable Codes. The Pressure containment components include the following: a) Shell b) Heads c) Boot d) Transitions (Coke Bottle Vessels) e) Nozzles

The other components include the following: a) Trays b) Internal piping c) Support d) Load Handling Devices e) Pipe supports and Guides f) Platforms, Ladders, and Cages g) Code Name Plate Vertical Vessel Terminology Normally vessel components are described using common terms such as shell, head, nozzle, and support. Some vessels will also have special terms based on function. Typical special terms include the following: a) Flash Section -- The area or zone of the fractionation vessel where the primary feed enters the vessel. b) Fractionation Section -- The portion of the vessel that includes the trays. c) Stripping Section -- A place in the vessel that includes the introduction of supplementary heat such as high temperature steam d) Surge Section -- The bottom portion of the vessel that normally includes the main outlet nozzle which is connected to the bottoms pumps. Shell The shell of the vertical trayed vessel will have many variables including the following: a) Wall thickness b) Metallurgy (May have different material at top vs. bottom) c) Layers (single layer vs. multiple layer or cladding) d) PWHT (Post weld heat treat) requirements for all or part e) Vacuum reinforcement rings f) Insulation support rings Heads -- Top and Bottom Heads for vessels will include the following shapes: a) Dished -- The Dished head is a flatter version of the Semi-Elliptical b) Semi-Elliptical -- The traditional type used on process plant pressure vessels (2:1 SE Head) c) Spherical -- This head is sometimes referred to as a round head or Hemispherical-head The top head and the bottom head may be the same shape but they will have some differences. The differences for the top head include: a) Same material as top of Shell b) May be thicker material for reinforcing c) May be thinner material The differences for the bottom head include: a) Same material as bottom of Shell b) May be thicker material for reinforcing c) May be thinner material Transitions The cone or transition piece for regular and inverted Coke Bottle vessels may come in the following shapes: Flat side -- The cone is cut from flat plate and formed to a simple cone. There is no knuckle radius at the top or bottom of the cone. The connection to the straight shell of the vessel is an angled weld. Usually there is a reinforcing ring on the shell very close to the shell/cone junction. Shaped side -- The cone is cut from flat plate and rolled to a shaped cone. There is a knuckle radius at the top and bottom of the cone. The cone has a straight tangent at the top and bottom to match the shells. The connection to the straight shell of the vessel is a common butt weld.

Nozzles
Overhead Vapor Outlet Nozzles The overhead vapor outlet nozzles on a vertical vessel can have some latitude when it comes to attachment location. The attachment connection can be direct to the top head of the vessel or may be from the side. When the connection is from the side there will normally be a pipe inside the vessel angled up to the top head area. Small vapor outlet nozzles from small diameter vessels can be located out the side of the vessel and still be cost effective. Large diameter vapor outlet nozzles on large diameter vessels will be more cost effective if attached to the top head. The line is then looped over to the selected pipe drop position to go down the vessel. Heater/Vessel Feed Transfer (Feed Inlet) Nozzles All vertical fractionation vessels will have a feed inlet nozzle. This feed nozzle is special and critical on some vessels. Refinery Crude columns and Vacuum columns are examples that have this type of nozzle. This nozzle installation is characterized by the following:

a) Attached line originated at a fired heater b) High temperature c) High velocity d) Mixed phase flow e) May require internals such as a distributor pipe or impingement plate A Feed Transfer nozzle will normally be the "Key" (Genesis) nozzle for any large fractionation vessel. Normally any side inlet orientation is possible but in most cases this will then dictate the tray orientation. Liquid (secondary) Inlet Nozzles A normal liquid feed nozzle will not have the same complexities as the Feed Transfer type. This nozzle installation is characterized by the following: a) Attached line originated at an exchanger b) Hot but not overly high on the temperature scale c) Some may have potential for mixed phase flow d) Normal line velocity e) May require vessel internals such as a distributor or inlet pipe f) Watch Instrument connections in relationship to Inlets and reboiler returns. Reflux Nozzles A normal reflux nozzle will not have the same complexities as other nozzles. This nozzle installation is characterized by the following: a) Attached line originated at a pump b) Low on the temperature scale c) All liquid flow d) Normal line velocity e) May require internals such as a distributor or inlet pipe. Multiple pass trays will require a more complex distributor or inlet pipe than a single pass. Draw-Off Nozzles The purpose of this nozzle is to draw-off or remove the primary product. They are also used to Draw-off a secondary product to side stream stripper. May be installed with a sump to remove unwanted water in the process stream. This nozzle installation is characterized by the following: a) Located in the downcomer area of the column b) May be in a sump c) May be a larger size than the normal attached line size (Some of the initial vertical drop will be the larger size) d) All liquid flow e) Normal line velocity May require internals if multiple pass trays Bottom Reboiler Feed Nozzles The liquid outlet nozzle will normally be in the center of the bottom vessel head. This nozzle installation is characterized by the following: a) Located in the bottom of the surge section of the column b) May be a very large size and all liquid flow c) Normally very low line velocity Side Reboiler Feed Nozzles This is also a potential Key Nozzle. The liquid outlet nozzle must be oriented in the same quadrant as the bottom downcomer. This nozzle installation is characterized by the following: d) Located in the downcomer area of the column e) Will be in a sump f) May be a larger size than the normal attached line size (Some of the initial vertical drop will be the larger size) g) All liquid flow h) Normal line velocity i) Relationship to elevation of associated Reboiler is critical to nozzle elevation and internals

Side Reboiler Vapor Return Nozzles One of the primary issues with this nozzle is the orientation relative to the other internal items and nozzles. If not placed in the right place the velocity of the return can blow liquid out of a seal pan or can affect the readings of any instruments attached to the far wall. This nozzle installation is characterized by the following: a) Attached line originated at a thermo-siphon or kettle type reboiler b) High temperature c) Moderately high velocity d) All vapor flow e) May require internals such as a pipe or impingement plate f) Relationship to elevation of associated Reboiler is critical to nozzle elevation and internals Bottoms Out and Drain Nozzles The bottoms-out nozzle is normally a pump suction source. The standard type is located in the bottom head then piped through the skirt with a drain nozzle off the bottom out line nozzle. This would be a combination nozzle. A variation of the bottoms nozzle is the siphon or winter type. This type may be used (with process approval) when bottom clearance is a problem. Note: It is common industry practice to avoid locating any flanged connections inside the vessel support skirt. All flanges are subject to leaks, and vessel skirts are classified as a confined space. Level Instrument Nozzles Extreme care must be used when locating level instrument nozzles. There are access and clearances problems that must be considered on the outside of the vessel. There are sensing location and turbulence problems associated with the inside of the vessel. These nozzle installations are characterized by the following: a) Must be attached in the same pressure volume of the vessel b) Lower nozzle in liquid of the surge section, upper nozzle in vapor space c) Located in static area (or with stilling well) d) Requires external access for operation and maintenance Pressure Instrument Nozzles Pressure readings are normally taken in the vapor area of a vessel. Pressure connections shall be located in the top head area, 3" to 6" under a tray, or well above any liquid level in bottom section. These nozzle installations are characterized by the following: a) Located in a vapor space of the vessel b) Requires external access for operation and maintenance Temperature Instrument Nozzles Temperature readings are normally taken in the liquid area of a vessel. Temperature connections shall be located 2" to 3" above the top surface of a tray, in the downcomer, or well below any liquid level in bottom section. These nozzle installations are characterized by the following: a) Located in liquid in the downcomer area b) Requires external access for operation and maintenance c) Interference with internals Vapor temperature readings may be required for some situations. When required the preferred location is in the downcomer area half way between the two trays. Tangential or Hillside connections may be required due to the thermowell length or to accommodate access from the ladder and platform arrangement. With the Process Engineer's approval investigate the possibility of raising or lowering the temperature point one tray for better ladder and platform arrangement. Steam-Out Nozzles Process plant vessels that contain hydrocarbon or other volatile fluids or vapors will normally have a Steam-Out Nozzle. This nozzle has a number of options such as:

a) A simple blind flanged valve on the nozzle -- After the plant is shut down by Operations, the maintenance group would remove the blind flange from the valve. They then attach a temporary flange fitted with a hose coupling and proceed to steam out the vessel by connecting a hose from a utility station. b) A blind flanged valve and hard piped steam line configured with a steam block valve and a swing ell. c) A fully hard piped connection from a steam source. This method would have double block valves, a bleed, and a spec blind for positive shutoff. The vessel steam-out nozzle should be located near the surge section (bottom) Manhole on vertical vessels. Manholes Manholes are also considered a nozzle. They just do not have any pipe attached to them. They are however, a very complex piece of the vessel orientation puzzle. The types of manholes normally relate to the method of cover handling provided. Manholes come in the following types: a) With Hinge -- A Manhole may be hinged for side mount, for top mount, or for bottom mount b) With Davit -- A Manhole may have davits for side mount or top mount only c) Plain -- A Plain Manhole may be for side mount, for top mount, or for bottom mount The manhole orientation in top or non-trayed section of a vertical vessel is somewhat flexible. Normally any orientation is possible; however, the orientation of the manhole should be checked to insure that the entry path is not blocked by any internals. The Manhole may be located in the top head on large diameter vessels if there is a platform that is required for other items. Top Manholes on large diameter vessels have their built in good points and bad points. The good point is that during shutdown the open manhole provides for better venting. It also allows for a straight method for removal and reinstallation of the trays. The bad point is that ladder access must be provided down to the top tray, and the manhole is competing with the other nozzles for the space on the vessel head. Orientation for manholes that are located in the trayed section of the vessel is more complicated. The location of between the tray manholes has a number of restrictions. These restrictions include the type of trays and the tray spacing. The first choice for the location of a manhole is between the down comers. The last choice is in the downcomer space, but behind the downcomer. The downcomer would be fitted with a removable panel to allow further access into the vessel. The location to be avoided is above a downcomer where there is the potential for falling down in the downcomer space and injury. It would be better to seek approval to move the manhole up or down one tray than placement over a downcomer. Manhole orientation in the surge section of a vessel is not as restrictive. The surge section of a vessel is the bottom portion that, during operation will contain a large volume of liquid. Any orientation is possible for a manhole in this section. However, the location of all manholes should be in the back half of the vessel away from the pipeway. The surge section may have a large baffle plate bisecting the diameter of the vessel and extending vertically many feet. A removable plate or hatch may be installed in this baffle (by vessels) to allow access to the far side. The vessel orientation of the manhole should not hit the baffle or be located so close to the baffle that entrance is obstructed. Trays The type of trays, the number of trays, and the number of passes are not the specific responsibility of the piping layout designer. However, there is the need to know factor. A common understanding of terminology will improve communications and prevent errors. The common tray parts are: a) Tray (support) Ring -- The tray support ring (or Tray ledge) is technically not a part of the tray itself. The tray support ring is only there to support the tray. If there are no trays, then there is no need for tray support rings, therefore tray rings are linked to the trays. Tray support rings are normally a simple donut shaped strip welded to the inside of the vessel. They could also be in the shape of an inverted "L" welded to the vessel wall. Problems arise when the Designer does not allow for the tray support device. b) Trays (or Tray Deck) -- One or more sections, consisting of plates, forming a horizontal obstruction throughout all or part of the vessel cross section. The trays will normally be constructed to form flow patterns (one or more) called passes. The purpose of tray deck is to provide a flow path for the process commodity and contain the fractionation or separation device. c) Weir -- A low dam (on a tray) to maintain a liquid level on the tray d) Downcomer -- The primary liquid passage area from one (higher) tray to another (lower) tray e) Valves -- Tray hardware device f) Bubble Caps -- Tray hardware device g) Draw off - A way to remove liquid from the vessel h) Trough - A way to collect and move liquid from one point to another i) Riser - A device to channel vapor from one lower point to a higher point j) Seal Pans - A device (with a liquid seal) that prevents vapors from passing k) Beams & Trestles - Devices that support trays (or other types of internals) in very large diameter vessels l) Baffles - A separation device inside a vessel m) Chimneys - (See Riser)

Tray Pass Patterns The trays and the related down comers can be arranged in a wide verity of patterns. Typical Tray arrangements are: a) Cross Flow, Single Pass -- (Common) this tray pass arrangement has one feed point, one flow direction, and one downcomer. The single pass tray will normally be used on small diameter vessels and the smaller diameter of a Coke Bottle vessel. b) Cross-Flow, Multiple Pass -- (Common) the multiple pass trays will come in two pass, three pass, four pass, and on and on. These will normally be found in the larger diameter vessels. Multiple pass trays require multiple feed and draw off arrangements. The more passes, the more complex the orientation problems. c) Reverse Flow, Single Pass -- (Rare) d) Radial Flow -- (Rare) e) Circumferential Flow -- (Rare) f) Cascade Flow -- (Rare) The single pass tray will have a single downcomer. The 2, 3, or 4-pass tray will have the same number of down comers as passes. The number of passes (number of down comers) will have a big effect on the orientation. Some towers may have more than one Tray pass configuration. They may have single pass in the top Trays and two-pass Trays in the bottom. The change from one pass configuration to another is chance for error. The alignment of the single pass tray will normally be perpendicular to the two pass trays. Tray Types There is what would be considered "Standard" Trays, and there are also "High efficiency Trays". a) "Standard" Trays -- This tray will have an open downcomer with no separation occurring in the downcomer area. This tray is the old stand-by and has been used for many, many years. b) "High efficiency Trays" -- This tray will have a sealed downcomer with separation occurring in the downcomer. This tray type is fairly new. It will most likely be used on most new vessels in the future. It is also the type of tray that is favored on revamp projects to get more out of an existing tower. Tray hardware devices The normal trays inside the typical vertical vessel will contain openings (or holes) and may be fitted with a fractionation or separation device. This device is what will accomplish the purpose of the vessel. If these devices are not present or do not function properly then the product is not made. The common tray devices are: a) Bubble Cap (Used mostly on revamps) -- Simple, and common method to facilitate the separation process. The Bubble Cap will normally be a round (cup shaped) cap inverted over a short and smaller diameter chimney. The skirt area of the inverted cap may be plain or have (open or closed) slots. b) Box Cap -- This cap is very much like the common Bubble Cap except it is square. c) Tunnel Cap -- This will be a long narrow rectangular shape d) Uniflux Tray -- This is a series of overlapping and interlocking plates. In cross section the Uniflux tray will have the shape of a reclining squared off "S". e) Valve (Most common) -- The valve tray will have small flat metal plates fitted over the holes in the trays. The plate is loose to move up and down, but is retained in position by a clip type device. Vapor pressure under the "Valve" plate causes it to rise and gravity brings it back down. f) Sieve (2nd most common) -- The Sieve tray will have holes and nothing else. The hole size is calculated to provide a fragile balance between the liquid head above the tray and the vapor pressure under the tray. Weirs There may be a number of places where weirs are used. The simple weir to provide proper tray flooding will normally not cause any design problems. There are also some special purpose weirs that may effect the location of nozzles. In most cases the existence of special purpose weirs will not be known at the start of the Vessel orientation activity. It is however, a good idea to ask the question anyway. Down comers Down comers can come in a verity of shapes also. They straight across in the horizontal direction, or they can be bent. They can be straight up and down in the vertical direction, they can be sloped or slanted (tapered), or they can be a combination. These variations will all impact the orientation to some extent. The major impact, by the downcomer on the orientation is the geometry or location of the vertical plane itself. The orientation of the down comers will have a direct relationship to the orientation of certain nozzles and manholes. Other Tray Terms

Some other terms that will be found relating to trays. a) Sump -- This is a sealed downcomer type area that is designed to provide a retention volume for some purpose. b) Seal Pans -- This is a portion of a tray that is set deeper than the rest of the tray to form a seal for the downcomer from the tray above. c) Side Draw Tray -- A tray arrangement that allows the removal of a specific liquid product d) Chimney Tray -- A full circumference tray fitted with long open pipes to allow vapor to pass from below the tray to the space above. e) Baffles -- Plates installed in the vessel for a specific purpose f) Impingement Plates -- Somewhat like a baffle but normally a plate installed in the vessel at the inlet to prevent blowout to devices located on the opposite side of the vessel. g) Tray manholes -- Most, if not all, trays will have a removable panel (somewhere in the tray) to allow inspection passage without dismantling the total tray Vessel Support The method of vessel support depends on various factors. These factors include process function, operation access, maintenance clearances, ease of constructability, and cost. Meeting the positive criteria for all or the majority of these factors will drive the support method. The primary methods of support are: a) Tall Skirt on foundation at grade (Most common) b) Short Skirt on elevated pier foundation, table support, or structure c) Legs on foundation at grade d) Lugs on elevated pier foundation, table support, or structure Each of these vessel support methods has their own good points and bad points. The Tall Skirt is the most common because it meets more of the "preferred criteria" than the others do.

Skirt Vessel Support The minimum height of the skirt is normally set by process based on the NPSH requirements of the pumps or for the reboiler hydraulic requirements. The designer may need to increase the skirt height due to: a) Vertical distance required by pump suction line geometry b) Vertical distance required by reboiler line geometry c) Operator aisle headroom clearance d) Suction line entering the pipe rack without pockets The approval of the Process engineer, Project Manager, and the Client will be required for any increase to the skirt height. The skirt will have one or more access openings and will have skirt vents. Skirts of vessels in refineries or other plants processing flammable commodities will normally be fireproofed. The fireproofing is normally a two-inch (2") thick layer of a concrete type material applied to the outside of the skirt. Check for the specific type. Some materials may require up to 6" to obtain the required fire rating. Load Handling Devices Load handling devices are required for Vertical Vessels if: a) The vessel is over thirty feet (30') tall b) The vessel has removable trays and internals c) The vessel has components that require frequent removal for routine maintenance (PSV, control valves) d) The components weigh 100 pounds or more Methods of load handling include: a) Davit -- A small somewhat inexpensive device used for lifting and supporting heavy objects up and down from elevated platforms. Limited to a fixed reach. b) Monorail -- A more expensive method c) Crane -- A far more expensive method and is dependent on availability If a davit or monorail is not installed then a crane with the required reach and load rating must be rented or an alternate method must be jury-rigged. Any jury-rig method will have a high potential for accident and injury. When a Davit is to be included the following must be determined and furnished to Vessels:

a) The location b) The swing c) The clearance height (including lifting device) d) The reach - the removal items (e.g... PSV, Control Valve, Block Valve, Blinds, etc.) and the drop zone e) The maximum load of external items (Vessels will determine weight of internals) When a Monorail is to be included the following must be determined and furnished to the Vessels engineer: a) The platform, and monorail support configuration b) The clearance height (including lifting device) c) The reach to the drop zone d) The maximum load of external items (Vessels will determine weight of internals) Pipe Supports and Pipe Guides The Pipe Supports and Pipe Guides (PS & PG) for the piping that is attached to the vessel is the responsibility of the Piping Group. You're the Piper, that's pipe, and you need to make sure it is properly supported and guided. The rule is (or should be) that all lines shall be properly supported and guided. One key element of the PS & PG is the "L" dimension. The "L" dimension is the distance from the O. D. of the back side of the pipe to the O. D. of the vessel. This dimension should be as small as possible but not less than required for maintenance. The rule of thumb for the "L" dimension is 12" minimum and 20" maximum. Dimensions of under the 12" and over the 20" are sometimes allowed. For example, if fitting make up results in an "L" dimension of 11 13/16" do not add a spool piece and extra weld. Lines should be supported as close to the nozzle as possible. The type of support is based on the weight of what is being supported. It may be just a straight pipe dropping down the side of the vessel. Or, it may be much more. The requirements for pipe supports attached to a vessel must be evaluated for the following: a) The shell thickness b) Orientation c) Elevation d) The "L" dimension e) The weight of the basic pipe and fittings (based on size and wall schedule) f) The weight of the water during hydro test g) The weight of the insulation (if any) h) The weight of any added components (block valves, control valve stations, relief valves, etc.) i) The clearance to other objects (Seams, Stiffener rings, Nozzles, Clips, Pipe Lines, Platforms) The requirements for pipe guides attached to a vessel must be evaluated for the following: a) The shell thickness b) Orientation c) Elevation d) The "L" dimension e) The size of the line at the point of guiding f) The distance above the horizontal turn out (allow 25 pipe diameters +/-) g) The maximum allowable span between guides h) The clearance to other objects (Seams, Stiffener rings, Nozzles, Clips, Pipe Lines, Platforms) Pipe supports and guides should be staggered vertically for clearance from supports or guides on other lines running parallel. Platforms, Ladders, and Cages Platforms with access ladders must be provided as required for access to manholes, operating valves, and instruments as defined in the project criteria. Normally objects below 15' - 0" from grade will not require permanent platforms and ladders. These objects are judged assessable by portable means (Check the Project design requirements). Platform spacing shall be even foot increments when multiple platforms are serviced from a single ladder. The platforms shall be arranged to allow the following: a) Minimum 7' - 0" headroom to underside of any obstruction b) Minimum 2' - 6" radial width for primary egress path (I. D. of platform to O. D. of platform) c) Minimum 2' - 6" clear distance between ladders d) No obstructions in path between primary egress ladders e) Maximum 30' - 0" vertical travel length of ladder between platforms f) Side step off at all platforms (Step through ladders are considered dangerous and therefore should be avoided). This requirement should have been reviewed with the Client and defined in the Design Criteria. g) Combining with platforms on other vessels when potential for improved operations or maintenance exists h) Flanges of top head nozzles shall be extended to provide access to bolts i) Minimum 1' - 6" clearance around objects if for maintenance access only Code Name Plate Every vessel will have a Code Name Plate. On a vertical vessel the code name plate must be on the (pressure containment) part of the shell. It cannot be attached to the skirt. The best place for the code name plate on a

vertical vessel is 2' - 6" above the horizontal centerline of the surge section manhole. Make sure the location selected is accessible on grade or on a platform. Common problems with vertical vessels a. Schedule crunch - Vessels scheduled for purchase too early requiring firm orientations with very little backup information. - Approved and Issued for Design P&IDs - Exchanger type and location - Flare header and PSV location b. Thin wall vessels not able to support load on pipe supports c. High wind presence requiring extra guides d. Late changes to PSV sizing prompting changes to pipe support and guides on line to flare e. Late change to control valve location criteria (Flashing service now required to be located to elevated platform on vessel with line downstream of valve self drain to vessel) f. Reboilers requiring spring mounted supports due to tight piping and differential growth g. High steam-out temperature requiring extra flexibility in the piping h. Extra heavy object removal in excess of Davit load capabilities Vertical Vessel Orientation Recommendations Uniformity a. The ladder approach at grade should be free of obstructions and easily accessible (Verify preferred location with Project requirements). b. The Manhole orientation should be oriented in the back half of the vessel toward the access way. The manholes should be arranged with consideration to the type of load handling device (One centerline if monorail, one or two centerlines if davit, no specific restriction if crane). c. Load drop area should be located on the main access side d. Level instruments should be located on or near the front half of the vessel and visible from the main operating aisle e. The piping risers to and from the vessel should be located to the front half of the vessel for easy routing to the pipeway and equipment Manholes a. Manholes will influence the entire vessel orientation to a certain degree. The location of the manholes must be compatible with the location of the tray down comers. The down comers in turn influence the location of the process and instrument nozzles. b. The preferred elevation of manholes above the platform is 2' - 6" from the centerline. The limits are; 6" minimum from the top of the platform to the bottom of the flange, or 4' - 0" maximum from the top of the platform to the bottom of the flange (Verify preferred location with Project requirements). c. Platforms may not be required for manholes that are 15' - 0" or less above grade, unless a platform is required for another reason such as an instrument (Verify preferred location with Project requirements). d. Space and clearances are important around manholes. Check flange swing and tray lay down space. Ladders and Platforms a. Check to see that the approach to the ladder at grade is clear of all obstructions and hazards. b. Check to see that the entry onto each platform is clear and not blocked by level or other instruments. c. Check to see that the entry onto each platform is clear and not blocked by an open manhole flange. d. Check to see that there is a clear path from one (down) ladder to the next (down) ladder for unobstructed travel during emergencies. e. Platforms may need to be added or extended for access to operating valves, spec blinds, or instruments. f. Special platforms are often required at the channel end of a thermo-siphon reboiler or other equipment that is mounted directly into (or onto) the vessel. g. Investigate lining up and connecting platforms servicing equipment (Reboilers or Accumulators) located in adjacent structures but related to the vessel. h. Maintenance criteria at Reactors often require platforms large enough and strong enough for large flange or head lay down in addition to catalyst storage and handling. i. Check the location and size of the pipe penetration holes through platforms. The opening is to be one inch larger (in diameter) than the flange or pipe plus insulation, which ever is greater (Verify preferred location with Project requirements). j. Provide proper routing and support for all lines regardless of size. Do not route small lines vertically behind the ladders. Do not route small lines vertically between the vessel shell and the inside radius of the platforms. Do not route small lines vertically up the outside of the platforms in line with or close to the manholes. k. Ladder access openings must be fitted with a safety gate. Check for proper clearance for gate swing. l. Some processes are subject to periods of hazardous operations. Ladders and ladder cages may need to be designed for operators with self-contained suits and air packs (SCBA). Skirts a. The minimum skirt height is set by Process and indicated on the P&ID. b. The skirt height is normally based on the minimum NPSH of the bottom pumps. c. The skirt height may be influenced by the physical requirement of a thermo-siphon reboiler. d. The final skirt height needs to consider and be adjusted for; physical configuration of the bottoms nozzle, any headroom clearance required over operating aisles, vertical fitting geometry of the piping configuration, and the pump suction nozzle location.

e. As a general rule no flanged connections are allowed inside the skirt of a vessel. This area is considered a confined space in most plants and flanges will tend to leak over time. f. Increasing the Skirt height may be considered when adjacent vessels warrant lining up and connecting platforms. Reboilers a. Reboilers will be one of the following; Fired (Heater Type), Thermosiphon (vertical or horizontal shell & tube), or Kettle type (horizontal shell & tube). b. Fired Reboilers shall be located a minimum of fifty feet from the vessel. c. Piping to and from any type of reboiler will be hot, and have sensitive flow conditions. d. The Kettle or Thermosiphon Reboiler elevation is set by Process and indicated on the P&ID. Pipe Supports and Guides a. Piping is responsible for locating the pipe supports and guides on vessels b. Piping is responsible for defining the size and loads on the pipe supports on vessels Piping Flexibility a. Piping must determine the operating thermal growth of the vessel. The vessel will have a series of temperature zones from the bottom to the top. b. The differential expansion between the piping risers and the vessel must be checked to prevent over stressing the piping or the vessel shell. c. The routing of cooler reflux lines must consider the total growth of the hotter vessel. d. Potential for differential settlement needs to be investigated e. Each piping system or line needs to be considered individually Instrumentation a. The HLL, NLL, and LLL need to be carefully considered because they will set the elevations of the level instruments b. Orientation of level instrument connections needs to consider the internals c. All instruments shall be accessible d. Watch out for space requirements for gage glass illuminators. e. TI and TW connections will require removal space Electrical a. Space shall be allocated for conduit runs up the vessel. These conduits will carry power to platform lights, gage glass illuminators, and in some cases electrical tracing. b. Conduits are also required for controls (instrumentation) Piping Valves a. Valves are meant to be operated and to be operated they must be accessible. b. Small valves (2" & smaller) may be considered accessible from a platform or ladder. Large valves (3" & larger) shall be accessible on a platform. Misc. Piping issues a. Lines to and from vessels may be subject to conditions such as 2-phase flow or vacuum. b. Some PSV relieving to atmosphere will require snuffing steam. The steam pressure (in the line) must be adequate to reach the top of the vessel. c. Large overhead lines vs. PSV location require special attention for function and support. d. Vertical vessel piping needs to be checked for heat tracing requirements. A tracer supply manifold may need to be added at the top of the vessel. Constructability All vertical vessels shall be reviewed for constructability. This review needs to consider receiving logistics lay down orientation, lifting plan, pre-lift assembly items (piping, platforms, ladders, internals, etc.) - Pre-lift assembly items may include the following: a. Piping b. Platforms c. Ladders d. Internals e. Paint f. Insulation Fire Protection a. Some vessels may require special insulation for fire protection. b. Some vessels may require fire monitor coverage c. Some vessels may require sprinkler systems Misc. Some vessels will be lined. Linings may be metallic, plastic, or glass. Welding to the vessel shell after initial fabrication is not allowed. Some vessels will have flanged connections that are larger than 24". These connections will occur at

connections for piping, reboilers, or other equipment. Flanged connections over 24" do not have a single standard and need to be defined for specific type (API or MSS). James O. Pennock is a former Piper with more than 45 years experience covering process plant engineering, design, training, pipe fabrication and construction. He is now retired and lives in Florida, USA.

Section - II C-II: Vertical Vessel Orientation By: James O. Pennock

The following article was prompted by questions from a young piping designer. He wrote: ------------------------------------------Hi I am getting ready to do my first vessel nozzle orientation. The vessel is a Stripper Tower (a). Can you help me? First, what are the things I have to take into consideration? Second, what are the key steps in the process for doing a vessel nozzle orientation? Regards XXXXXXXXXXXX --------------------------------------------(a)The name/function of the vessel has been changed. For your first question: "What are the things I have to take into consideration?" The answer to this question is very simple; you must take everything in to consideration. Everything is important! Someone may tell you that some things do not matter but this is not true, everything matters. You need to consider the following: a) Timing: Vessel orientation is normally the only equipment related layout activity that can be done without specific input from a vendor. All of the information required for vessel orientation is generated on the project in the form of P&ID data and project standards. It is also one of the few activities that will feed one or more other downstream groups whose work is critical to the project schedule. With this in mind this activity can and should be started as soon as the P&ID reaches "Approved-For-Design" (AFD) status. Te vessel orientation activity can be started manually or on basic 2D CAD before the 3D PDS data base is fully loaded and checked. There is some logic to doing this activity manually or in 2D CAD because of the amount of trial and error required to finally achieve an acceptable and approved orientation. Once the orientation is approved and the PDS data base is ready the 3D model can be built with no recycle. b) The Plot Plan (Note 1): The plot plan is required to identify the location of the vessel and its related equipment. The related equipment includes the equipment that feeds the vessel (is up-stream) and also the equipment that the vessel feeds (is down-stream). It shows and locates adjacent, non-related equipment. It also shows adjacent structures that may support the related up-stream or down-stream equipment. It also indicates the plant features such as pipe racks, operating aisles, maintenance access areas and the direction of Plant North. c) The project foundation criteria: Vertical vessels normally sit on an octagon pad foundation with the top of grout at EL101' - 0" (high point of finished paving = EL 100' - 0"). You need to have and understand the type and elevation of the foundation for this vessel. d) The P&ID's (Note 1): The P&ID's are required to show the process streams that connect to the Stripper Tower and its related equipment. In my experience P&ID's are much like the pages in a book. Some equipment (the heater) starts or shows on sheet one P&ID the story continues with the key item (the Stripper Tower, Thermosyphon Reboiler and Bottoms Pumps) showing on sheet two and then continues to some conclusion (the overhead condensers) on sheet three. You will need all three process system P&ID's. The Stripper Tower P&ID will show a graphic of the column along with all the piping connecting to the vessel. There will also be a data block at the top of the page. This data block should include the vessel number, the vessel name and the basic size. It will also indicate the design temperature and the insulation requirements (if any). The graphic of the vessel should also indicate the basic type of internals (Trays or Packing). If the internals are Trays then the number of trays should be indicated. The trays just above or just below where a line is connected should be numbered. If the internals are some form of packing then the extent of the packing beds should be indicated. e) The project Line List (Note 1): The line List is required to give you specific and critical key data about the lines such as the Line Number, line class, maximum operating temperature and insulation requirements,

f) The project Piping Material Specifications (Note 1): The Piping Material Specifications are required to give you the data about metallurgy and any specifics about fittings, flanges, valves or requirements for PWHT (post weld heat treatment). g) The Vessel Drawing (Note 2): The vessel drawing at this time will most likely be marked "Preliminary." It will give you; the inside diameter (I.D.), the tangent-to-tangent shell length, the shape of the top and bottom heads and the skirt height. This drawing should also have a table showing all the nozzles with the basic information such as: identification, quantity, and size, flange rating, the elevation above (or below) the bottom tangent line for each nozzle, the purpose for the nozzle and any special instructions. The vessel drawing needs to also indicate where the internals start and end inside the vessel. h) The Internals (Note 2) (Trays or Packing) A tower can have a number of different types and configurations of internals. It may be Trays or it may be some form of Packing. - Trays: If you have Trays then you need to know: the number of trays, the spacing of the trays, the number of passes for the trays (1-pass, 2-pass, 3-pass etc.). You also need to know if there are any "draw sumps," baffles or other special features. - Packing: You need to know the number of "Beds," the depth of the beds and the method of installing and removing the packing material. You also need to know and understand about the type of feed distributor(s) to be used. You need to know about the packing discharge nozzles. For the purpose of this article we will assume we have 35 single pass trays. i) The Thermosiphon Reboiler data sheet (Note 1): This will give you the preliminary size and type information. The P&ID indicates that this vessel has a vertical Thermosiphon reboiler fitted to it. Some discussion should normally take place to determine the optimum tube length and the proper support elevation and support method. j) The project Vessel Platform Standards (Note 1): This will give you the required information about the minimum vertical spacing between platforms. It will also give you specific details about platform supports and how to make the openings where pipes must pass through a platform. This drawing will (or should) also give you specifics about handrails. k) The project Vessel Ladder Standards (Note 1): This drawing will give you all the required information about ladder construction and more important the limits for the maximum vertical run for a single ladder. l) The project Vessel Nozzle Standards (Note 1): This will give you all the normal options for un-reinforced and reinforced nozzles. It may also show you some options for internal nozzle piping. m) The project Vessel Davit Standards (Note 1): A davit is a small device permanently mounted on the vessel that acts as a crane for lifting heavy objects such as tray sections. n) The project Vessel Pipe Support and Guide Standards (Note 1): These are devices attached to a vessel that support and/or guide the vertical runs of pipe. This drawing also defines the minimum distance from the outside of a vessel shell to the back of an adjacent pipe. Where I came from this was called the "L" dimension. The "L" dimension was normally 12" (adjusted as required for insulation) The maximum was 20" without a special design. The key was to have a minimum of 7" clear between two co-existing insulations. These supports and guides also require a wider than normal line spacing in the vertical plane as the lines go up or down a vessel. This is mainly due to the configuration of the Trunnion (Note 3) support attached to the pipe and the pipe clamp used for the guide. o) The project Piping and Vessel Insulation Specification (Note 1): From this document you will get the thickness of the insulation needed for the pipes and vessel at the operating temperature. (Note 1): These items are normally created by your company for the project and should be "Approved for Design" (AFD) quality documents. This means that they have been through all of the proper in-house reviews and checks and have then been approved by the Company and the Client for use in the design of the work. (Note 2): These documents will initially come from the project Vessel Engineer. They will normally be marked "Preliminary" until they receive and process your orientation drawings. Later you may receive the vessel fabricator's detail drawings for "Squad Check" (review and approval). (Note 3) For more information about a Trunnion support see www.pipingdesigners.com look under Training and Secondary Pipe Supports There may be other documents that are required due to a specific company's method of operation.

The next things you need to consider is; functionality, safety, operation, maintenance and constructability.

Functionality: No matter what, this vessel must do its job. You must know and understand what that intended job is. You do not need to be a process engineer but you should be involved in the review of the P&ID for this specific vessel. You need to hear what the critical issues are relating to this vessel and the connected piping. If your company does not include piping in the formal review of the P&ID's then you need to seek out the process engineer and ask him or her to explain the function, key points and any critical issues relating to this vessel. Safety: This is the other important issue relating to vessel orientation. The operation must be able to be done in a safe manner. The same must be said for both maintenance and constructability. To achieve this goal the locations of nozzles relative to the placement and arrangement of the ladders and platforms must be carefully considered. The travel path (access and egress) must be arranged so the main travel path cannot be blocked by open manholes, scaffolding, tools, tray parts, valves or piping. The basic rule here; a: ladder #1 comes up with a side step-off (right or left) on to platform #1. Then b: there is a minimum rest space equal to one ladder width. Then c: the next ladder (#2) continues up to the next platform. Platform #1 can continue beyond ladder #2 around the vessel to provide access to nozzles and manholes. This arrangement does not impede or obstruct the clear path for rapid escape from the vessel for anyone from a higher elevation. Other safety issues include one or more skirt access openings located near grade which should be located with clear access. There will also be four or more skirt vents located high near the skirt-to-vessel attachment which also should not be blocked. Operation: Process plants need to be operated. Most operation is concentrated around valves and instruments. These items must be accessible. Accessible means reachable. This reachable is conditional. Nozzles with a nominal size of 2' (NPS) and smaller can be reachable from a ladder or from a platform. Nozzles 3" (NPS) and larger shall be reachable on a platform. In this context the from means that the object is not more than 18" (one arms length) from the ladder or platform and the on means the object must be fully inside the platform. There is normally only one exception to this rule. That is for valves or nozzles that are located less than 20 feet from grade and can be accessed with scaffolding or a "Man-Lift". Maintenance: All the accessibility issues that apply for operations also apply for maintenance. In addition don't block access to manholes with control valve assemblies or other piping. Make sure the Electrical and Instrument people don't locate a panel or a transmitter assembly in the operations or maintenance access ways. Constructability: This vessel needs to be erected and therefore it will need Lifting Lugs. These are normally very large steel shapes with "eyes" welded to the top head. They will normally not interfere with your orientation, however you should check to make sure. Your second question: "What are the key steps in the process for doing a column nozzle orientation?" The key steps in the process are: (You may choose for some reason to do something in a different order, but this is how I think I would do it. It should be noted that I like to be able to have all things numbered from the bottom up. This includes trays, nozzles, ladders, platforms, etc. However, sometimes due to company preference or the tray manufacturer standards the trays are numbered from the top down.) 1. Data collection - Collect a copy of all the drawings listed above. Make a folder file (or a stick file) to keep them in. Mark all the drawings "Stripper Tower Orientation Master" (STOM). This STOM file is your justification for everything you do or did. If anyone has reason to question why you did what you did then you have a file of the source material you based the work on. It is your responsibility to use the proper information and to properly file and incorporate changes from all new revisions when received. 2. P&ID conditioning - Take your STOM P&ID and pick-up any marks from the Project Master copy. From time to time as you work, go back and recheck the Project Master P&ID for any new marks (i.e.: line size changes, additions, deletions, etc.). Study the Stripper Tower and identify all the related equipment and all connecting lines. Study the lines for valves and instrumentation. 3. Plot Plan conditioning - Take the STOM Plot Plan and with a yellow high-lighter identify the Stripper Tower and all the related equipment. Related equipment means that which is directly connected by pipe to the Stripper Tower. I prefer to work with Plant North up or towards the top of the paper (CAD screen). When I do a vessel orientation I consider the pipeway to be in "front" of the vessel. I call the maintenance area the "back" of the vessel or equipment row. For the purpose of my instruction here I am going to assume that 0 is "up" and "up" is north. Maintenance is on the north (back) side and the pipe way is on the south (front) side. 4. Prepare preliminary elevation - Manually or by CAD, create a scale drawing of the vessel elevation (side view) Locate the bottom tangent line and in phantom (dotted line) the bottom head. Accurately locate the top tangent line from the bottom tangent line and draw in the top head. We will assume that this vessel is a skirt supported vessel and that the skirt is 20 ft high. (If not skirt supported then Leg or Lug supported will require optional considerations that we can discuss if applicable.) At the bottom accurately create the skirt (vessel support). Check with the Structural department and find out how high the foundation is for this vessel. Make sure they give you the top of grout (TOG) not just top of concrete. They are not the same. I will assume that the TOG is EL. 101' - 0." Now indicate the high point of finished paving (HPFP). I will assume that the HPFG is EL. 100' - 0." Now from this HPFP line, draw a light line to indicate the projects minimum head clearance.

5. Prepare preliminary plans - Manually or by CAD, create a scale drawing of a number of plan views. The plan views will be where you will do most of your work so make one for each ten feet +/- (3 to 4 meters) of vertical elevation ending with one above and showing the very top platform. These starter plans should have crossed center lines and the actual I.D. of the vessel. (We are using 8' - 0" for this article). Mark the location of Plant North on each mini-plan. Normally plant north is the same as 0 degrees on the vessel shell. East is 90 degrees, South is 180 degrees and all additional orientation is clockwise from north and 0 degrees. Don't worry about the O.D. or the wall thickness. Now, look at the platform drawing and get the clearance from the vessel shell and the inside edge of a platform. Draw a very light circle (different color and/or layer) on each mini-plan to indicate where the inside edge of a platform might be. Now draw another very light circle 3'-0" (1meter +/_) more in diameter to indicate where the outside of a platform might be. These are not real platforms yet they are just guide lines to remind you of platforms as you do other work. Now mark the "Front" (pipeway side) of the vessel and the "Back" (maintenance side) of the vessel. 6. Thermosiphon Reboiler: The Reboiler for our sample vessel has a 42" shell, 24 ft fixed tube (vertical mount) shell and tube exchanger. The shell side is high temperature steam. The tube side is the process fluid from the bottom of the tower which enters at the bottom end of the reboiler. The process vapor exits the top end of the reboiler and returns to the tower below tray #1. The placement and support of the Thermosiphon Reboiler is the next thing we should cover. Because of the plot plan placement of our Stripper Tower the Thermosiphon Reboiler will be mounted directly to the tower at the 270 degree point. It will have a knee braced cantilevered support that is attached to the vessel. The exchanger needs to be supported so the top tube sheet is at the same level as the high liquid level inside the vessel. 7. Bottoms section baffle - Because of the way this vessel works there is a baffle dividing the bottom section of the tower. The baffle can not be on the centerline of the vessel because the reboiler feed nozzle is centered on the bottom head. Therefore the baffle must be offset to miss that nozzle connection. The height of the baffle is the same as the "High Liquid Level." All of the liquid that comes off the downcomer from tray #1 goes into the "large" side of the bottom section. It then goes through the reboiler and returns to the vessel as vapor. Excess liquid from the "large" side overflows the baffle and becomes the "Bottoms" and is drawn off by the bottoms pumps. The connection for the bottoms nozzle "B" is on the "small" side of the baffle. 8. Check for nozzle continuity - Look at the STOM P&ID and the table of nozzles on the vessel drawing. They should match in number and size. In pencil mark each line connecting to the P&ID vessel with the nozzle number from the vessel nozzle table. Do they match in number? Do they match is size? If not, go see the Process Engineer and ask for clarification. (Sample) Stripper Tower Nozzle Table

The bottom tangent line elevation = 121' - 0" The top tangent line elevation = 232' - 8" Elevation Size Dimension (from Rating (plant (NPT) tangent line) datum) 14" 6" 4" 6" 8" 10" 6" 6" 14" 16" 300# RF 300# RF 300# RF 300# RF 300# RF 300# RF 300# RF 300# RF 300# RF 300# RF 300# RF 300# 113' - 6" 113' - 6" 113' - 6" 106' - 6" 73' - 0" 7' - 0" 8' - 0" 8' - 2" 7' - 0" 29' - 3" 2' - 0" 73' - 0" 234' - 6" 234' - 6" 234' - 6" 227' - 6" 194' - 0" 117' - 3" 116' - 2" 115' - 9" 116' - 9" 150' - 3" 123' - 0" 194' - 0" nozzle on nozzle B nozzle on nozzle N1 w/internal pipe w/internal pipe

Name or Function

Comments

V1 Vapor Out V2 PSV V3 Vent R F B Reflux Feed Bottoms

D1 Drain D2 Drain N1 N2 Reboiler Feed Reboiler Return

M1 Manhole #1 24" M2 Manhole #2 24"

RF M3 Manhole #3 24" S1 Steam Out S2 Steam Out S3 Steam Out L1 & L2 L3 & L4 T1 T2 T3 P1 P2 P3 Level Gage Bridle Level Transmitter 2" 2" 2" 300# RF 300# RF 300# RF 300# RF 300# RF 300# RF 300# RF 300# RF 300# RF 300# RF 300# RF 300# RF 107' - 0" 0' - 6" 71' - 6" 105' - 6" 0' - 6" 25' - 0" 0' - 6" 25' - 0" 30' - 0" 72' - 0" 107' - 0" 28' - 0" 74' - 0" 108' - 0" 228' - 0" 121' - 6" 192' - 6" 226' - 6" 121' - 6" 146' - 0" 121' - 6" 146' - 0" 151' - 0" 193' - 0" 228' - 0" 149' - 0" 195' - 0" 229' - 0"

2"

2"

Temperature 1" Element (Ditto) (Ditto) Pressure Element (Ditto) (Ditto) 1" 1" 1" 1" 1"

9. Check for nozzle temperature - You now have all the nozzles connected or identified to its specific line. Now look at the line list and fine the maximum operating temperature for each of the flowing lines (feed and main outlet lines). Don't worry about vents and drain. In pencil, mark these temperatures onto the STOM P&ID at the point where the line connects to the vessel. You now have the vessel identified, the line from somewhere connecting to the vessel, you have the connection point identified with a nozzle number and you have a temperature at that nozzle. 10. Locate nozzle elevations - Based on the elevation for each nozzle (given in the Nozzle Table on the Vessel Drawing) locate all the nozzles on the scale vertical view (side view) of the vessel. Most of these flowing lines will be above the bottom tangent line. What this means is that all things connected to the nozzles above the bottom tangent line will grow up when the vessel is hot and in full operation. Only four of the nozzles are located below the bottom tangent line and these nozzles (and their attached piping) below the bottom tangent line will grow down when the vessel is hot and in full operation. 11. Establish temperature zones - The next step is to calculate the incremental and total vertical growth of the vessel. The incremental growth means the growth for a specific section of the vessel. Trayed vessels do not have the same operating temperature from bottom to the top. They have a graduated temperature. You may be asking what temperature you use for this operation. DO NOT USE THE VESSEL DESIGN TEMPERATURE. The vessel design temperature may be something like 500 degrees F. If you use this number along with the height of the vessel and the coefficient of expansion for the vessel metallurgy you would end up with a total expansion that would be incorrect. You look at the temperatures you marked for each of the Flowing lines. You take two adjacent Flowing nozzles that have a temperature. Let's say we take the Feed nozzle and the Bottoms Out nozzles. (I am assuming there are no other flowing nozzles between these two nozzles. If there are then make the appropriate adjustment). These two nozzles and their temperatures form a zone. You add their two temperatures together and divide the answer by 2 to get an average temperature for the zone (example: (475 degrees F and 395 degrees F)/2 = 435 degrees F). You use this 435 degrees F figure for the maximum operating temperature along with the zone length and the coefficient for the vessel shell material for the calculation of the incremental expansion. Do the same for each set of flowing nozzles and calculate the incremental expansion for each zone. The overhead vapor line temperature may be as low as 180 degrees F. Somewhere lower down the vessel there is another flowing nozzle with its operating temperature. This forms the top zone in the group. For talking purposes let's say we have five zones. Let's say that Zone one expands a total of 1", Zone two expands ". Zone three expands ", Zone four expands " and Zone five expands " for a total of 3". You need to mark each of the incremental expansions at the appropriate place. Now take each of the incremental expansions and add them together as you progress up the vessel. Part of Zone one is below the support point so some of the expansion grows up and some of it grows down. Because of this let's say that the top of Zone one only grows up 5/8" during operation. The top of Zone two grows up a total of 1-3/8". Zone three grows up a total of 1-7/8". The top of Zone four grows up a total of 2-3/8'. And the top of Zone five

grows up a total of 2-5/8". You also need to mark each of the accumulated expansions at the appropriate place. You now have a basis for the preliminary pipe flexibility work you will do later. 12. Locate manholes - We have three manholes and they are only used during maintenance. These manholes will be the hinged type and for our situation they will all open to the right. They are identified as M#1 (bottom section) through M#3 (top section). They are not used or needed during operations. So Manholes should normally be located on the "back" side of the vessel. This is logical and it works 90% of the time. One of the times it does not hold true is for the lower shell manhole when there is a vertical Thermosiphon reboiler attached to the back of a vessel. So you can start with all of our Manholes on the back centerline of the vessel. This may not be the final location but it is a starting point. From the bottom of the vessel M#1 is in what is called the "surge" section. There are (normally) no internals in this section. So if we need to we can locate M#1 at any orientation. M#3 is in the very top section above the top tray so it also has few limits to its orientation. Manhole M#2 is located between trays at a maximum spacing of (say) twenty trays. In our case M#2 is on tray #19. The side manholes need to enter on a tray, not behind the downcomer. 13. Steam out nozzles: Along with each manhole there will also be a steam out nozzle. This nozzle will be fitted with a valve which will be blind flanged. During shut-down the blind flange is removed and a flanged spool with a steam coupling will be installed. Prior to any entry into the vessel the steam will be turned on for 12 to 24 hours to remove (steam-out) hydrocarbons. The steam-out nozzle will be located in close proximity to the manhole. The recommended placement for the steam-out connections on our vessel will be to the right and 1' - 6" below the manhole center line. 14. Set tray orientation - As we said above, we have 35 single pass trays. Tray #1 is 35' - 10" above the bottom tangent line of the tower and tray #35 is 104' - 10" above the bottom tangent line. Since we have trays that have only a single pass (downcomer) then we have almost 270 degrees of orientation with which we can place the manholes. However that 270 degrees of orientation needs to be in the right quadrant. If the excluded part of that circle is centered on 0 degrees (North) then we need to ask if that manhole can move up one tray or down one tray. If we have trays that are two pass or three pass then we need to find ways to orient the manholes, nozzles and trays so they co-exist. We have located all our manholes on the maintenance (north) side centerline at 0 degrees. We will then place the orientation of the trays on an East/West center line. We then insure that we adjust the vertical location of the manholes (up or down one tray) to enter on to a tray. Up to this point you have doing the very important background work that is required before you can do the actually vessel orientation. Next you need to locate the nozzles, determine where the pipes will travel up or down the vessel and establish the support and guide points for each line. As you do that you also need to establish the ladder and platform requirements to provide proper access for operation and maintenance. So let's move on to the next task. 15. Nozzle placement - As we stated before large nozzles need to be accessible "on" a platform. So keep that in mind as you proceed. Start with the nozzles at the top of the vessel and work down. Here is a key to remember, the line (up-or-down the vessel) and the nozzle do not need to be at the same bearing point. By this I mean that the line up-or-down the vessel can be at one point, say 196 degrees, and then wrap around the vessel to where the nozzle is on the other side of the vessel say at 315 degrees. The line would rise up the vessel and then turn horizontal to go around the vessel. It would then turn vertical again, go through the platform required for nozzle access and then enter the nozzle. This allows the nozzle to be "on" a platform but the line does not penetrate all the other platforms. Nozzles "F" and "R" on this vessel might be done using this method. The other lines from the "V1' nozzle and the PSV can simply drop down the vessel at the most convenient point. The lines to and from the Thermosiphon Reboiler will connect almost fitting to fitting with no valves. The bottoms line to the pumps is also a simple routing and might exit the vessel skirt at the 90 or 180 degree point depending on where the pumps are located. Instrument connections need to be placed so they perform their function and so they are accessible from a ladder or a platform. They do not normally extend far from the vessel shell thus do not cause an obstruction so with care they may be positioned on the vessel in the space between two ladders. 16. Pipe Supports - Each line that travels up or down the vessel will need one or more pipe supports. Lines that travel up-or-down the vessel at the same bearing point as the nozzle only need one pipe support. For side mounted nozzles this support will be located a short distance below the top elbow. For top mounted nozzles the support will be located a short distance below the vessel top weld seam. Lines that travel up-or-down the vessel at a different bearing point as the nozzle need to be considered for two supports. One below the nozzle elbow and a second support below the elbow where the line drops down the vessel. 17. Pipe Guides - Each line that travels up or down the vessel will need to be considered for pipe guides. The two factors in determining the number of guides a line requires is the wind force at the jobsite and the length of vertical travel. Some lines require only one guide and others require more than one pipe guide. Each line that travels up-or-down the vessel normally turns (elbows) horizontal at some lower elevation. The bottom guide should not be placed closer than 50 pipe diameters above this elbow. Other guides for a line may be spaced by taking the elevation of the support (at the top of the line drop) and then deduct the elevation of the bottom guide. The space remaining is then considered for one or more additional guides. Guides should be spaced every 20 to 30 feet. 18. Ladder placement - All of the ladders should be placed in the same general quadrant of the vessel. It is simple to work out the minimum spacing from one ladder to another. As stated before the minimum space

between two ladders should be equal to one ladder (measured at the center of the cage). So if the ladder (with cage) is 2'-6" +/- wide then the space between two ladders is also 2'-6"+/-. This makes the center to center between two ladders 5'-0"+/-. Most of the ladders on this vessel can be in the quadrant from 45 degrees to 135 degrees. For a vessel 8' - 0" in diameter this would mean: - Ladder #1 would be at 135 degrees - Ladder #2 would be at 90 degrees - Ladder # 3 would be at 45 degrees. - Ladder #4 is back at 135 degrees. - Ladder #5 is at 90 degrees and - Ladder #6 is at 45 degrees. - There will be a ladder #7 on this vessel which we will discuss when we talk about platforms. 19. Platforms - Platforms are the next thing to be defined. Dimension from Project Platform tangent Elevation # line (in (in feet) feet) #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7 #2a #2b 1' - 0" 24 - 0" 45' - 0" 70 - 0" 90 - 0" 103 - 0" 113 - 0" 19 - 0" 27' - 0" 120' - 0" 145' - 0" 166' - 0" 191'- 0" 211'- 0" 224'- 0" 234'- 0" 140' - 0" 148' - 0"

Platform #1 would start at the step-off from ladder #1 (135 degrees) and wrap around the vessel (counter clock wise) to about the 350 degree point, beyond Manhole #1. Platform #2 would start at the step-off from ladder #2 (90 degrees) and wrap around the vessel (counter clock wise) to ladder # 7 located at 315 degrees. Ladder #7 goes both up and down to provide access to two auxiliary platforms #2a and #2b. These small maintenance platforms provide access to the head flange of the reboiler and to nozzle N2. They must be sized to meet the criteria that the nozzle and head flange is "on" the platform. Platform #3 would start at the step-off from ladder #3 and wrap around the vessel (clock wise) to and under ladder #4 at 135 degrees. Platform #4 would start at the step-off from ladder #4 and wrap around the vessel (counter clock wise) to about the 315 degree point for access to Manhole #2 and to provide maintenance access for nozzle "F". Platform #5 would start at the step-off from ladder #5 and provide a minimum platform (counter clock wise) for access to ladder #6 Platform #6 would start with a side step-off from mid way up ladder # 6 and wrap around the vessel (counter clock wise) to about the 315 degree point for access to Manhole #3 and to provide maintenance access to nozzle "R". Platform #7 is a "Top" platform supported from the vessel head. This platform must be sized to allow space for the piping off the vessel head, access to the Davit and room for maintenance people to work during turnaround. The imaginary vessel we have been discussing above is really a very simple vessel. After you read all of this you may think that vertical vessel orientation is very complex. You are right! However, I think vessel orientation is also the most fun there is in all of piping design. For those of you who may want to try this vessel as a trial run I say give it a shot. Please feel free to E-mail me at (jopennock@netscape.net) when you start and maybe I can offer some suggestions. Good luck to all of you who get a chance to do an actual vertical vessel orientation. James O. Pennock is a former Piper with more than 45 years experience covering process plant engineering, design, training, pipe fabrication and construction. He is now retired and lives in Florida, USA.

Section - II D: Piping Fit-Up, The difference between Optimism and Reality

By: James O. Pennock

Recently, on one of the leading internet technical forums, a person posted a concern about a perceived engineering problem. Their concern was about the relative settlement between different objects that would effect the fit-up of the connecting pipes. The person gave a list of the related objects and the perceived differential settlement as follows: Vessels to / from Pipe Rack Bents: " Pumps to / from Pipe Rack Bents: " Tanks to / from Pipe Rack Bents: " Pumps to / from Tanks: " Pumps to / from Pressure Vessels " Pumps to / from Drums "

This " may sound like a lot. It would indeed be a lot if you were dealing with the fit-up of internal components in say, the watch on your wrist or your new Lap Top Computer. Let's talk about the subject of settlement. Settlement is a fact of life for process plant projects, it is a reality. It is going to happen in 99% of all projects and it will affect piping fit-up. Geological settlement will not all happen the day of start-up but it will happen over a long period of time during construction and during the working life of the facility. How much and how fast? That is a question you must ask the Civil Engineer on each project. Every type of soil in every different geographic location will have its own characteristics and problems. In every case I would say in the first five years there will be way more than a " of differential settlement between objects of both major size and minor size at any Process Plant facility. You ask "What about that 1%?" Well maybe you get to work on a project that is built on solid rock that is very thick and spreads out under the whole site. It will probably not have the problem of differential settlement. But you will have all the other construction "tolerance realities" of any other project. Settlement is not the only problem and a quarter of an inch is not a lot (vertically or horizontally) when you are dealing with the real world of a major Engineering and Construction project. Everything that goes into such a project will have a tolerance applied to it in every axis. The Fabrication of all the equipment and structural elements listed above are affected by vertical, horizontal and angularity "tolerance realities". Positioning in the field of all the equipment and structural elements listed above are also effected vertically (including settlement), horizontally, angularity by the reality of construction "tolerance realities" both in the locating and the assembly. Another word for "tolerance realities" is "Margin of error". Margin of Error is a term that is commonly used. It can also relate to "Tolerance" in fabrication or other work related issues. In the Engineering, Design, Fabrication and Construction of a complex process plant there are many facets. All of these facets have their own margin of error. Some are very small because of good standards, strict controls and extensive quality assurance. Others however, do not have good standards, are not so well controlled and do not have the required quality assurance programs to back them up. When building a process plant there are many facets affecting fit-up including the Ground it is built on. Next there are the Foundations. Then there is the equipment; the Pumps and Compressors; the Exchangers; the Vessels and the Tanks. Along with all the equipment there are the support components such as Multi Level Structures and Pipe Racks. Then you have the Piping that connects it all together. All of this is impacted by the final facet called "human error" which is unpredictable. Last of all there is "Nature" itself. In the engineering and design office all the groups work to pretty much the same level of detail, the same measurement and the same expectation of quality. However, when all the drawings go out in all directions to the manufacturers or fabricators the margin of error increases and the level of quality will suffer. Worst yet, at the job site the system breaks down more because of circumstances that are beyond the designers control. Each of the facets listed above has their own "standards" of quality. Some of these quality standards are better than others. None of them are perfect. Some facets do not seem to have any standard at all for final installation in the field. My area is piping. I spent many years in the design office as a piping Designer and piping Supervision. I had time in the Pipe Fabrication Shop as the Engineering manager. Later I also had time at the jobsite as a Piping Field Engineer. Over these many years (45) I saw and heard about many situations where things did not go right and in every case the Piper got the blame. Please let me relate to you just three of them. 1. Project "X" A multi-level structure supporting an Exchanger on Level 3. Next to the structure is a grade mounted vertical vessel. Connecting these two is a 10" pipe that attaches to the outlet nozzle on the bottom of the exchanger and drops through the platform under the exchanger; exits the structure and then drop to the level of the vessel nozzle and elbows into the nozzle then connect to the vessel with a bolted flange connection. The exchanger, the exchanger nozzle, the hole in the platform, the 10 foot diameter vertical Vessel and the vessel nozzle were all on the same (true North/South) center line on all the design documents from the office. In the field the pipe missed the vessel nozzle by 1-1/2". That is twelve times the allowable piping fit-up tolerance. Piping was initially blamed for bad design and bad quality. A proper survey was initiated post-mortem and the results showed that a) the vessel foundation was out of place (surveyor

error), b) the structure was not plumb (no standard for vertical alignment), c) the vessel nozzle which was supposed to be on the North/South center line, was off by 1 degree with a nozzle projection of 5'-8", d) The piping was within the design accuracy allowance and the PFI (Pipe Fabrication Institute) ES3 tolerance standards of +/- 1/ 8". Piping got blamed anyway. 2. A four story structure with a close fit vertical pipe chase. On installation the pipes down on the first level were hitting the steel beams. The post-mortem showed that the structure was out of plumb by 6" from grade level to the roof beams. Piping got blamed anyway. 3. A twenty foot (20'-0") wide central pipe rack between two rows of identical Reactor Vessels. The design documents (Plot Plan, Foundation Location Drawing, and Piping Plans) all have the center line of the vessels 20"-0" from the near centerline of the pipe rack columns on each side. So then, the plan shows a row of vessels, then 20' to the center of the pipe support column, then 20' to the next pipe support column, finally 20' to the next row of Vessels. When the pipe installation was started in this area, the field reported that design "had screwed up again." All the pipes connecting to the vessels on one side of the pipe rack were 1'-0" too short and all the piping connecting to the vessels on the other side of the rack were 1'-0" too long. The post-mortem survey showed that the Surveyor had located the pipe rack 1'-0" out of place. Piping got blamed anyway. In first case above (#1) most of the deviations were in the same direction and so they were accumulative making the problem progressively worse. The best case scenario would be if dimensional deviations off-set and cancel out each other. However, that is a lot to wish for. You may ask now, "What is the moral of this story?" Well, the moral of this story is "keep things in proper perspective." Consider the whole story, the whole picture, and the whole process from the striving for design perfection in the office, to the stark realities of the final constructed plant. James O. Pennock has more than forty-five years in the process plant design profession. He has been involved in home office engineering and design, pipe fab shop engineering and job site assignments on refinery, chemical, petrochemical, power and other projects. His experience ranges from entry level designer to engineering manager. Much of this was with Fluor. He is also the author of the book "Piping Engineering Leadership for Process Plant Projects." He is now retired, living in Florida, USA and does only occasional consulting work. Mr. Pennock can be contacted via E-Mail at jopennock@netscape.net.

Section - II E: Tracing - Guidelines for Planning, Staffing and Executing the work
By: James O. Pennock Tracing overview
Tracing (commonly referred to as Heat Tracing) is one of the most maligned and misunderstood activities the piping designer is asked or required to perform. Many pipers consider it to be scutwork and either refuse to do it or grumble as they put forth a less than their best effort. The definition of the term scutwork is(noun) menial, routine work, as that done by an underling. Example: the scutwork of scrubbing pots and pans. This attitude needs to change. The word Heat as used in this application is a relative term. The actual heat application may be "Hot or "Cold". Most applications are "Hot" tracing to prevent freezing due to weather conditions or unwanted cooling of the product and the resulting lowering of viscosity. On the other hand, there are also some fluids/processes where the fluid is "Exothermic" and needs constant cooled. The identification of weather related tracing requirements is both the Process and Piping Department responsibility. The identification of all other heating or cooling tracing requirements is the responsibility of the Process Engineer. The tracing need and identification is communicated via the P&ID (Piping & Instrument Diagram) and must clearly define the type, manner and temperature for all pipe line tracing requirements. The amount of heat tracing on some projects may be minimal or even nonexistent. On other projects, heat tracing may be required on as much as 40 to 50 percent of the process lines. Heat tracing on these projects is vital for the successful and cost effective operation of the plant. This can mean, if the heat tracing is not done properly the plant will not work at all, or the plant will be strangled by the excessive cost of down time and expensive maintenance. Properly designed and installed heat tracing systems are the piping designers responsibility. It should not be assigned just to underlings as suggested in the definition of the term scutwork. It is okay to have a few people involved in the work who have no prior heat tracing experience with only two or three years experience

in piping, but the total effort needs to be staffed by mostly experienced piping designers with 10 to 15 years in the piping business including heat tracing. The leader of the heat tracing effort (large or small), needs to have extensive experience on one or more projects with extensive heat tracing. What is heat tracing? Heat tracing is the supplemental application of heat (or cooling) to a primary piping system, vessel, pump or other object to ensure temperature control. Supplemental heat is used for two reasons: 1) Environmental (Winterization) - to keep a fluid from freezing caused by atmospheric conditions 2) Process the control of the process viscosity so it can be pumped without setting up in the pipe or equipment. The manner and medium are two factors of prime importance in Heat Tracing. The application of the heat for the Tracing includes the manner of delivering the heat and the fluid media is the heat source to be delivered. Manner (noun) the style or customary way of doing or accomplishing something is the hardware that becomes the tracer that physically transports the heat medium fluid. Manner types may include:

Single bare tube tracer (tubing 1/2", 3/4" etc). Multiple bare tube tracers (tubing 1/2", 3/4" etc). Single or multiple tube tracers with a Heat Transfer compound. "ControTrace," formed channel shaped to fit the pipe. Jacketed Pipe, pipe inside another pipe. Electric Tracing, electric resistance cable wrapped around pipe or strapped to pipe and valves.

Medium (noun) an intervening substance, as air, through which a force acts or an effect is produced is the fluid used to provide the supplemental heat. Each media may have one or more levels of temperature. Each of these media will also have both a supply and a return for each temperature level. On very complex Heat Tracing projects it is not unusual to have 5 or 6 tracer media. Media types may include:

Steam There could be two or more temperatures of Steam Hot Oil There could be two or more temperatures of Hot Oil Hot Water There could be two or more temperatures of Water Chilled Water There could be two or more temperatures of Chilled Water

Key Issues related to the design of Heat Tracing

Piping Tracing Team Supervisor: This effort needs to be lead by the most experienced designers available. The person in the position to lead the Heat Tracing Design Team needs to be assigned early and be active on the project. This means they are busy with other piping activities until it is time for the actual tracing work. But when there is a task related to Tracing, the person must be able to drop what ever task they are doing and give attention to the Tracing issue. The other people assigned to tracing only need to be present when it is time to start the actual Tracing work. The proper time to do the Tracing work is when the fabrication and installation piping Isometrics have been issued. Staffing: Who should be assigned to do Heat Tracing? Heat Tracing is not a simple task and should not be all assigned to lower skilled pipers. It can be a learning experience for some but 50% or more of the people assigned should have past experience in Heat Tracing. Scheduling: When to start the Tracing design? If there is tracing on a project it should be discussed early and often. Questions for the early discussions regarding Tracing should include the actual installation responsibility, the level of design detail, purchasing responsibility, etc. Who is going to install it?

Will this be by direct hire specialist under the supervision of someone on the EPC Construction Superintendents staff? Will this be a Sub-Contract let to a Contractor qualified and experienced in doing Tracing? Will the design and installation be Sub-contracted to a Specialty Company that does this and only this? What level of detail is required on the Tracing Isometrics? Who will do the MTO (material take-off)? Who will purchase the material? The answer to these questions will impact how the in-house work is executed. Regardless of who executes the actual installation, the Heat Tracing will have a prominent place in the Project Scope of Work (SOW). It also will need to have sufficient definition so as to be included in the piping Labor Estimate (Man hour) and the piping Control Level Schedule of piping activities. Scope: For the purpose of this article we need to create a hypothetical project. This Project is intended to help you to understand the magnitude of effort involved where there is a lot of tracing. Here is our sample project criterion. The total plant is a mega-project Grass-Roots (Green Field) chemical complex. There are seven major units including the Utility Complex plus Feed Tankage, Intermediate Product Tankage along with Storage for bulk and bagged palletized finished product. We will focus on one of the major processing units. Unit 16 is the largest unit and has complex equipment and 3550 line numbers. The breakdown of these lines is shown in Table A & B (See Appendix). Tables A & B reflect the number of lines and tracer isometrics for our project. It also shows the number of Supply and Return manifolds required. The number and type of manifolds allows for 25% futures tracers and 8 connections per manifold. Once these numbers have been determined, even if they are estimates, additional planning can be done. Defining the number, manner of tracer systems and media (High Pressure Steam, Low Pressure Steam, High Temp Water, Glycol/water, Hot Oil, Chilled Water, etc.) is very important. This needs to be defined early in the project and has an impact on the planning of the number of lines on the pipe rack, the sizing of the rack and number of levels of the rack. Each of these commodities is the first required in the unit for start-up and the last needed for shut-down. If you have five (5) tracing mediums there will be ten (10) additional lines not showing up on the average P&ID. The tracing media lines are all insulated. These lines are all going to be subject to thermal expansion. These lines will have anchors and guides that will result in loops and added forces to the pipe rack design. Pay particular attention to the total manifold requirement. Each manifold will require a minimum footprint of 30x 1-6 (1meter x .5 meters). This space is defined as the space for just the hardware. Operator and maintenance space in front of the manifold is required but can be coexistent with an aisle or other clear space. This is important because space must be allowed for and reserved during Plot Plan development and not used by normal piping layout. The manifold space must be protected from infringement and use by other disciplines during the design process. If a 3D CAD system is used for the design, a blocked out area (with a designated color) should be inserted into the plant layout and identified. Heat Tracing Specification and Standard Details: Regardless of who installs the tracing (direct hire or Subcontract) the Specification and Standard Details need to be well written detailed and complete. Tracing Files & data: There are multiple items necessary and helpful to the Heat Tracing activity. These may include:

P&IDs: For a unit the size of our sample project there may be as many as 80 to 90 (or more) P&IDs. All issues and revisions must be collected, properly controlled and reviewed for Tracing related changes Client criteria (Tracing related) : What does the Client want or not want. Does the Client have existing Standards? All such items should be requested from the Client and evaluated for the project. Correspondence (Tracing related): The Tracing Team leader should be on distribution for all correspondence (letters, memos, etc) related to Tracing. Specification (Tracing related): Normally this is a modification and update making a generic Tracing Specification specific for the current project. If the Engineering Company does not have a basic generic specification then one needs to be developed. Nothing should be left to interpretation. Items that need to be covered in the Specification include; material for each type of tracing mediums; manner of the tracing; if Heat transfer compound is to be used; how much compound and how the compound is applied. Standards (Tracing related): The objective is to have a Standard to refer to, eliminating the need to detail repetitive situations on every Tracing Isometric. These may include Manifold Support; Manifold Piping and Valving; Supply/Return Tracer Supports; Single Tracer Positioning; Multi Tracer

Positioning; Tracer Expansion Loops; Valve Tracer Positioning; and any other repetitive situation. The Standard Details need to show placement of the tracer on the process pipe; maximum distance a tracer can travel; design of tracer expansion loops; locating jumpers around non-traced objects etc.

Vendor Data and Drawings (Tracing related): Example: Prefabricated Manifolds, Steam Traps, etc. Heat Tracing Isometric Samples: Develop a sample of different situations, use them for team orientation and require compliance for quality & unity of design. Sample Tracing Supply & Return lines: Show how the tracing supply/return line attaches to the manifold. Include the Manifold number and the connection Letter designation, show how the preinsulated tubing is supported and how it connects to the on-pipe tracer. Be sure to include proper reference to the continuing documents. Project specific statistical data (see Table A & B, Appendix) Tracing Circuit Index Form: This is an issued document that the Client (Operators and Maintenance Staff) will use in the operation of the unit. (See sample Index Form, Appendix) Isotrac: This is not the same as the Tracing Circuit Index. Isotrac is the control document used for listing and tracking development and issue of all piping isometrics on the project.

Source of Tracing Media: The source of tracing media may be from inside the unit but more likely it will come from outside the unit. If more than one unit requires tracing then it is logical that a central site (Utility Plant or other) would be dedicated to providing the required services. An example of this is the Steam for Steam Heat tracing. The Main Steam for the plant is generated in the Utility Plant and supplies the total facility. Steam at various pressures is created in the Utility Plant. It may be generated specifically for tracing or thru a reducing station used to create medium or low pressure steam for the other uses. The requirement for tracer steam could be supplied from outside the unit via a dedicated line with a pressure control station and pressure relief valves to guarantee the supply and protect the tracing systems. The tracer condensate may be collected inside the unit and exported from the unit via a dedicated line. Each of the other commodity mediums may also be supplied from a central source and have a dedicated supply and return line in the unit. Identification of lines targeted for tracing: A task normally accomplished by the Unit Process Engineers while developing the P&IDs. However, they are human and will often miss little things that will cause trouble. These little things include equipment items such as pumps and instrumentation. Piping should do an extensive survey of the P&IDs looking at all instrumentation and equipment to which traced lines are associated. Identification of maintenance breaks of the pipe lines or equipment: This is the piping designers responsibility. The designer needs to look at any line or part of a line that can or will be removed as a part of routine maintenance. An example of this is found in pump suction and discharge lines at paired pumps. If one pump breaks down the spare pump must take over and the damaged pump must be taken out of service. When this situation is present, the common suction line, the operating pump and the common discharge lines must continue to operate. Therefore, the tracing for these must also continue to operate. The suction line and discharge lines inside the block valves must be shut down, drained and cleaned. The tracing is then shut off so the pump can be disassembled or removed completely. In a case like this there is one tracer circuit on the common suction line (from the source tank to the suction block valves at each pump. There are two tracer circuits; one on each suction/discharge lines inside (pump side) the block valves. Then there are one or more tracer circuits on the common discharge line depending on the length and complexity. At a control valve manifold there is one tracer circuit on the common line to cover both up stream and down stream piping including the bypass. The part of the manifold inside the block valves including the control valve itself must be on a separate circuit so it can be removed in case major maintenance or replacement is required. Similar thinking must be carried out for every line and each piece of equipment. Some design options that should be considered in any Unit with heavy tracing involve piping or instrument components.

Strainers in pump suction lines should be the T type or Y type strainers. These allow the changing or cleaning of the screen without dismantling the suction line (and the tracing) when the Conical type strainer is used. Drilling of a small ( +/-) hole in the pump discharge check valve to allow some backflow through the pump when it is on Standby mode. Discussions with the Instrument Engineer need to cover all instruments including Pressure Instruments (PIs). PIs should be looked at with the possibility using only the Diaphram protected type so the critical process fluid does not get into the PI piping and require heat tracing.

Defining the number of tracing circuits: The number of tracing circuits required in each Unit is determined by a detailed review of the P&IDs by the piping designer. The number required is a constantly moving target. Early in the project a count for the purpose of the SOW (Scope of Work) and estimate will executed. P&ID development is a dynamic activity and therefore two or three months later another count should be completed to update the number of circuits and prepare a RFQ (Request for Quote) for Manifold assemblies. If the updated number is significantly different (higher or lower) than the SOW count it is appropriate to follow the procedure to adjust the piping labor estimate.

Defining the number of supply and return manifolds: As shown in Table B (Appendix), some very simple math will accomplish this task. The math considers the total number of tracer circuits, the number of connections on each standard manifold and the percent utilization for initial installation vs. future needs. Table B uses an eight (8) connection standard manifold. Manifolds with 8 connections, 10 connections or 12 connections are available. However, there is a trade off that must be considered between using fewer manifolds and longer supply and return runs. Location of supply and return manifolds: All supply and return manifolds should be located as close to the user as is reasonably possible. It may be better to have more but smaller (fewer connection) manifolds than fewer larger (more connection) manifolds. Fewer manifolds will automatically lengthen the supply and return run causing more heat loss. Design of Tracing hard piping: Hard piping (Tracing media supply and return headers in the pipe racks; the branches to & from the supply headers and the manifolds) can and should be designed along with all other piping in the Unit. Pipe runs will likely be shop fabricated and shipped to the field. Manifold identification: Identification of manifolds is not a standard and is usually what the Client /Operator requests. It may be something they are accustomed to and use in one their existing plants. If there is no Client preferred system, a system must be developed. Whatever system that is utilized, it needs to be simple, logical and consistent. A simple system you might consider is the following:

If a plant is a horizontal plant having all (or most) equipment grade mounted. Consider starting with SM 001, S= Supply, M= Manifold, 001= simple numeric identification for the manifold. Return Manifold would start with RM 001. If a plant is a vertical plant having equipment on multiple levels, consider a manifold designation structured for ease of the operators locating the manifolds. For multiple level plants you might use SM 1-001 for the first or ground level and SM 2-001 for the second level, etc.

Next is the need for a designation system for each manifold connection point. The best way for this is, as you face each manifold (Supply and Return) start at the upper left connection with A then across from that is B at the upper right and so on down the manifold. Each of the manifolds shown in Illustration 1, would have tracer connections labeled A through H. See Sample Tracer Numbering (Appendix).

Illustration 1 Steam Tracer Manifolds Supply Manifold (left) & Return Manifold (right) 8 connections each (Note: individual tracer block valves are not shown) From Spirax Sarco

Executing the Tracing work How do you do this? I could start by saying Very Carefully but I am sure that you will do that. So the real answer is, dont start until the piping Isometrics have all been issued for construction. You do not want to have some Tracing work done and then find that the piping design has been revised and tracing must be redesigned. Also, now that the piping is complete, designers will be available for the Tracing effort. The How To includes creating the Tracing Supply isometric, locating the tracing on the process line and creating the Tracing Return isometric. The Tracing Supply isometric is very much like a standard CAD or manual drawn isometric but is shown as preinsulated tubing. The tubing must be supported and must have basic dimensions for material purchase and the installer can estimate the work giving a realistic price. The tracing on the actual process line is bare tubing running the length of the pip[e (considering breakout sections) and then connecting to the return isometric. The Return Tracing Isometric is similar to the Supply Isometric. It shows pre-insulated tubing, supports and basic dimensions.

As each Tracing Circuit is being designed, the Heat Tracing Index must be filled out to document the complete system for Client operators. In addition to the Tracing Index, there needs to be a simple tool to organize and control the work and prevent multiple designers from using the same manifold connection on different tracer circuits. This is achieved by creating a simple sketch of a standard manifold. Example: If using the numbers shown in Table B (Appendix), print out one copy for each Supply and Return manifold and label them sequentially. When a designer starts a circuit he or she is required to sign out the two connections required. No exceptions Use it or Lose it. After reading this article it should be clear that Tracing is not Scutwork. Tracing is complex and demands experience, planning, organization and proper execution. When the Tracing effort is completed and installed, the next thing is the successful start-up. If all the recommendations of this article were followed you can be assured that the start-up will be smooth and the Client will be happy.

Acknowledgements: With deep appreciation to A. R. Legvold for the significant technical input and for the editing of the whole article, thank you.

James O. Pennock has more than forty-five years in the process plant design profession. He has been involved in both home office and job site assignments on refinery, chemical, petrochemical, power and other projects. His experience ranges from entry level designer to engineering manager. Much of this was with Fluor. He is also the author of the book Piping Engineering Leadership for Process Plant Projects. He is now retired, living in Florida, USA and does only occasional consulting work. Mr. Pennock can be contacted via E-Mail at jopennock@netscape.net.

Appendix:
Line Count

Pipe Line Breakdown Total Line Count Total Process Lines Total Utility Lines Total Lines Traced Percent Process lines Traced

Gross Numbers 3550 2130 1420 639

Percent

60% 40% 18% 30%

Table "A"

Tracing Media Type Breakdown

Media Type

Lines per Tracing Type

Percent Per Tracer Type

Minimum Isos per Line (1) (2)

Estimated Tracers Isos (5)

Manifold Reqd Supply Positions (3) Return Positions

Manifold Reqd

(4)

H. P. Steam L. P. Steam Hot Oil Hot Water Warm Water Glycol

202 182 127 63 65

39.6% 28.5% 19.9% 9.9% 10.2%

4 4 3.5 3.5 3.5

808 728 445 221 228

269 243 169 84 87

45 40 28 14 14

269 143 169 84 87

45 40 28 14 14

0 (30 degree F) Chilled Water 0 (42 Degree F) Other Total 0 639

0.0%

0.0%

0.0% 100%

0 ---2429 852 142 852 142

Table B Table B notes: 1. Minimum tracing isometrics per line includes one (1) tracing isometric from the Supply Manifold to the Process Line, a minimum of one (1) tracing isometric for the tracing on the Process Line and one (1) tracing isometric for the return line to the Return Manifold. Process line tracing requires one tracing isometric for every original construction isometric. Some process lines may require more than one tracing circuit depending on the length, complexity or temperature requirements. Supply Manifold requirements are based on 8 connection manifolds and 75% initial utilization with 25% future. Return Manifold requirements are based on 8 connection manifolds and 75% initial utilization with 25% future. Manual vs. CAD execution methods may result in differing quantities of fabrication isometrics and tracing isometrics.

2. 3. 4. 5.

Sample Tracer Numbering 16 1234 1/3 SM22 C RM40 D Legend: 16 Unit number 1234 Process line number 1/3 Number of circuit / total circuits required for this process line SM22 Number ID of Supply Manifold for this circuit C Supply manifold connection letter designation for this tracer RM40 - Number ID of Return Manifold for this circuit

D - Return manifold connection letter designation for this tracer

Unit No.

Line No.

Tracing Circuit Count

Supply Manifold Number

Supply Manifold Conn. Position

Return Manifold Number

Return Manifold Conn. Position

Heat Media

Process Line Commodity

Min. Process Line Reqd (Deg. F)

16

0011

1 of 3

SM34

Rm29

Hot Water HP Steam HP Steam Hot Oil

Raw Feed

180

16

0012

4 of 4

SM02

RM03

Stage 1 Base Prep

400

16 16

0030 0048

3 of 3 1 of 1

SM02 SM60

B D

RM20 RM68

A B

Stage 2 Base Poly Prop.

400 300

Sample Tracing Circuit Index (Index Title, Document Number and Project Identification omitted here) Note: An excel work book containing Tables A & B and the Tracing Circuit Index (w/ 1000 circuits) is available by contacting J. O. Pennock atjopennock@netscape.net

Section - II B: Piping Isometrics By: Shrivallabha Redij

Introduction Purpose of Piping Isometrics Brief Overview of Practices Procedure Current Practices

Introduction:
The word 'Isometric' has its origins in Greek which is the case with many English words. It is derived from Greek word 'Isometros', of equal measure (the objects measured using a fixed unit). It is one of the most important outputs, if not the most important output of overall Piping effort. Isometric is a comprehensive document that holds information that is used by different people at varying stages of a project.

Purpose of Piping Isometrics:

The primary purposes of piping isometrics are enlisted below: 1. For preliminary Bulk Material Take Off (MTO) 2. For Stress Analysis 3. Issued For Construction The level of isometric details may vary on the basis of their purpose.

Brief Overview of Practices:

Preparation of piping isometrics has seen the practices change as the tools for generating them have been and are changing. Before advent of computers from piping perspective, these sketches were prepared manually by skilled hands, which meant assiduous work on board. The arrival of computers (and Computer Aided Design), shifted most of this work from board to computers. The work was in 2-Dimensional view and still 2-D tools are used for small projects and for annotations in some cases. Now there are various 3-Dimensional design tools which are widely used to create the design. These tools have features that generate isometric, once the model is 'built'.

In today's world, the means of selection of the method for preparing the final isometrics (i.e. by hand / 2 - D / 3 - D), is driven by cost. However, every piping designer needs to know how to draw a proper manual piping isometric because the need for an isometric is often influenced by location or time. Location, sometimes a project is done in the field (at the jobsite) and is therefore all done manually. Time, for many of the "in the office" CAD based projects, the requirement for an early preliminary material take-off (Alloy, Large O.D., Lined pipe, Jacketed pipe, etc.) is before the electronic model is even started, means that piping designers must be able to draw manual isometric sketches.

Procedure:
The minimum inputs for isometric sketching are: 1. Plot Plan 2. Process & Instrumentation Diagram (P & ID) 3. Mechanical Data Sheets (MDS) In some of the cases, more detailed Piping Layout will be available. Before getting into the details of the different requirements, it is imperative to identify and define the sections of a typical isometric sheet. The isometric arrangement may differ from company to company based as per internal standards. But, it will have following details on it typically as shown in schematic below.

Now let us look into the detailed break-up of the sections mentioned above.

1. North: The isometric always indicates Plant North which may or may not be collinear with Geographic North. This is one of the better examples of common sense. The Plant North is normalized with respect to Geographic North so the sketching does not require unnecessary and awkward orientation and angles. 2. Isometric Drawing: The Isometric sketch is drawn here. 3. Bill of Material: The Material Take Off for the sketch on the left hand side reflects here. 4. Notes & Symbols: Weld symbols used on the isometric; Notes regarding Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT) etc. and Project related notes are covered. 5. Line Data: Process data such as Line Number, Pipe Class (Specification), Design and Operating Temperature / Pressure, Insulation and Tracing etc. are covered here. 6. Project Nameplate: A detail indicating the Client, the Engineering Contractor's Name and the Engineering Contractor's Logo and the project Name is placed. Alongside this, the Document number, Purpose of Issue (Information / Construction) and appropriate revision is indicated. The above details cover most of the essential information that an isometric should possess. However, requirements to provide additional data might arise due to client or statutory requirement of the specific country or region.

Now that we have seen the contents of isometrics, let us see how the emphasis on different sections of isometric shifts as the purpose changes. Preliminary Bulk Material Take Off: This activity is done at the initial stages of the project. Since the data available is preliminary, the activity needs sound engineering judgment and experience. This Material Take Off is used preliminarily by Procurement and Piping departments. So it is important to keep in mind:

The quantities for procurement shall approximate closely so that they align with the future deltas (Take off top-ups required) of materials. The considerations shall be reasonable from Piping Design point of view. Otherwise, it will lead to large differences in Initial Bulk MTO and IFC stage MTO.

Therefore the isometrics shall be prepared with the following considerations:

They should cover major components and the holds as per P & ID. The scope of supply should be confirmed and marked clearly. The details of Typical Assemblies should be prepared and referenced so the sketching duration is reduced with adequate accuracy.

Stress Analysis: The stress critical lines are analyzed for flexibility. These isometrics are issued to Stress Engineer. Incomplete information may result in increased shuttling of document between the designer and Stress Engineer. For this activity, isometrics shall be prepared keeping in mind:

The Line Design conditions i.e. Pressure, Temperature and Pipe Class (Material) shall be provided. Possible locations for supports, anchors and guides shall be duly marked. Equipment connection references for nozzle loading check shall be provided. Complete system sketches shall be provided i.e. all interconnected lines comprising a single stress system.

Issued For Construction: This is the most important stage in the isometric's life cycle. The document is issued with external revision. It is used for fabrication and erection. So every detail becomes significant in addition to the requirements covered in above point's i.e.

Shop and Field demarcation Each detail with respect to P& ID, MDS and Plot Plan taken care of. References:

a. Equipment Connection b. Continuation Reference c. Grid or Co-ordinates

Reference Documents : a. P & ID Number b. Piping Plan Number

Dimensions and Elevations

The IFC stage isometrics are issued to the Construction Contractors. The construction site is abuzz with all sorts of Shop and Field activities. The fabrication and erection at site sometimes requires changes be done to the IFC isometric to suit the actual site conditions. The isometric with such 'Field Revisions' is called as 'As Built'. The 'As Built' document remains in archives to serve as reference point for future modifications.

Current Practices:
Now that we have seen the relevant points pertaining to the preparation of isometrics, let us see the current practices. Preparing an isometric by hand could give you a potion of patience as you have to pause for a moment to make a mental picture before you actually start sketching. However, the availability of modern day tools means preparing and processing the isometric in its full 3D electronic form. Nowadays, there are many 3-D Design modeling softwares that help you build a virtual 3-D Model. These softwares come with in-built capabilities to generate isometrics. With proper administration, the interfacing with other softwares such as Reviewing (e.g. Navisworks), Stress (e.g. CAESAR-II), 2-D (e.g. AutoCAD) and Shop (e.g. SpoolGen) has become a part of modern practices that is helping in faster and more efficient designing. In essence, the practices for preparing the isometrics will keep changing with the evolving technology and yet its core purpose and level of detail will remain intact!

Section - III A: Pipe Supports, Part - 1 By: James O. Pennock

The subject, "Pipe Supports" is a much more complex subject than the term suggests. There are so many situations that a pipe can find itself in and in every case it will need to be supported. Pipe supports is a general term that actually is split into two families. There is what I call the primary pipe support systems, and then there are the secondary pipe support systems. The primary pipe supports systems are those supports that are a part of the infrastructure and fall under the prime responsibility of the structural department. The secondary pipe support systems are more a part of the piping systems and as such fall under the prime responsibility of the piping department. You notice I used the words 'prime responsibility' with each of these there is still a cross over responsibility to provide proper, accurate and timely information and then action.

Primary Pipe Support Systems

As noted above the primary pipe supports are a part of the infrastructure. This is true of most all projects. For simplicity the emphasis here will focus on "Grass Root" or new construction plants. These primary pipe supports systems may also be referred to as piperacks, pipeways, pipe alleys. These support systems may be major or minor and they may be overhead or sleeper pipe racks. It is important to understand that even though they are called pipe racks they support and carry more than just piping. These other items may include the cables for electrical and instrumentation services. For clarification, overhead pipe racks are elevated to the point where you can walk and/or drive under the supported piping. Sleepers or sleeper ways are low to the ground so there is no passage under the supported piping. Pipe racks (overhead or sleeper) are normally established and sized early in the preliminary engineering phase of a project. This time of the project is normally called the plant development phase or the plot plan development phase. Once they are established and sized they are one of the first things the structural department can work on. The terms 'establish' and 'size' requires a lot of wisdom and work. The wisdom and work means thinking one, two or three years into the future and deciding where (location) the primary pipe support systems will run. Other critical elements include the configuration, height, width, spacing and the materials of construction/fabrication method. Let's take these elements one at a time.

 Location - In order to set the location of the primary pipe support systems the total plant layout must be established. This means that all the various disciplines must have a very good idea what equipment is required and it's size. The "Plot Plan" must be reviewed by all the key people on the project and then approved by the client. Configuration - This is the selection of "fit-for-purpose." Each main run, minor run and branch run must be looked at to determine its configuration. Will it be an overhead rack or a sleeper way? Will each be single deck (layer) or multiple deck? Will the support be a single column ("T") support or multi-column support? How many columns? A second part of the configuration issue effects pipe racks in the process units themselves. This is the question of whether or not the pipe rack will support equipment such as Air Coolers (Fin Fans). Another part of configuration is the issue of intersections. Poor planning on this issue can cause problems later with the piping. Height - How high should each run of rack be? Should they be elevated or low sleepers. The sleepers are concrete with an imbedded steel plate on the top. For sleepers, they need to be off the ground to allow for maintenance and drainage also to prevent corrosion. For elevated multi-level racks what should the separation be? For elevated racks you must plan the height and the separation of the whole system together. A key element in the determination of separation is the line sizes to be carried on the racks. Width - This requires a detailed study of the total piping systems for the whole plant based on pipe rack routing. In the past, a study (called a "Transposition") was done to, as best you could, account for each line on each pipe rack. From this study, a berth sequence was established and the line spacing set. A percentage was added as an error factor and then the clients "future" reserve was added. This then constituted the minimum rack width. The final width would be set after all racks were "sized" and then some might be rounded up in width for consistence based on the materials of construction/fabrication method. Spacing - This issue can be addressed after the transposition has been completed. The transposition identifies all the rack piping from the largest to the smallest From this the average line size for each leg of the rack system can be established. With the pipe size information (largest, smallest and average pipe size) the number and spacing of the pipe support bents can be set. A cost tradeoff is evaluated and made between more pipe supports spaced closer together or fewer pipe supports and some sort of intermediate support system. Materials of construction/fabrication method - What materials are the pipe racks to be made of and what will be the fabrication method? Pipe racks can be bare steel, steel w/a concrete encasement (fireproofing), reinforced concrete or a combination. The steel can be steel structural shapes or pipe shape. The concrete fireproofing can be cast in place onto (or around) the steel columns and beams or it can be pre-cast onto the columns and beams prior to installation. The reinforced concrete pipe supports can also be cast in place or precast then field erected. The space requirement dimensions for a reinforced concrete column or beam is about twice that of bare steel. The piping design group on the project (at the company where I came from) was the lead group in all of the above issues except the last one, materials of construction/fabrication method. This issue was properly the responsibility of the structural department, construction and the client. There is no doubt that economics, the jobsite location, labor and material availability played a part. Piping, however must know what the materials of construction/fabrication method will be because it can affect one or more of the other issues.

Secondary Pipe Support Systems

The secondary pipe support systems are a broad family of devices with two branches and actually include more than just supports. The two branches are defined as (a) "engineered" devices and (b) "miscellaneous" pipe support devices. The term "engineered" pipe supports relates to devices that are non-static, one-of-a-kind, location and condition specific. They are identified at the time the need is recognized and then designed and engineered for that specific need. Constant support spring hangers and snubbers are just two of the devices in this category. The piping stress engineer is the party/person who is responsible for the engineering of these. However, the piping designer working in the specific area has a shared responsibility. The term "miscellaneous" pipe support refers to a broad array of devices that includes items such as Anchors, Base Supports, Cradles, Dummy Support Legs, Guides, Hanger Rods, Pick-ups, Shoes, Trunnions, etc. All companies have their own operating methods and may not use a different approach to miscellaneous pipe support devices. Some may allow each piping designer to pick and choose pieces and parts from various catalogs to design their own pipe supports. Others may use a more organizational approach and "pre-engineer" these supports. The term "pre-engineer" means that the various devices are an existing company standard that may be used on the project. Secondary support devices typically have multiple or repetitive point of use subject to similar conditions. Having these devices "pre-engineered" and available to the piping designer on the project saves money, provides consistency of design, and results in a safer design. The configurations, hardware and

materials have already been established, the load calculations have been performed (and are on file). There is also an "If-then" selection key and criteria established (If you have "X" support problem, then you can/must use "Y" support device). The extensive use of computers and plant design software makes this approach more viable. Having these support devices "pre-engineered" and documented allows for the inserting of the item's specific electronic symbol required for model generation and document (plans, elevations and isometrics) extraction. Secondary pipe support devices (Item name, purpose and frequency of use)

Purpose Frequency Prevent the movement of the pipe line normally Anchors High in a pipe rack Prevent any movement of a piping assembly Base Anchors Low normally at grade Allows only vertical movement (up or down) of Base Guides Low piping assemblies at grade Provides support under piping assemblies Base Supports High normally at grade Provides protection for cold insulation when High for cold Cradles crossings a pipe support in pipe racks service Directional Restricts the movement of a pipe line to a specific High Anchor direction pipe racks Provides added length to a pipeline for the Dummy purpose of support. Not restricted to only pipe High Support Legs rack usage A catchall term sometimes used by a piping designer that includes any type of nonField Supports High infrastructure support. These items are not location specific. Provides restraint to keep a pipe line in place in Guides horizontal pipe racks or vertical pipe racks in High buildings or up tall equipment Gussets Hanger Rods Hold Downs Load Distribution Pads Pick-ups Shoes Provides added reinforcement for small (fragile) branch connections on a larger header or pipe A wide verity of top-down pipe supports situations, not location specific. Prevents or controls mechanical vibration in piping systems. Provides additional mass for thin wall pipe at a point of concentrated stress loading. This item is not location specific. Provides support of pipes from other pipes or overhead beams and is not location specific. Provides "mini-supports for lines with hot insulation normally only used only at pipe support points See note #1

Name

High See note #2 Low Moderate High

Trunnions

Provides load-carrying points for vertical pipelines most often used to support pipes Low attached to tall vertical vessels or hung from tall structures.

Note #1 - This item is normally used only for (a) services subject to heavy vibration such as at reciprocating compressors or (b) services that contain highly hazardous or toxic material. Note #2 - This item is normally only used for the suction and discharge piping at reciprocating compressors. Now, lets look at and discuss each of these "miscellaneous" or "pre-engineered" devices. The description for these items is based on my own experience. Others will no doubt have other and even better ways. Everyone is encouraged to create "a better mouse trap."

Anchors
The anchoring of a pipe in place can be achieved in a number of ways. An anchor will normally require some additional material regardless of the line size. You cannot just weld a pipe to a pipe support. For some small lines in the right situations you can use "U" bolts over the pipe (tack-welded to the pipe) and through-bolted to a bare steel pipe support. Another way for small line sizes (2" and 3") uses 1-1/2" angle iron 6" long. Weld one leg of the angle iron (horizontal) flat to the top of the pipe support with the other (vertical) leg against the pipe. Stitch weld (1" fillet weld on 5" centers) to the vertical leg to the pipe. For larger lines use a pipe guide to restrain the side-to-side movement and add a piece of steel ("T" or channel) to the bottom of the pipe (or shoe) at the pipe support to restrict longitudinal. Anchors will be required for both bare (uninsulated) pipe and insulated pipe. The requirements for anchors for cold insulated and hot insulated pipe is different.

Base Anchors
This will occur most often at control valve manifolds (or stations) situated close to grade or a platform. Base anchors are simply a stub of pipe (dummy leg) attached to the lower portion of an elbow and extended to grade (or platform). A square steel plate is welded flat to the pipe. The plate may have holes in it and be cinchanchored to the paving or welded to platform steel. The sizing of the "pipe leg" can be the same as for Dummy Legs.

Base Guides
This item is constructed of the material and methods as the base anchor except that the bottom plate is not bolted or welded down. For this item angle iron strips are installed on two opposite sides (depending on desired movement) to control the direction.

Base Supports
This is another name for one of the items that sometimes falls under the name Field Support. This item also has a dummy leg type pipe extension (or stub) welded down from an elbow. However, the bottom end if the stub is threaded using a straight (conduit) thread machine. A straight thread, conduit coupling in then used to make height adjustments to the support. When this is required for high cost piping materials that require post weld heat treating the stub is shortened and added in the shop. The balance of the stub is added in the field from carbon steel. Another variation of this is restricted to small diameter piping. For this a 3'-0" (1 meter) length of 3"x3" steel angle is welded to a 6"x6" plate. Holes are drilled in the angle at the proper elevation and a "U" bolt secures the pipe to the angle.

Cradles
This device is normally fabricated from carbon steel that is shaped to fit the outside diameter of cold insulation. The potential number of sizes for this item can be vast. The sizing requirements are based on (a) the pipe size, (b) the insulation thickness, (c) the load bearing capability of the insulation, (d) the length of the required cradle and (e) the thickness of the cradle material. The pipe size, the insulation thickness and the load bearing capability should be easy to understand. The length if the cradle is influenced by questions such as: Does this line require an anchor at this cradle? What kind of pipe supports do we have at the point of this cradle? How much thermal movement will this line "see" at the point of this cradle? All of these items effect the cradle length. If there is to be an anchor at this cradle and the forces are substantial then the cradle thickness may need to be increased.

Directional Anchor

This item could also be called a Directional Guide and is most often associated with hot piping. This item is designed to allow for thermal movement in a specific axis. The design may require longitudinal movement or it may require side-to-side movement of a line. This item has two versions, one for longitudinal movement and a second for the side-to-side movement. Remember this most often occurs in hot piping. Hot piping also requires shoes to elevate the line and the insulation above the pipe support. So we have a pipe, a hot pipe, already on a shoe. Now, to allow for longitudinal movement we simply add (weld) Guides to the top (steel) surface of the pipe support. To allow for side-to-side movement in the pipe we DO NOT ADD GUIDES. We add two pieces piece of steel ("T" or channel) to the bottom of the pipe shoe, one on each side of the pipe support with a small (1/4") gap to avoid binding.

Dummy Support Legs - (or Dummy Legs)

This is simply a piece of pipe extended from an elbow to provide support when a pipe line enters or leaves a pipe rack short of a support and is left improperly support. A stub or length of pipe sized to carry the load is welded to the elbow and extended beyond the support. The length and the wall schedule of the pipe extension are a rather complex formula based on the parent line size and the total load. The total load is based on the distance (indirection of flow) from the last support to the drop, the distance of the drop, the distance from the drop to the next support, the weight of any insulation plus the weight of the hydrotest water or commodity which ever is greater.

Field Supports
This "catch-all" term is used to describe a simple piece of steel angle or channel welded to a column or beam intended to provide a support point for a pipe. As mentioned above (Base Support), this term is also used for the support under control valve stations and pump suction or discharge piping. (The term "Field Support" (or F.S.) is seen on old drawings from existing plants of years ago. It was used on drawings with only a simple symbol indicating a location. This may have occurred when the piper got lazy or did not know enough about pipe supports. The intention was for the installation contractor "Field" to do what ever they chose to do with whatever material that was available.)

Guides
Guides are predominantly in elevated pipe racks or sleepers to keep the pipes in their assigned berth. Guides are most often short lengths of properly sized steel angle welded to the pipe support on each side of each pipe. For small lines using small angle the angle is installed with the point up, like a pyramid. For larger uninsulated lines with larger angle one leg of the angle is flat on the support and the other is vertical. For the installations of guides care must be taken by thew installers to leave a small gap between the pipe and the angle to avoid binding. Because of the close spacing of the pipes in a rack guides are attached to alternate pipe bents in staggered fashion.

Gussets
This is a simple piece of angle steel welded or clamped to a header pipe and to a (small) branch to prevent breakage due to vibration or other action. There are some locations and services where the use of gussets is highly recommended. These are: 1. Suction and discharge piping of reciprocating compressors and pumps 2. Lines in mixed phase flow subject to slug flow or surge 3. Lines in hydrogen service 4. Lines in toxic service (category "X" or "M") 5. Branches in piping low to grade (or platforms) that may be used as a step by operators

Hanger Rods
These devices are one of the most dangerous items used in the piping field. In many if not most cases they are not properly "designed". Hanger Rods, Rod Hangers and Pipe Hangers all terms for the same device. There are three basic types of Hanger support devices: (type 1) beam-to-pipe, (type 2) pipe-to-pipe and (type 3) beamto-beam (or trapeze). In general they all have three components, a top connection component, a connector component and a bottom component. For the type 1 Hanger the top component normally connects to a structural beam. The connector component is normally steel rod. The bottom component is normally a pipe clamp. For the type 2 Hanger the top component is also a pipe clamp. Other components are the same as type 1. For the type 3 Hanger there are two top connector components and two connector rods. The bottom component is a piece of steel angle or channel sized to span the distance and carry the intended load. The danger with the design of these items is in the lack of knowledge of the people doing the design. They do not know how to calculate all the actual dead and live loading that the Hanger will support. Then they choose the wrong type or strength of component for the intended load.

Hold-Downs

These items are a combination of clevises, steel shapes, bolts and compression washers. The are used to hold down the piping on the suction and discharge of reciprocating compressors and pumps. Normally this type of piping is low to the ground and supported on sleepers. The hold-down is a bridge assembly over the pipe and welded to the sleeper steel plate. The combination of clevises, steel shapes bolts and compression washers exert tension on the pipe to suppress vibration.

Load Distribution Pads

This is simply a 120 degree section of pipe about 18" long. The Pad is cut from the same material as the subject line. The Pad is opened up a little to fit the pipe O. D. and then welded to the pipe at the required location.

Pick-ups
This is a set of devices used to provide intermediate support for small diameter piping that will not span the existing distance. Its use is normally restricted to locations where the small size pipelines run parallel to one or more large diameter pipelines. This is also used to save the cost in time and material from adding a formal (primary) structural pipe support. This is simply a length of properly sized, steel angle and one or more "U" bolts. The angle is cut long enough to span under both the supported and the supporting lines. The "U" bolts are sized based on the large pipes that will be doing the supporting.

Shoes
This device is required to raise a hot insulated off the structural support surface. The reason for this is to prevent damage to the insulation as the pipe expands as it heats up and shrinks as it cools down. For pipe sizes 3" thru 10" a simple inverted "T" shoe with a flat bottom plate and one (single) vertical plate should be used. For pipe sizes 12" thru 18" a shoe with a flat bottom plate and two (double) vertical plates should be used. For pipe sizes 20" and larger consideration should be given to the addition of a Load Distribution Plate (see above) where thin wall pipe may exist. The material for pipe shoes will normally be carbon steel. However, where the pipeline is an exotic material this would cause a weld of dissimilar metals to exist where the shoe is attached to the pipe. For shoes used on exotic materials only the bottom plate is carbon steel. The (single or double) vertical plates are made of the same material as the pipe. For piping that requires post weld heat treating (PWHT) after fabrication the shoes must be added by the shop. Some company's (engineering and client) will also require the use of shoes (with the Load Distribution Pad) for all uninsulated 24" and larger piping where the pipe wall is below a certain limit.

Trunnions
For this device a vertical pipeline will have two (2) stub pipes attached horizontally to opposite sides of the pipe. One end of these stub pipes is shaped to fit the O.D. of the vertical pipe the other end is normally square cut. The shaped end of the stubs are welded to the vertical pipe with a full penetration (*) fillet weld. When used on a pipe attached to and supported from a vertical vessel the vessel department supplies the primary support. Coordination of size, type, elevation, orientation, etc. between the piping designer and the vessel group is required. When used on a pipe attached to and supported from a vertical structure the structural department supplies the primary support. Coordination of size, type, elevation, location, etc. between the piping designer and the structural group is required. (*) This full penetration refers to the wall thickness of only the stub pipes not the vertical pipe.

The recommended practice for all of these secondary pipe support devices is to determine what is needed. Start out with items that are found to have consistent and repetitive use within the company's past projects. Document each device complete with parts list and installation instructions. (Documenting also includes the updates required for any electronic design system database, AutoCAD, PDS, PDMS or other) Qualify each device by the specific use criteria based on pipe size, load limitations and application. Define the selection criteria for each based on the qualification criteria. Then train all the piping designers, stress engineers, material group and construction contractors on the responsibility, purpose, use, application and limitations. What about responsibility? Who is responsible for pipe supports or the supporting of the piping? Some may say, "That it is the structural groups responsibility." That is only partly true. They are only responsible for providing a support of the size; shape and strength based on information given to them. If nobody tells them to put a pipe support (of a specific size, shape and loading) in a specific location they are not going to do it. So, who is responsible for doing the telling? The piping designer is responsible for the piping, which means all the piping and all aspects of all the piping. The piping designer is responsible for telling the structural group what is required for all primary pipe support systems. And, the piping designer is also responsible for telling the structural group when a secondary pipe support device will be attached to and impose a load on a structural member. There are of course other opinions on this subject and there are no doubt questions and more that can be discussed. The other opinions I will warmly accept. And, as for the questions, please ask. If you don't ask you will never give others a chance to offer answers.

Pipe Supports, Part - B, Will discuss data requirements and the process for the selection and qualification of typical pipe supports.

Section - III A: Pipe Supports, Part - 2 By: James O. Pennock

Pipe supports as we stated in Part 1 (of Pipe Supports) is a much more complex subject than the term would first suggest. We also want to make it clear that there are many ways that errors can be made when designing or selecting pipe supports this includes the various secondary pipe supports. In Part - 1, we saw a chart that described some of the many different types of secondary pipe support devices. In this, Part - 2 of Pipe Supports we are going to focus on specific data required to properly size, qualify and select a support.To do this we will look at one specific device. The specific device we will focus on is the Hanger Rod. You will remember that in Part - 1 we said there are three basic types of Hanger Rod support devices: (type 1) beam-to-pipe, (type 2) pipe-to-pipe and (type 3) beam-to-beam (or trapeze). They all have three major components, a top connection component, middle or connector component and a bottom component. For the type 1 Hanger the top component normally connects to a structural beam. The connector component is normally steel rod. The bottom component is normally a pipe clamp. We also said that the danger with the design of these items is in the lack of knowledge of some of the people doing the design. They do not know how to calculate all the actual dead and live loading that the Hanger will support. Then they choose the wrong type or strength of component for the intended load. In order to bring attention to some of the potential problems lets take a hypothetical piping configuration and plant situation for study. We will look at two cases. We will use the same configuration with different conditions for each case.

Case #1
Let's take the following as an example scenario for the basis for our discussion. >> The project is a process plant in a multi-story structure >> The line is 12", standard weight carbon steel pipe located in a lower level of the structure >> The line will carry a process liquid with a specific gravity of .85 >> The line is subject to hydrotest >> The line is not insulated >> The piping travels horizontal north in a well supported manner, then after crossing the last normal pipe support (support 'a') it travels 40 feet, then drops down (3'-0") and turns east (right) with two elbows (fittingto-fitting) and travels another 40 feet to the next normal support (support 'b'). >> There are no additional horizontal support beams available at or near the turn point and at the exact piping elevation. >> The closest steel available as a possible support point is 24" deep major equipment support beam located 6'-0" (top-of-pipe to bottom-of-beam) above the pipe and 4'-0" from the pipe drop. It is logical and factual that structural support 'a' will carry one half of the pipe load of the north-south run. And the structural support 'b' will carry half pipe load of the east-west run. However, the L-shaped "dog-leg" in this scenario is obviously excessively overspanned and the pipe will be over stressed. The piping designer must provide some type of additional support at or near the corner. Because of the availability of the overhead beam a hanger rod is chosen as the best possible and most economical method of support for the pipe. We must now look at the factors so we can choose the correct Hanger Rod assembly. The factors include all the weight to be supported.

The component weights are as follows: >> 20'-0" of pipe in the north-south run (1/2 the 40' run) >> 20'-0" of pipe in the east-west run (1/2 the 40' run) >> Two 90 degree elbows >> 43 lineal feet of hydrotest water in the 12" Standard Weight pipe With this information the next step is a simple look-up of the correct data. Case #1-12" Standard Weight, Carbon Steel Pipe

Pipe Weight Fitting Weight Insulation Weight Water Weight Total Weight 1984 lbs. 246 lbs. 0 2107 lbs. 4337 lbs.
We now have what we need to select a hanger rod assembly to support our pipe. There are two ways that this can be done. First, the designer can use the "pick-and-choose" or "do-it-your-self ' method. This is the process of picking up a hanger parts catalog and then selects each individual piece and part. The hope is that the designer knows what they are actually doing. The second method is that we select from a pre-packaged Hanger Rod assembly that fits our need. One that comes complete with all the proper and matched pieces and parts. The term "pre-packaged hanger assembly" also means that the assembly has been "tag named," has been pre-designed, pre-engineered, pre-qualified and fully documented including the related needs for the applicable computer aided design system, material procurement and installation. The assembly we need for our "Case #1 includes the following: (All components and load data are taken from "PTP" Piping Technology and Products online catalog, see pipingtech.com) Load Capacity* >> >> >> >> >> Figure 110, Eye Rod (Welded), Size 1" 4960 lbs. Figure 20, Welded Beam Attachment, Size #8 (for 1" Rod) 4900 lbs. Figure 40, Weldless Eye Nut, Size #2 for 1" threaded Rod 4960 lbs. Figure 80, Heavy Three-Bolt Pipe Clamp, for 12" pipe 7000 lbs. Beam attachment welds " fillet, 2 sides 12000lbs.

* It is normal practice for components of this type to be designed with a plus 50% safety factor. The safety factor is not to be considered as available when making a selection. **The Beam Attachment is 3" on each side, " attachment fillet weld 1" long is rated @ 2000 lbs. Per inch. We now compare our pipe weights against the Hanger Rod load capacity data and see that (not using any of the safety factor) the Hanger' weakest link is the Welded Beam Attachment (4900 lbs.) but it is more than enough for our piping needs (4337 lbs.). If we were using the "pick-and-choose" method then the designer must indicate the hanger in the design then identify each and every piece and part. The detailed part identification is required for proper procurement and installation. If we use the "pre-package" method the designer is only required to indicate the hanger and the item name or tag number (example: HR-1-12".) All the procurement and installation details are included in the hanger documentation.

Now Case #2
Later someone else has a similar problem. They had seen what was done by another designer with the Case #1 problem and decided they would just copy it and callout for the same Hanger Rod Assembly. Why not? They too had a 12" line. They had the same configuration. And, they also had the same span distances. No problem, right? However, all things were in fact not the same. So what was different?

Case #2
>> The project is also a process plant in a multi-story structure >> The line is 12", Schedule 160 carbon steel pipe located in a lower level of the structure >> The line will carry a process liquid with a specific gravity of .85 >> The line is subject to hydrotest >> The line is insulated with 3" of Calcium Silicate >> The piping travels horizontal north in a well supported manner, then after crossing the last normal pipe support (support 'a') it travels 40 feet, then drops down (3'-0") and turns east (right) with two elbows (fittingto-fitting) and travels another 40 feet to the next normal support (support 'b'). >> There are no additional horizontal support beams available at or near the turn point and at the exact piping elevation. >> The closest steel available as a possible support point is 24" deep major equipment support beam located 6'-0" (top-of-pipe to bottom-of-beam) above the pipe and 4'-0" from the pipe drop. With this information we look-up of the correct data.

Case #2, 12" Schedule 160, Carbon Steel Pipe

Pipe Weight Fitting Weight Insulation Weight Water Weight Total Weight 6412 lbs. 794 lbs. 528 lbs 1462 lbs. 9196 lbs.
We see here that the total load to be actually carried by the Case #2 hanger is more than twice the safe capacity any of the components included in the original Hanger Rod. This will not work! This is an example of the type of errors that result when there is a lack of thinking or laziness on the part of the piping designer. All of the items identified, as Secondary Pipe Support Systems are subject to this same kind of miss-design and miss-use. It is incumbent on the piping designer to become trained and knowledgeable about these issues. Having identified the need for the hanger in the case study above and selected the correct hanger is not the end of the piping designers responsibility. That hanger is carrying a load and the top of that hanger is attached to a steel beam. The load is being transferred to that beam. That hanger and the pipe it is carrying is an abnormal load added to that beam. It is a load that the structural engineer would not normally be aware of. It is the piping designer's responsibility to document that loading and advise the proper member of the structural engineering group. That beam may be a very large beam and is at or very near it's safe design limit. You might think "Oh it is okay, it can carry my pipe" However, you are not a structural engineer and this is not your decision to make. Whenever an abnormal piping load is added to a structural beam (steel or concrete) the structural group must be advised.

Section - III, Pipe Supports

C: SNUBBERS: A GENERAL OVERVIEW By: Hyder Husain Article courtesy of Piping Technology & Products, www.pipingtech.com

Introduction: PT&P produces various kinds of snubbers. Why snubbers are used and how they function are briefly discussed here. What are they?: Snubbers are restraining devices used to control the movement of pipe and equipment during abnormal dynamic conditions such as earthquakes, traveling shock waves caused by turbine trips, safety/relief valve discharge, rapid valve closure or accidental rupture of piping. Where are they used?: Snubbers are extensively used in various applications including chemical plants, power plants (both conventional & nuclear), refineries, and structures such as suspension bridges and tall rise buildings in earthquake prone areas. How do they function?: The design of a snubber allows free thermal movement of components during normal operating conditions. Abnormal conditions activate the snubber to become momentarily rigid (locked condition). While locked, the snubber transmits the transient force to the ground or to a permanent structure without causing any damage to the downstream components. As soon as the transient force ceases, the snubber resumes its normal operation. Types of Snubbers: There are two types of snubbers: (i) hydraulic and (ii) mechanical snubbers with various types of designs. However, the function of any design is the sameto protect the downstream structure from abnormal shocks. Snubbers are designed for various load ratings depending upon the magnitude of seismic activities and the criticality of fluid induced shocks. Hydraulic Snubbers: This type consists of either two concentric cylinders or two parallel cylinders and their respective moving pistons. Both the main cylinder and the compensating cylinders are filled with fluid. The main and the compensating cylinders are connected to velocity limiting valves and a main piston which works in either a push or pull mode. Under normal operating conditions, the valves remain open and allow the piston to move freely under thermal expansion/contraction of the supported component. When the threshold velocity (typically 8 in. per minute) is reached, the valve activates by closing the flow through the valve (also known as valve locking) and the flow through the system stops momentarily. At this point, the main piston that takes the shock load stops moving and the load is transmitted to the ground or to a permanent structure, thus avoiding any damage to the structure downstream of the snubber. As soon as the shock wave Hydraulic Snubbers passes, the snubber resumes normal operation. Mechanical Snubber: Similar to hydraulic snubbers, this type of snubber is comprised of a moving cylinder/rod arrangement. Unlike hydraulic snubbers however, mechanical snubbers use mechanical means to provide the restraint force.

Mechanical Snubbers MSA Mechanical Snubber: With this type of snubber, the linear movement of the rod connected to the piping component is converted to rotary motion. When the centrifugal acceleration exceeds a certain threshold acceleration (typically 0.02g), a centrifugal type clutch flares out and locks at the peripheral slot of the cylinder and restricts linear motion. Anchor-Darling Mechanical Snubber: With this type of snubber, the linear motion of the central rod that is connected to the structural component is converted to oscillatory motion via a verge mechanism. This oscillatory motion is in turn converted to rotary motion via a set of gears. As the linear velocity increases, the inertia force generated in the oscillating verge and the train of rotating gears increases. The extent of this increase depends upon the amount of inertial mass and gear trains angular velocities thereby limiting the velocity of the piping components within the safe limit.

Section - III, Pipe Supports

D: VARIABLE SPRING SUPPORTS VS. CONSTANT SPRING SUPPORTS By: Hyder Husain Article courtesy of Piping Technology & Products, www.pipingtech.com

What is the difference between a variable & a constant spring support? In a variable support, the force acting on the spring and hence the reactive force varies during the pipe travel, while the moment about the line of action is zero. In contrast, in a constant support, the fixed applied load remains uniform throughout its travel but the moment around a pivot point varies. What is a variable support? A variable support is essentially a spring, or series of springs, in a container. When the installed load w is applied, the spring is compressed through the distance W/k (where k is the spring rate) such that the reactive force exerted by the spring is also w under the equilibrium condition. As the pipe moves due to thermal expansion, it produces a deflection (L), causing a differential load (W=k L), to act on the spring(s). Depending upon the direction of the movement, the change in load (W) will either add to or subtract from our installed load w to reach our final operating load (w1). In order to minimize the stress variations, the differential load (W) for a given variable spring support is limited to a maximum of 25% percent of the operating load (w1). What is a constant support? A constant support is a device comprised of a spring or series of springs and an integral cam mechanism. The external load of a constant support is fixed while its moment about the fixed pivot point varies during its travel (because the moment arm length changes). In order to maintain an equilibrium condition, the external force moment is balanced by the internal moment produced due to the springs compression or decompression about the pivot during the displacement of the pipe. With an appropriate choice of moment arms, as developed by the cam geometry, and spring properties (i.e. spring rate), a resisting force can be provided that is nearly independent of position during its travel. At each travel location of the applied load, the moment caused by the external load is balanced by the counter moment produced by the (compressed/decompressed) spring force with the appropriate moment arm. Typically, the variation of the active and reactive forces is very small (with a maximum deviation of 6%) and can be taken as a constant force while moving either upward or downward.

Section - IV A: The Designer, Stress Problems and Stress Training

By: James O. Pennock
Stress related technical and execution problems in the design of process plant piping are complex and must be addressed properly. There will be some Piping Designers, Stress Engineers and others who read this and say that they agree. Others may say that they do not agree. Others will just not know one way or the other. This discussion, while not covering solutions to every potential problem, is intended only to highlight some of the most common stress related factors and designer training needs.

There are five basic factors that influence piping and therefore piping stress in the process plant. There is temperature, pressure, weight, force and vibration. These factors will come in many forms and at different times. Stress problems become all the more complex because two or more of these will exist at the same time in the same piping system. The main objective of the focus when dealing with problems related to piping systems is not normally the pipe itself. In a very high percentage of the time it is not the pipe that is the weakest link. Note this: the pipe is normally stronger and/or less vulnerable to damage than what the pipe is connected to. Pumps are just one examples of equipment to which pipes are routinely connected. Misalignment problems caused by expansion (or contraction) in a poorly designed system can result in major equipment failure. Equipment failures can lead to the potential for fire, plant shutdown and loss of revenue. At this point it should be emphasized that the success (or failure) of the plants operation, years down the road can and will depend on what is done up front by all the members of the design team during the design stage. An important point to remember, While analysis cannot create a good design, it can confirm a good design (Improved Pump Load Evaluation, Hydrocarbon Processing, April 1998, By: David W. Diehl, COADE Engineering Software, Inc Houston, TX). On the other hand, proper analysis will identify bad design and potential problems in a piping system design.

Stress Related Design Factors

Temperatures in piping systems may range from well over 1000o F (537.8 C) on the high side to below -200 o F (-128.8 C) on the low side. Each extreme on the temperature scale and everything in between brings its own problems. There will also be times when both high and low temperatures can occur in the same piping system. An example of this would be in piping that is installed in an arctic environment. The piping is installed outdoors where it is subjected to -100 o F (-73.3 C) over the arctic winter. Six to nine months later it is finally commissioned started up and may operate at five or six hundred degrees. The problems that temperature causes is expansion (or contraction) in the piping system. Expansion or contraction in a piping system is an absolute. No matter what the designer or the stress engineer does they cannot prevent the action caused by heat or cold. Expansion or contraction in a piping system it self is not so much a problem. As we all know if a bare pipe was just lying on the ground in the middle of a dry barren desert it will absorb a lot of heat from just solar radiation. In the hot sun piece of pipe can reached 150 o F (65.5 C). The pipe will expand and with both ends loose it would not be a problem. However, when you connect the pipe to something, even if only one end is connected you may begin to have expansion related problems. When the pipe is anchored or connected to something at both ends you absolutely will have expansion induced problems. Expansion induced problems in a piping system is stress. There are a number of ways to handle expansion in piping systems. Flexible routing is the first and by far the cheapest and safest method for handling expansion in piping systems. The other way is the use of higher cost and less reliable flexible elements such as expansion joints. Stress will exist in every piping system. If not identified and the proper action taken, stress will cause failure to equipment or elements in the piping system itself. Stress results in forces at equipment nozzles and at anchor pipe supports. Two piping configurations with the same pipe size, shape, dimensions, temperature and material but with different wall schedules (sch. 40 vs. sch. 160) will not generate the same stress. Force in piping systems is not independent of the other factors. Primarily, force (as related to piping systems) is the result of expansion (temperature) and/or pressure acting on a piping configuration that is too stiff. This may cause the failure of a pipe support system or it may cause the damage or failure of a piece of equipment. Force, and the expansion that causes it, is best handled by a more flexible routing of the piping. Some people suggest that force can be reduced by the use of expansion joints. However we must remember that for an expansion joint to work there must be an opposite and equal force at both ends to make the element work. This tends to compound the problem rather than lessen it. Pressure in piping systems also range from the very high to the very low. Piping systems with pressure as high as 35,000 psi in some plants are not unusual. On the other hand piping systems with pressures approaching full vacuum are also not unusual. The pressure (or lack of) in a piping system effects the wall thickness of the pipe. When you increase the wall thickness of the pipe you do two things. First, you increase the weight of the pipe. Second, you increase the stiffness of the pipe thus the stress intensification affecting forces. Increasing the wall thickness of the pipe is the primary method of compensating for increases in pressure. Other ways, depending on many factors include changing to a different material. With low or vacuum systems there are also other ways to prevent the collapse of the pipe wall. Among these the primary method is the addition of stiffening rings. Stiffing rings may be added internally or externally depending on the commodity type and the conditions. Weight in a piping system is expressed normally as dead load. The weight of a piping system at any given point is made up of many elements. These include the weight of the pipe, the fittings, the valves, any attachments, and the insulation. There is also the test media (e. g. hydrotest water) or the process commodity whichever has the greater specific gravity. Piping systems are heavy, period. Everybody involved in the project needs to understand this and be aware that this weight exists and it needs to be supported. Ninety-nine times out of a hundred this weight will be supported from a structural pipe support (primary pipe support system) of some kind. However there are times when the piping (weight) is supported from a vessel or other type of equipment. Vibrations will also occur in piping systems and come in two types. There is the basic mechanical vibration caused by the machines that the piping is connected to. Then, there is acoustic (or harmonic) vibration caused by the characteristics of the system itself. Typically the only place severe vibrations will be found is in piping connected to equipment such as positive displacement reciprocating pumps or high pressure multi-stage reciprocating compressors and where there is very high velocity gas flows.

All of the issues listed above that a piping system is exposed to need to be covered in a company specific or company sponsored piping designer, stress-related training program. This piping designer, stressrelated training should be done at the department level, early in the designers career and prior to the start of the project. Unfortunately however this is not always the case. By definition, the role of the piping designer is to design the plant piping systems. This means design all of the system. Design all of the system means that the piping designer shall define the proper routing of each and every pipeline required for the project. This includes each and every inline component (pipe, valves, fittings, flanges, instruments, etc.), every online component (anchors, guides, hangers, etc.). It includes the definition of any attached piece of equipment and the definition of every support point. To do this and do it properly the designer must know about piping stress issues and know what to do about them. The designer is responsible for a lot and so they need to know a lot. Is there any risk involved to the company or the project in not doing this stress related designer training? Yes! First, a designer who is nave about the cause and effect of stress related problems would not be able to recognize the symptoms and will burn a lot of budget hours and create bad designs. Second, bad designs are subject to the domino effect when the need for corrective action is finally identified and taken then other lines get pushed and then modifications to them are required. Third, when the bad design does get to the stress engineer for analysis there is the potential for repeated recycle and a serious delay in the design issue schedule.

Designer Stress Training

What does the piping designer need to know? Piping design is more than just knowing how to turn on the computer, how to find the piping menus and the difference between paper space and model space. So, appropriately, what else does the designer need to know about piping design besides how to connect a piece of pipe to a fitting? Here is a list of some of the most basic of things that a good piping designer should know. Thinking about every one of these items should be as natural as breathing for a good piping designer. Allowable pipe spans All designer need to know and understand the span capabilities of pipe in the different schedules for a wide variety of common piping materials. When a new project introduces a new material with severely reduced span capabilities; supplemental training may be required.

Expansion of pipe All designers must understand that they need to treat a piping system as though it is alive. It has a temperature and that temperature causes it to grow and move.That growth and movement must be allowed for and incorporated in the overall design. Not just of that specific line but for all other lines close by.The process of expansion in a pipe or group of pipes will also exert frictional forces or anchor forces on the pipe supports they come in contact with. Routing for flexibility The piping designer must understand how to route pipe for flexibility.Routing for flexibility can normally be achieved in the most natural routing of the pipeline from its origin to its terminus.Routing for flexibility means (a) do not run a pipe in a straight line from origin to terminus and (b) building flexibility into the pipe routing is far cheaper and more reliable than expansion joints.

Weight and loads (live loads and dead loads) The piping designer needs to understand the effects of weight and loading. They need to know and understand that everything has a weight. They need to be able recognize when there is going to be a concentrated load. They need to have access to basic weight tables for all the standard pipe schedules, pipe fittings, flanges, valves for steel pipe. They also need to have the weight tables for other materials or a table of correction factors for these other materials vs. carbon steel. They need to be able to recognize when downward expansion in a piping system is present and is adding live loads to a support or equipment nozzle. Equipment piping The piping designer needs to know the right and the wrong way to pipe up (connect pipe to) different kinds of equipment. This includes pumps, compressors, exchangers, filters or any special equipment to be used on a specific project. Vessel piping The piping designer also needs to understand about the connecting, supporting and guiding of piping attached to vessels (horizontal or vertical) and tanks. They need to know that nozzle loading is important and does have limitations. Rack piping The designer needs to understand that there is a logical approach to the placement of piping in (or on) a pipe rack. It does not matter how wide or how high the rack or what kind of plant, the logic still applies. Starting from one or both outside edges the largest and hottest lines are sequenced in such a manner that allows for the nesting of any required expansion loops. The spacing of the lines must also allow for the bowing effect at the loops caused by the expansion.

 Expansion loops The designer needs to understand and be able to use simple rules and methods for sizing loops in rack piping. This should include the most common sizes, schedules and materials. Cold spring/Pre-spring Designers should understand the basics rules of cold spring and prespring. They need to understand what each one is along with when to and when not to use each.

Piping Designer or Piping Drafter

Any piping designer that has this type of training, this type of knowledge and then consistently applies is indeed a piping designer. He or she will also be a more valuable asset to their company and to themselves in the market place. On the other hand anyone who does not know or does not apply the knowledge about these issues while doing piping work is nothing more than a piping drafter or a CAD operator. James O. Pennock is a former Piper with more than 45 years experience covering process plant engineering, design, training, pipe fabrication and construction. He is now retired and lives in Florida, USA.

Section - IV B: The Problem with Piping "Lift-off"

By: CAEPIPE (visit http://sstusa.com)
Contemporary commercial piping analysis programs deal differently with the problem of apparent liftoff of an operating pipe at a rod hanger or a one-way vertical support, such as a pipe on a support rack. A few programs provide error messages; others show a vertical movement with a possible increase in sustained (weight) stress (see NOTE below for CAEPIPE). A proper understanding of the standard piping design practice is the key to correct interpretation of these results from different programs. Such standard piping design practice was generally understood when the sustained and flexibility analysis rules were introduced in the 1955 Edition of the ASME B31 Code for Pressure Piping. The problem with lift-off is compounded by the intention of the piping analysis being performed - whether the intent is to design new or revamp existing piping or the intent is to analyze as-built. The intention of the various sections of ASME B31 Code (B31.1, B31.3, etc.) is to provide guidance for new construction. Note, since the publication of the 1935 Edition of ASME B31.1 (which included the predecessor of B31.3 as a chapter, Paras. 101.6 and 121.4 and their predecessor paras.) state: Piping shall be carried on adjustable hangers or properly leveled rigid hangers or supports, and suitable springs... Hangers used for the support of piping, NPS 2 (NPS 2 in 1935 edn.) and larger, shall be designed to permit adjustment after erection while supporting the load. While not quite as explicit, the current ASME B31.3 Para. 321.1.1 states: The layout and design of piping and its supporting elements shall be directed toward preventing... piping stresses in excess of those permitted by in this Code;... unintentional disengagement of piping from its supports;... excessive piping sag in piping requiring drainage slope;... These paragraph excerpts define standard practice in piping design. That is, during operation, it is neither the intention of the code nor standard practice to allow piping to lift-off. Piping is normally designed to be supported in the operating condition. The means to achieve this is through proper adjustment of the supports during operation. This is important in piping because unadjusted supports will permit the pipe to sag and create locations in steam or condensable gas piping where condensates can collect or concentrate. And it is especially important for piping operating above 800 degF, where unadjusted supports will allow the pipe to permanently deform (creep) over time. Small gaps are inevitable in actual construction because of fabrication and installation tolerances and would normally be closed by support adjustments. But, so long as the pipe is prevented from significant lateral movement, small gaps below pipe during operation ( inch and less in moderate size piping) may be tolerable because the weight analysis is a very simplified and conservative method that the ASME B31 codes use to guard against collapse. Stresses caused by takeup of a small gap below the pipe could even be considered expansion or building settlement type stresses and thus would not need to be considered in the weight analysis. Weight analysis with the intent of designing pipe normally considers all the weight supports perform their intended function. Any significant gaps determined by analysis could either indicate that a support is not required, or that adjacent supports need to be modified, or that an alternate means of support is needed, e.g., a variable or constant spring should be used.

However, if the purpose of an analysis is not to design a new or revamp an old piping system, but to evaluate an as-built and maintained piping system, small gaps may have more significance in as much as they would indicate that the pipe support system may not be acting as designed and maintained. A lack of or improper adjustment of the supports in the operating condition may cause lift-off at rigid supports. Improperly designed or adjusted or maintained or degraded variable or constant spring supports may cause lift-off, too. The interpretation of the results of the analysis of as-built piping systems need not necessarily conform to the rules of the ASME B31 codes. Remember, the rules in the B31 codes are required for new construction, not the evaluation of existing piping. It is understood that a greater factor of safety is required for the design process because the pipe and its components are not yet available to be measured and materials confirmed, as well as the knowledge of how the piping is to be actually used. The interpretation of the analysis results of as-built piping may be able to take advantage of what the actual piping dimensions and materials are and how the piping has been operated. Competent engineering judgement based on knowledge of the intent of the respective ASME B31 codes must then become part of the evaluation process. For the reasons noted, it is important to distinguish between the design and analysis of piping. If designing, certain assumptions are normally made with regard to whether the piping is supported in the operating condition. Such assumptions might include tolerating a small gap at a given support but realizing that the installation of the given support will require adjustment. Alternately, a larger gap at the given support may require support relocation to be effective or the selection of a different type of support, most typically a constant or variable spring. If merely analyzing existing piping, no assumptions need be made regarding supports acting and analysis gaps may become important considerations. That said, however, the analyst must realize that the piping analysis model is a very idealized estimation of the as-built piping and for the analysis results to be meaningful, the analyst needs to consider how well the results correlate with the actual performance of the in-situ piping. NOTE: In case of lift-off, CAEPIPE will show a gap and possibly increased sustained stresses. The user must interpret the gaps according to whether the user is designing new or revamping existing piping or is analyzing an existing condition. Author: Mr. Ron Haupt, P. E., of Pressure Piping Engineering (www.ppea.net) is a member of several piping code committees (B31, B31.1, B31.3, BPTCS, and others). He consults with us in the capacity of Nuclear QA Manager.

Section - V A: Field Trip Guidlines

By: James O. Pennock

What is involved when you are asked to go to the field? If you are truly a knowledgeable and experienced designer or engineer you are supposed to know the answer to that question. If you are a novice, new to the business or if you have never been to a job site you will not know. However, you should be smart enough to ask. Yet, we see many cases where people show up at a job site, uninformed of what they are supposed to do, and unprepared to do it.

I remember a case that is a classic. A team of four were selected and sent to a job site. All the members had ten plus years of experience so the supervisor made the assumption that they all knew what was expected. The individuals involved happened to live in a widely scattered area and were to travel from different airports and at different times. This point eventually contributed in part to the problem because there was no face to face meeting in the office or at the airport before getting on the plane. Friday they were all given (or sent) plane tickets and directions for finding the plant and were to meet at the job site on arrival on Monday.

Three of the four seemed to know what was expected. The forth, a contract employee, new to the company, but with more than thirty years of total experience proved to be the exception. This person showed up in dress casual and with nothing in hand. The supervisor, thinking the person had left his work clothes in the car or some place close by, told him to change into his field gear and be ready to go to work. Change, into what? What field gear? To make a long story short, this person had only brought casual clothes and had brought nothing in the way of field gear or tools. He had no work shoes, no work clothes, no hard hat, no safety glasses, and no hearing protection. He also had no pencil, eraser, sketch paper, no clipboard, and no

tape measure. Nothing! When asked why not, the answer was that he expected the company or the client to supply everything. As quietly as possible the person was told that he was fired and to leave the job site, go get on the plane and go home.

The situation proved to be an embarrassment to not only the supervisor but also the company. You see job sites such as the type we had in this case are tight little communities and you cannot keep secrets from people who are in charge. It was not long before the company construction manager and the client both knew about the fiasco. Although they agreed with sending the employee away, they were not happy with the cost and the effect on the schedule. They expected everyone to show up ready, willing and able to work.

Ready, willing, and able to work means everybody. It means all the members of the team. It includes the team leader and each individual engineer or designer. The balance of this article is intended to be a guide to any individual who is required to go to a job site to perform work. It is offered to held define the major procedural and technical issues related to making the field trip both cost effective and safe.

When it is recognized that a trip is required, the first thing that is normally done is to define the purpose of the trip and obtain all required approvals. This is normally done at the project senior supervisory and management levels. We will not dwell on why a field trip is required. What we need to do is insure that it is done right.

The next thing to do is activate the team. Engineers or designers assigned to a field team for routine fieldwork or specific problem solving need to be selected carefully. They should be selected on the basis of knowledge and prior experience. They may also need specific skills, or the familiarity with operations, maintenance, or construction.

In order to activate the team the following may be required: Names & phone numbers of client site primary & secondary "Key" contacts Names of the engineering company primary & secondary contacts Name of the person responsible for decision making, time sheet and expense report approval Team member names Assign someone as the team leader, someone in charge Team member release from present assignment (if applicable) Travel arrangements (Airline, lodging, ground transportation, meals, etc.) Maps to site location, site logistics, site safety criteria, badges, camera pass and site access Charge number for this (Problem/Solution) assignment

Next, before leaving for the site, there should be a pre-trip meeting of all the team members. The direct supervisor who is responsible for the team and the results should conduct this pre-trip meeting. The agenda for this meeting should include a review of the purpose of the trip and the expected results. Have a plan for everyone and for all the work objectives. Other items that should be covered would include the chain of command, the schedule, the cost and expense issues, and an exchange of phone numbers for emergency contacts. Review what to do if someone misses the plane, etc.

On arrival, check in with the key Client contact person and the jobsite construction manager. Safety is the first and most important step of the actual site visit. Make sure that every member of the team has received the site-specific safety training. Know and understand the emergency warning system and the evacuation routes. Identify and agree on a place to meet, if there is a possibility of getting separated.

Engineers and Designers who visit a Client facility or site are expected to know the type of work they will be doing when they arrive and should be prepared to take prompt action to address that work. They are also expected to have with them the tools and supplies required for their jobs.

Standard safety clothing and personal protective equipment (PPE) Requirements:

- Hard hat - Goggles or safety glasses w/ permanent side shields (no contact lenses and no removable side shields) - Work shoes (check, some job sites require steel toed work boots) - Gloves - Ear protection - Respirator with Cartridges (When required) - NOMEX or Equivalent flame retarding outer wear (This is sometimes optional depending on the client or type of plant)

Basic tools:
- Pencils and markers, a clip board, straightedge - Sketch paper and Isometric forms 25 ft. Tape measure

Alternate tools that may be helpful

- String line, Plumb Bob, and String Level (Used for measurements) - Stopwatch (Used for checking frequency of events) - Medical type Stethoscope (Used for listening for unusual noises inside of pipes) - Camera (Requires Client approval and pass)

The team should not expect to borrow any tools or supplies from the Client. If a new requirement for tools or supplies is identified, after arrival at the site, the team should arrange to rent or purchase the item and turn in the cost on an expense report. An exception may be made if the required item is unusual and or very costly and the client has the item available.

Once in the field and trained in the site safety criteria, the team is ready to go to work. Everyone should go about the work in a prompt and professional manner. Where possible, fieldwork should be done by two person teams. The people on each team should check each others work as the work progresses. They should review their list of activities and tasks as they proceed. Review the trip plan. Its better to get too much information thus insuring you do not miss something. Remember that this job site may be thousands of miles from your home office. A return trip for one missed item could be very costly.

Check in with the home office daily or per previous instructions. Let the home office supervisor know the progress of the planned work and ask if there are any new requirements. Proceed through the list of all planned trip requirements. Perform all activities and tasks. Do no return from the job site until all planned items are complete (unless directed otherwise). It is also recommended that you check in with the site construction manager on a daily basis. There may be additional project needs that have come up. There may also be a change in some critical site condition that could effect the team safety. When leaving the job site you should check out with the construction manager and your client host.

Upon return to the office, there should be a debriefing meeting. The responsible supervisor, the project engineer (or manager) and all team members should attend. Review the purpose of the trip, the results. Review the trip plan. Did you accomplish everything that was required? If not, why not? Were there any problems? Were they solved and what were the solutions? Are there any lessons to be learned from this trip? Is another trip required? If so why? And when will the next trip be required?

Every field trip should be planned and executed in a proper and cost effective manner. If so, then the project will benefit. The individuals on the team also benefit. They gain value and a reputation for being an experienced and effective candidate for future fieldwork. Good luck and have a safe and successful trip.

James O. Pennock is a former Piper with more than 45 years experience covering process plant engineering, design, training, pipe fabrication and construction. He is now retired and lives in Florida, USA.

Section - V B: Defining Offsite Facilities for Process Plants

Contributors (In alphabetical order): Jadeep Coudhary, Anita R. Legvold, James O. Pennock

Introduction
Some have asked questions such as: "What is Balance of Plant?"; "What is Offsites?" What is OSBL?" and "What needs to be considered when a project includes Offsites." The term Offsites is a general term and does not mean the same for every project or every plant. A project may include extensive tankage for feed storage along with tankage for in-process product, intermediate product, run-down tankage, slops and finished product tankage. Another project may include none of this because they already exist. The point here is just because you are told that the project includes "Offsites" you need to ask a lot of questions to determine exactly what they mean and what will be required. The purpose of this document is to aid in answering this type of question. This document will not tell you how to design the Offsites or design any of the individual sub-items or equipment found on this list. That design guidance should properly be left up to you, your supervisors and your management. I do however intend to start a listing of major elements along with some minor key issues that should be considered. I invite others to submit their own thoughts and comments to add to and improve this list.

Contents:
Section Subject 1 Definitions -- Offsite vs. Onsite 2 Codes, Standards, and Practices 3 Site Issues 4 Terrain, Grading, Roads, & Drainage 5 Tankage 6 Flares 7 Piperacks & Sleepers 8 Pipelines 9 Loading / Unloading Racks (Truck, Rail, Barge, and Ship) 10 Cooling Water Supply Systems 11 Hazardous Chemicals 12 Waste Treatment Facilities 13 Electrical 14 Buildings & Auxiliaries 15 Fire Protection & Safety 16 LPG Bottling Facilities 17 Solids Storage & Disposal

1, Definitions
Offsite -- In a process plant (Refinery, Chemical, Petrochemical, Power, etc.), any supporting facility that is not a direct part of the primary or secondary process reaction train or utility block. Offsites are also called OSBL. Onsite - Any single or collection of inter-related and inter-connected process equipment that performs an integrated process function. Typically any Onsite Unit could be made to function independently of another Onsite Unit. Onsite Units are also called ISBL. Utility Block - A single or multiple grouping of facilities that generate the support services required by the Onsite Process units to function. This normally includes: Steam Generation, Plant Air, Instrument Air, Decimalized Water, Plant Water, etc. Balance of Plant - This is another term for Offsites and/or anything else other than the Onsite Units or the Utility Block. Battery Limit -- Line used on a plot plan to determine the outside limit of a unit. The Battery Limit line is usually established early in the project and documented on all discipline documents such as Plot Plans, Site Plans, Drawing Indexes, etc... (1) Property Line -- A Property Line is the recorded boundary of a plot of land. (2) Defines the separation between what is recognized legally as Owner's land and non-Owner's or other land. On Property -- All land and or water inside the Property line shown on the property map or deed. Off Property - Off property is any land (or water) outside of the Property line shown on the property map or deed. Right of Way (ROW) -- Any land (On Property or Off Property) set aside and designated for a specific use or purpose. A Right-of-Way within a piece of property may also be designated for use by someone other than the property owner. Setback or Setback Line -- A line established by law, deed restriction, or custom, fixing the minimum distance from the property line of the exterior face of buildings, walls and any other construction form; s street, road, or highway right-of-way line (3). Setback is a clear area normally at the boundary of a piece of property with conditions and restrictions for building or use. Easements -- A vested or acquired right to use land other than as a tenant, for a specific purpose; such right being held by someone other than the owner who holds the title to the land (2). An easement is typically a strip of land within which overhead power lines or underground pipes are run. (1) -- Lamit, Louis Gary, 1981 Prentice-Hall (2) -- Construction Dictionary

2, Codes, Standards, & Practices

ANSI (American National Standards Institute) API (American Petroleum Institute) ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) ASTM - American Society of Testing Materials AWS (American Welding Society)-AWWA (American Water Works Association) CFR (Code of Federal Regulations) Division of Weights & Measures -DOT (Department of Transportation) FAR (Federal Accounting Regulations) IRI (Insurance Regulators Institute) Local Permits (Country, State, City, etc.) MSS (Manufacturing Standards Society) -NACE (National Association of Corrosion Engineers)-NFPA (National Fire Protection Association) OIA (Oil Insurers Association) PFI (Pipe Fabrication Institute) USCG (United States Coast Guard) Regulations

3, Site Issues
Brownfield (Revamp Existing) Climate (Wind Rose) Demolition Feed stock type, source and method of delivery Future growth Grass Roots or Greenfield (New construction) Impact across the fence Power requirements and source Products, Primary, Secondary and by-products Seismic zone SHE (Safety, Health and Environmental) Utilities requirements

4, Terrain, Grading, Roads, Ditches & Drainage

Terrain - Level vs. Sloping Geotechnical influences - Type of soil - Angle of repose - Grading - Contours - Grubbing (Tree and shrub removal) - Rough Grading - Finished Grading Roads - Primary - Secondary - Type and purpose of traffic - Right hand or left hand drive - Traffic pattern, potential for congestion - Pipeway or Sleeper Crossings (Overhead Vs Ramp & Culvert) Rail Spurs (see Loading and Unloading for additional criteria) - Number - Location - Capacity (number of rail cars) - Elevation - Roadbed & Ballast Details - Vertical and Horizontal Clearance requirements - Standards and jurisdiction of Rail company (Right of Way) Drainage systems - Storm - Oily Water - Chemical - Sanitary Sewage

- Contaminated - Other Ditches - Depth - Width - Slope Culverts - Location, Size, Type - Invert Elevation Basins & Ponds - In ground or On ground - Lined vs. Unlined (or Rip Rap) - Skimmers & Aerators - Overflows & Runoff - Fenced or Unfenced - Access Stiles, Stairs, Catwalks, and Platforms - Existing or new - Material if existing - Material if new - Location & Elevation - Access - Valve extension stem requirements

5, Tankage
Types & Purpose - Atmospheric vs. Pressurized - Cone Roof - Floating Roof - Bullets - Spheres - Spheroids - Other (Used tank cars as storage) Tank Construction - Single Wall vs. Double Wall - Metallic vs. nonmetallic - Unlined vs. Lined - Insulated, Jacketed, Heated, Cooled, Commodity Grouping & Spacing Criteria - Commodity (Compatible vs. non compatible) - Single Tank - Multiple Tank Group -- Same Size - Multiple Tank Group -- Different Sizes Spill Containment - Containment Criteria - Earthen Berm (Dike) - Wall (Concrete) - Topography - Combination Tank Supports and Foundations - Foundation Types - Foundation Details - Sloping Bottoms - Settlement Tank Auxiliary Equipment - Heaters & Coolers - Internal Coil Type - Internal Bayonet Type - External Type - Mixers

Motor Driven Mechanical Types Jet Types Support requirements Removal methods and clearance

Fire or ignition suppression - Snuffing steam to V/PRV (Vacuum & Pressure Relief Valve) Tail Pipes - Water Spray Systems (Deluge Systems) Tank Nozzles & Appurtenance - Primary Inlet & Outlet Connections (Single vs. Multiple) - Vent Connections (Closed, Open, Flame Arresters) - Drain Connections (Closed, Winterized, Non-winterized) - Instrument Connections (Flow, Level, Pressure, and Temperature) - -- Level Controller & Gage - -- Float & Target Board - -- Automatic (Tape Type) Tank Gage - -- Gage Hatch - -- Pressure Taps - -- Thermowells - -- Radar type Level Instruments - -- Sonar - Heating Coil Connections (Inlet/Outlet) - Mixer Mounting Nozzles - Manholes - Internal Nozzles - -- Internal Piping - -- Swing Lines (Winch, Clearance, Accessibility) - -- Internal Pipe Supports - -- Internal Floating Roof Supports - Orientation & Elevation - Size & Rating - Projection - Recommendations - -- Avoid weld seams Ladders, Stairs, and Platforms - Orientation - Primary access - entrance and exit - Roof traffic Vs Formal Platform - Safety - Tank Edge Handrail Pumps - Types - Location - Sumps - Piping Elements Product Piping - Differential Settlement - Location of First Support - Natural Anchors (Dike Sleeves) - Slops Collection System Hot Oil Systems - Asphalt Tankage & Distribution Utilities Piping - Condensate - Instrument Air - Nitrogen - Plant Water - Plant Air - Potable Water - Steam - Glycol - Ammonia - Cooling Water - Chilled Water - Tracing Fluids (Low Temp. or High Temp.)

Dike Penetrations (Piping) - Sleeves (U/G Protection & Grounding) - Double Containment - Casings Operations Issues - "Roll Over" - "Boil Over" Maintenance Issues - Access (Mobile Equipment) - Cleaning and Repair - Housekeeping Pads (Spillage control) - Utility Station Location & Access - CIP (Clean in place) - Wash Stations & Spray Wands

6, Flare, Incinerator, and Thermal Oxidizer

Flare - Location Criteria - Prevailing Wind (Wind Rose) - Flare Header - System Study Flare KO Drums - Horizontal - Vertical/Stack base integrated - Support - Pump out Flare Number and Types - Number of Flare Stacks - Ground Flare - Elevated -- Free Standing - Elevated -- Derrick Supported - Elevated -- Cable Guided Flare Accessories - Flame Arrester Flare Stack Utilities - Fuel Gas - Pilot Gas - Igniter Line - Atomizing Steam - Flame Arrester Drain Incinerators - Location Criteria - Prevailing Wind (Wind Rose) - Collection System Incinerator Utilities - Fuel Gas - Pilot Gas - Igniter Line - Atomizing Steam Thermal Oxidizers - Location Criteria - Prevailing Wind (Wind Rose) - Collection System Thermal Oxidizer Utilities - Fuel Gas - Pilot Gas - Igniter Line - Atomizing Steam

7, Piperacks and Sleepers

Support Types - Elevated (Overhead) Racks - Sleeper Racks - Bridges Materials of construction - Steel - Concrete - Combination Overhead Racks - Height - Number of levels - Current Space Requirements - Future Space Requirements - Operating Temperature induced expansion - Solar induced expansion - Maximum Spans - Minimum Line Sizes - Piping Loops - Shoes, Anchors, & Guides Pipe Sleepers - Height - Changes in Direction (Flat Turn vs. Elevated) - Current Space Requirements - Future Space Requirements - Operating Temperature induced expansion - Solar induced expansion - Maximum Spans - Minimum Line Sizes - Piping Loops - Shoes, Anchors, & Guides Pipe Bridges - Number - Location - Height - Span Auxiliary Piping Services & Systems - Utility Systems - Steam Tracing - Jacketed Piping - Internal Cleaning requirements for piping systems - Future (space allowance) Miscellaneous Piping Details - Process Vents & Drains - Hydrotest Vents & Drains - Size, location, and access - Cleaning connections (Maintenance) - Slip Lining

8, Pipelines
Types and Purpose - Cross Country - Inter Plant - Intra Plant Accounting Meters - Meter Provers - "Bonded Zone" - Fencing and Security Pig Launchers & Pig Catchers (Receivers) - Package System

- Vendor or Third Party Sub contracted - Stick build Pipe Line Pigging Criteria - Minimum bend radius Slug Catchers - Types Special Valving Considerations - Types - Support Special Instrumentation - SCADA - Pig Signals (Pig Sig)

9, Loading / Unloading Racks (Truck, Rail, Barge, and Ship)

Product Data - Liquid Products - Gas Products - Dry Products - Non-flammable Liquid Chemical Products - Flammable Liquid Hydrocarbon Products - Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) Products Shipping method - Truck - Rail - Barge - Ship Loading & Unloading Method - Loading Arms or Loading Hoses - Top Loading - Bottom Loading (Truck & Rail only) - Vapor recovery criteria Shipping Plan - Number of shipments - Frequency of shipments - Loading time - Unloading time Loading Rack Size & Location Criteria - NFPA Criteria - Size of Carrier (Truck, Rail Car, Barge/Ship) - Minimum distance between loading "Spots" - Outline of structure - Loading Arm Type - Loading Arm reach - Loading Arm rest position - Height and reach of swing-down platforms - Access & clearance for Operators - Stair and Ladder access and egress Barge & Ship only - Fixed or Floating Dock - Tide & Current Data - Maximum "Swing" envelope (Vessel empty at high tide vs. vessel full at low tide) Auxiliaries - Meters - Grounding Lugs - Spill containment - Shelters - Piping

Utility Requirements - Utility Steam - Plant Water - Plant Air - Breathing Air - Nitrogen (for blanketing) Safety & Fire Protection - Monitors - Hydrants - Deluge Systems - Fire Blankets - Fire Extinguishers - ESD (Emergency Shut Down) System - Foam Systems

10, Cooling Water Supply Systems

Types - Once through system - Closed loop Cooling Tower system - Atmospheric (Flooded) System Water Source - Municipal Water Supply (City, County, etc.) - River Intake - Ocean Intake - Lake - Wells - Surge Pond Water Intake & Outfall Structures - River - Oceans & Bays Tower Types - Forced Draft - Induced Draft - Natural Draft Prevailing Wind - Direction (primary and secondary) - Timing (Spring, Summer, Fall, and Winter?) - Force - Duration Basin Design - In-ground - Under-ground - Strainers and Filters - Fixed Screens - Rotating Screens Pump Types & Location - Vertical - Horizontal (same level next to basin) - Horizontal (elevated above basin) Operations - Stand alone - Manned Maintenance - Portable crane - Built-in lifting facilities Cooling Water Supply and Return Piping - Material - Location (Above ground or below ground)

Water Treatment Chemical piping - PVC - FRP - Stainless Steel - Alloys Cathotic Protection - Type - Pipe Riser Location - Insulating Flange Sets

11, Hazardous Chemicals Handling and Storage

Commodities List MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheet) Unloading Facilities Storage Loading Handling Safety - Safety Shower/Eye Wash Winterized (Tempered water system)

12, Waste Treatment Facilities

Types - Storm Water - Oily Water - Chemical - Sanitary - Contaminated Collection Locations Collection and transfer methods - Gravity (only) to Treatment - Gravity to Sump & Pump to Treatment Types of Treatment

13, Electrical & Instrumentation

Equipment Types - Instrument Rack/Cabinets - Junction Boxes - Load Centers - Substations - Switch and Starter Racks - Transformers Aboveground Distribution - Cable Trays - Conduit Racks - Light Standards - Power Poles - Push Button Stations - Telephone Poles - Transmission Towers

Underground Distribution - Direct Bury Cable - Duct Banks (Concrete encasement) - Electrical Manholes - Electrical Pull Boxes Clearance criteria Electrical to: - Process Equipment - Piping - Structures - Pipe Racks - Roads - Rail Facilities

14, Buildings & Auxiliaries

Buildings and purpose - Administration - Cafeteria -- Change House (Locker Room) -- Chemical Storage -- Control (House) Center -- Fire House -- First Aid -- Gate or Guard Houses -- House of Worship (Mosque) -- Laboratory (Product QC) -- Machine Shop -- Maintenance -- Safety Center & Training -- Warehouse -Auxiliaries - Parking Lots - Truck Loading/Unloading Docks Utility Services - Chemical Waste -- Chilled Water -- Comfort Steam & Condensate -- Contaminated Waste - Hot & Cold Water - Lab Gas -- Potable Water -- Sanitary Waste -- Storm Water -Piping Materials

15, Fire Protection & Safety

Fire Protection & Safety Plan - Basic Safety Plan - Contingency Plan Fire Water System - Fire Water Source - Fire Water Storage - Fire Water Pumps - Fire Water Loop (Mains and Laterals) - Fire Hydrants and Monitors - Foam Chambers (Number and Orientation) - Foam Stations (Number and Orientation) - Fire Protection Manifolds (Pumper Connections) - Fire Hose Carts Materials of Construction - Carbon Steel w/ external coating - Carbon Steel w/ Internal Lining & external coating - Ductile Iron

FRP Piping Cement Lining Nonmetallic Linings Thrust Blocks & Anchors

Fire Training Area - Location - Facilities Fire Equipment

16, Product packaging

LPG Bottling Facility - Type, - Open, sheltered, enclosed - Empty bottle receiving - Filling - Full bottle storage - Bottle shipping - Truck scales (weighbridge) Lube Oil packaging facility - Type - Sheltered - Enclosed - Size Shipping method - Truck - Rail

17, Solids Storage & Disposal

Type - Sulphur - Coke - Treated waste Consistency - Dry - Semi-dry Storage - Open - Sheltered Disposal - On property - Off property Shipping method - Truck - Rail - Barge - Other

Section - VI, Pipe Fabrication Issues

A: Checking of Pipe Fabrication Shop Drawings By: James O. Pennock There will come a time the life of almost every project when the question of checking of pipe fabrication shop spool drawings will come up. Projects that are totally field fabricated do not have shop spools and therefore the need does not exist. However for the vast amount of the projects there will be a pipe fabrication shop, shop

spool drawings. Any time drawings are created there will be the potential for errors. The shop is responsible for checking their own work, but it is prudent for the engineering company to do their own check to verify that the shop is doing a proper job. The prime objective for checking shop drawings is to eliminate (or reduce) field changes to shop fabricated spools. One person cannot be expected to check ALL of the shop drawings and still meet the construction schedule. So you must use your time wisely. You must have a plan. You should also talk to the piping foreman in the field and ask him/her, what are some of the typical errors that cause them the most problems during installation? A) First, sort the shop drawings by line number and cost groups i.e.: separate by material, wall schedule and line size. The reason you need to do this is that it will allow you to focus your effort on the high cost piping. The most costly piping is the large diameter, heavy wall carbon steel, any alloy materials and any material that requires post-weld-heat-treatment (PWHT). Start with the most costly lines and their shop drawings. B) Next, review the spool drawings for each line first for continuity. By this, I mean, do you have all the shop drawings to complete that specific line? If the answer is yes then proceed. If the answer is no then have someone contact the shop to find out when the missing drawings will be available. It is always possible that they forgot to draw one or to send one. C) Next, check the drawings against the engineering drawings for configuration. By this I mean does the line turn when, where and in the right direction to match the design? If not then this will require a change in the shop (If the spool piece is not yet shipped) or a change in the field (if the spool piece has already been shipped). Shop errors can, in most cases be back-charged to the shop. However, any error can cause a delay to the schedule which adds cost to the project. D) Next, review the material used against the piping line specification for the material that is required. If the shop used the wrong material, STOP. This line or spool will need to be refabricated. E) Next, review the shop drawings against the design looking for places where a wrong dimension in a weldedout configuration would do the most harm. Dont worry about fitting make-up such as flange-reducer-flange. These have a low possibility for error. Dont worry about spools that terminate with a field weld. These have a built in opportunity to make a field correction. F) Next, look for any place where there is a requirement for or the possibility for odd flange bolt-hole rotations. Did the shop do it correctly? On the other hand, did the shop call for and fabricate an odd bolt-hole rotation that was not called for? G) Next, spot check 10% of the dimensions within each cost group. If you do not find any error trends then you may want to consider backing off additional checking. However, if you do find an error trend within a specific cost group (material, wall schedule, size, etc.) then note the name of the person who did these higherror shop drawings. The next step is to notify the shop of your concerns and request that they launch their own investigation. In the meantime notify the construction manager and based on the cost groups look at all of this persons work. This should give you some ideas to consider. Please feel free to E-mail me if you have any questions.

Section - VI, Pipe Fabrication Issues

B: Pipe Fabrication Shop Assignment Questions and Problems By: James O. Pennock

On any process plant project the pipe fabrication shop should be recognized as a key player and a partner in the success of that project. The performance of that shop can make or break a project. When an engineering company is about to issue a pipe fabrication purchase order they should know everything there is to know about the proposed shop. The engineering company should also consider all the risk factors relating to the shops performance and make every effort to eliminate or reduce those risks. One of the ways to reduce the risk is to send a piping person into the shop to act as a focal point for questions and to solve problems. The information below includes information the company should know about a pipe fabrication shop before an order is placed. It is also what the person needs to know about the shop and the pipe fabrication purchase order before he or she starts an assignment in the pipe fabrication shop.

Shop Identification

What is the name and location (address) of the proposed pipe fabrication shop? What is the ownership of this shop? What is the organization chart (names and positions) for this shop? What is the name and title of the primary shop contact for this order?

Shop history What is the history of this shop? What is the performance history for this shop? Has the company contacted other companies (customers) who have had work in this shop?

Shop capabilities How many production lines does this shop have and what is the break-down? Normally the different production lines are arranged by size and material. The size breakdown is based on the respective jigs, fixtures, cranes (or handling equipment), the welding procedures, the welding machines, the fitter and welder training and experience. The material separation is to insure that Stainless Steel and other alloys are not contaminated by carbon steel. Typically Stainless Steel lines will use nylon slings instead of chain to lift the pipe spools. The lines might be as follows: Small bore (3 and smaller) Carbon Steel Small bore (3 and smaller) Alloy & Stainless Steel Intermediate bore (4 through 12) Carbon Steel Intermediate bore (4 through 12) Alloy & Stainless Steel Large bore (14 and larger) Carbon Steel Large bore (14 and larger) Alloy & Stainless Steel Small bore Bends Large bore Bends

What other pipe fabrication related capabilities does this shop have (i.e.: expansion joint fabrication)?

The shop order When will the shop order be placed? What kind of other services (internal cleaning, priming, finished painting, etc.) does the shop fabrication order include? What kinds of piping (material, sizes and schedules) will this order cover?

Material What is the shops standard stock categories (2 to 24 sch. 40 and 80 Carbon Steel only, etc.)? Will the shop buy all material or will the company purchase and supply some piping and non-piping material (i.e.: Thermowells)? What is the material markets projected actual lead time for delivery of alloy and other non-standard stock materials? When will the Buy quality Bill-of-material summary be ready for issue? What is the intended quality of this B-O-M summary?

Will there be a secondary MTO for shop material and an effective on-going program to identify new shop material requirements? Will there be limits applied to where the material comes from?

Schedule When is the planned start of isometric issue? What is the planned isometric issue duration? When will the actual isometric issue start? When will the company supplied material be delivered 100%? When is the first pipe spool required at jobsite? When is the last pipe spool required at jobsite?

Logistics Where is the jobsite? What is the planned method of shipping?

Concerns What are my companys specific concerns relating to this shops performance?

Problems that impact to pipe fabrication performance: Below are some issues relating to execution, coordination, cost and delivery that the company should address to reduce costs and improve delivery.

Unrealistic priority categories: In the past some engineering companies have insisted on having multiple priority categories, twenty or more, in some cases. This is just plain ludicrous. A shop, any shop has limited options for the handling of normal work and Priority spool pieces. They in fact have only three options. The engineering company needs to know and understand this and then keep things very simple. Option 1: FIFO This means that all phases (engineering, material allocation, production, NDE, PWHT, painting and shipping) are processed on a first-in-first-out (FIFO) basis. Engineering receives the customer isometric and prepares the required shop spool drawings. They then do a material take-off to check for material availability. If material is available then the spool drawing is released to the production floor. From there it is scheduled into the normal flow of work on the basis of FIFO for that specific (size/material) production line. This also means that the all work is done at the shops normal shift and work day hours. If the engineering company planned and scheduled their work properly and they gave the shop the right information about the requirements for pipe fabrication then this option should meet the needs of the order. Option 2: Fast track (or Head-of-the-line) This means that at all the normal work phases (listed above) an isometric and the resultant pipe spools are moved to the head of the line at any effected work station. This, however, still means that all work is done at the shops normal shift and work day hours. This option may or may not have a cost adder depending on how often it is imposed. It should not be used for more than 5% to 8% of the total order. Option 3: Premium This means that all of the normal phases are still done but at the head-of-the-line basis AND the shop agrees to work 24 hours (three shifts at 8 hrs or two shifts of 12 hrs) to finish the premium work. All extra costs (labor and utilities) incurred for Premium work is paid for by the client. This option will indeed have a cost adder, and it will be significant. This option should not be used for more than 2% to 3% of the total order.

Material surprises: The late notice of new material requirements has a serious effect on the real engineering, fabrication and delivery duration. How do late notices of new material happen? The most common reason this happens is because material specs changed late in the project, long after the shop Buy MTO (Material Take-off) was completed. Another reason it happens is because there is always more than one way to do most things. The senior piper who planned on something being done one way (using specific material) has a junior or a novice piper who does that thing another way (using different material). This does not have a big impact on shop stock carbon steel material. However it does have a huge Impact on very high cost, long delivery alloy materials. Keep in mind for some sizes and schedules of carbon steel it may be possible to acquire and have delivery from over night to three weeks depending on where the shop is located and where the source is located. On the other hand for materials like P22 and P91 the delivery might be as much as 50 weeks or more. An important thing to remember is that a shop will not and does not start fabrication on a piping spool unless and until they have all the required material for that spool. Here are two tables that shows the impact that missing material may have on the overall delivery duration schedule (DDS). The numbers shown here were taken from a real job.

Table A: All material pre-purchased and already available in the shop. (Numbers are in weeks) Shop Matl DDS Fab PWHT Eng. delivery Total 3 3 3 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 6 8 8 8 12 0 0 0 1 1 9 11 11 12 16

Material Carbon Steel (Std & XH) Carbon Steel (> XH) Stainless Steel Chrome Alloy (Std & XH) P91

Table B: Some (or all) material missing and needs to be obtained. (Numbers are in weeks) Shop Matl DDS Fab PWHT Eng. delivery Total 3 3 3 3 3 3 20 20 34 50 6 8 8 8 12 0 0 0 1 1 12 31 31 46 66

Material Carbon Steel (Std & XH) Carbon Steel (> XH) Stainless Steel Chrome Alloy (Std & XH) P91

As you can see there is a very big difference between the two delivery duration schedules. Having the right material or not having the right material is the Achilles heel of any shop fabrication effort. The bottom line on this subject is that the piping lead engineer and the lead piping design supervisor in the engineering office need to be on top of the projects piping material issues at all times. It is their job and they need to understand what happens when they dont control or prevent this problem.

Large Pipe Bends: (Here we are talking about large diameter/heavy wall pipe bends in pipe where the bend radius is more than the standard 1-1/2 D 90 degree fitting ell.) The effect of pipe bends on the production schedule can also have a major impact. To the shop a pipe bend is just another piece of material, much like a fitting. The shop might have its own bending line but it may be in another state, province or country. They need to have advance notice of all bend requirements. The pipe to be

used for the bend needs to be purchased, received, inspected, logged in to the shops warehouse system then it needs to be scheduled into the bend shop. The pipe is then sent to the bend shop (or line) where it is bent, checked for accuracy then Stress relieved (PWHT) and returned to the fabrication shop for the balance of the operations required to finish the pipe spool. The ideal approach where large bends are required is for the original buy MTO to include a summary of these bends so the material can be purchased and bent ahead of time.

Engineering Holds: The effect on the shop schedule by company HOLDS on isometrics is a major problem. Consistently the engineering company will issue piping isometrics to the shop then weeks later they call the shop and place a Hold on the isometric and all the resulting spools. Keep in mind a typical isometric may contain anywhere from three to five shop spools. When the isometric/shop spools is placed on a customer Hold the shop releases all the material contained on those spools for other spools. These shop spools also lose their slot in the normal first-in-first-out flow of work. Typically what happens is one of the following: A) This isometric is mid-size standard weight carbon steel material. As a result the company forgets and this isometric is on Hold for a few weeks. Then they remember the Hold. After some time they take a new look at it and determine that there was no reason for the Hold and releases it. The company then complains that these spools are behind schedule. B) This isometric is also mid-size standard weight carbon steel material. The company keeps this isometric on Hold for period of time while they do a redesign. The isometric is then revised and released with the Hold removed. The shop now finds out that there is a minor dimensional change to only one of the spools on this isometric. Again the company complains that all these shop spools are behind schedule. C) The company revises the isometric and proceeds to issue it in the normal manner. This isometric falls in the realm of the 34 to 50 week material delivery. The revision contains material that is new or not previously included in the Buy MTO. The shop can do nothing but order the new material and place the effected spool at the back of the line. The engineering company now starts to complain that the spools should only take 16 weeks to fabricate. D) In this case all (6+/-) isometrics (and the resulting shop spools) for a complete system were placed on Hold with no reason given. The material this time was small bore stainless steel. The SS material was included in the original Buy MTO and was purchased and delivered to the shop. The Hold put a stop to all work on these isometrics for many months. The Hold was initiated by a controversy about the material life in the alleged strong corrosive atmosphere. When the isometrics were finally revised and reissued the new material was a special Alloy 20 with a 50 week delivery. The service for this piping was the same as what is found around the average swimming pool for the chlorine system which uses plastic piping. They could have installed plastic pipe and replaced it every year for the next fifty years for far less than what this new material and the delay cost the project. What is the answer to the problem created by late Holds by the engineering company? The easy answer is to disallow all Holds on shop spools. To do this the engineering company must do a number of things. They must do a better job of controlling the work on the design floor, Do It Once and Do It Right. They can also look at making any required changes in the field wherever possible. After all there are a lot of field welds all ready and a few more will not make as much of an impact on the field as it would on the shop. Some may cry Oh! You cant do that! Well I suggest that you can and should. They can also do a better job of communicating with the shop when there is no choice but to place a Hold. They need to fully define the reason for the Hold and what if any effect the potential change will have on material.

Specialty Fitting Dimensions: Dimensional differences in high-cost, long delivery fittings (WOL) at fitting make-up situations can cause major problems. The example I site has 8, 24 X 10 P91 Weld-O-Lets required for installations that were designed for fitting-to fitting. There was no flexibility for adjustment of dimensions. Six of the O-Lets came in from the manufacturer with the height dimension as stated in the catalog. Two of them were different from the catalog. The catalog dimension and the dimension used by the design team was 9. One of the O-Lets had an 8 height and the other had a 10 height. This 1 short and 1 too long caused a major problem. The manufacturer claimed that there was no requirement for them to make all the O-Lets (of this size) at 9 and they would not warrantee the O-Lets if the shop modified them to fit. The suggested solution to this is to find out what fittings/dimensions are used in the design (and the electronic data base

Customer Furnished Items:

Many shop fabrication orders include customer furnished items of material. Sometimes it is special alloy material and sometimes it is specific material items such as valves or weld-in Thermowells. Normally it is not a big problem for the shop to receive, warehouse and dispense this material. However there are methods used in the identification and purchase of this material that can and does cause major delays for the shop. The example that I have seen is where the customer furnished material was purchased with a specific Tag number identification. This Tag number item could only go in one specific place. Conversely only the correctly Tag number item could be installed in a specific pipe spool. This means that the shop must find that specific Tag number item before they can release that specific pipe spool to the production floor. Here is the story. The customer company purchased over 500 weld-in Thermowells for a pipe fabrication order. They had the thermowell manufacturer mark each well with a specific instrument Tag number. They were then shipped to the shop in small groups of 100+/- to 150+/- as they were completed. These groupings were received at different times, by different people and stored in different places in the warehouse. When a shop material person was sent to find a specific Tag number thermowell and did not look in all the right places thus not finding it, he or she stopped looking. A material shortage report was then turned in and a delay was created. This did not have to happen. These 500+ thermowells, although they had over 500 individual Tag number identifications came in only 5 sizes. Thermowells come in three basic types. These types have to do with how they are installed in the piping system. There are: A) Threaded wells for the normal low temperature and low pressure, non-toxic commodities. These are installed in the field. B) There are flanged thermowells (in various ratings) that are used for higher temperature, higher pressure and more hazardous commodities. These flanged wells are also normally installed in the field. C) Then there are the weld-in thermowells. These are used on very high temperature, very high pressure and or very toxic commodities. These wells are the only ones that would normally be installed in the pipe fabrication shop. Now all these thermowell types no matter whether they are threaded or flanged or welded-in they have one thing in common. That is they come in only a limited number of sizes. The sizing of all thermowells is based on the U dimension and the "stem length. The U dimension is the distance the well protrudes into the pipe past the base of the threads (threaded well), flange face (flanged well) or the inside diameter of the pipe (welded-in well). The 500+ thermowells in the example we are talking about here broke down to only one type (weld-in) and only five (5) sizes. They could have and should have been bought as a bulk item by the five sizes and identified on the isometric as just a type/U-dimension/stem length code. This would have had a great impact on the ability of the shop to find material and release spools faster. The bottom line here is to keep it simple, buy everything as bulk material when ever possible.

Missing Engineering Data: All information required to fabricate a pipe spool should be included on the isometric. That is a great statement and should be valid with only one exception. That exception would be the piping material specification that defines the specifics about the material on an isometric. That is fine; the pipe specs are sometimes the size of a small automobile. It is accepted practice for the shop people to have a full copy of the pipe specs and use them. However there is other information required by the shop that should be included on the isometric rather than having to find it among documents they are not familiar with. This information includes which lines need post weld heat treatment and the maximum operating temperature which impacts the type of post weld heat treatment. What is happening here is that the engineering company sends a line list (or line designation table) or other document to the shop and expects the shop to find the required information. The problem was that the shop was not familiar with these other documents and did not always have the current revision. Isometrics had been issued for lines that were not on the line list.

Partial Painting: Some engineering companies ask the shop to do partial painting of pipe spools. This is sometimes done when a line will have safety insulation (therefore no paint) where it could be touched and painted where it cannot be touched. It also includes the carbon steel shoes on alloy or carbon steel lines that will be insulated. Trust me the shop will be more than happy to do this partial painting. And, trust this, they will charge you a hefty price for it.

Painting of pipe spools is based on the weight of the total spool, not the square foot or meter of area painted. For total painting they normally have a flat rate price per ton. For partial painting they will discount the rate to (not by) 65% to 80% of the total rate. This means that you pay 65% to 80% of the full spool painting cost to paint only one 24 long shoe. This is not cost effective. There is always going to be painting touch-up in the field and shoes can be painted there at a far cheaper cost.

Paint Touch-up: Another costly item is requiring paint touch-up of dings by shop prior to shipping. Pipe that is (fully) painted by the shop can and will get dings before the truck leaves the yard. Some engineering companies require the shop to touch-up these dings before the load leaves the yard. This is also not cost effective. The load is held in the shop until it can be inspected for dings and then they are touched up and re-inspected. This only delays the shipment and the load is going to get more dings in route. It will also get more while being unloaded, during storage in the field prior (to installation) and during handling at installation. The most cost effective way to handle dings in shop painted piping is as follows. First, at every step along the line do everything possible to prevent dings. Second, dont reach for the paint brush every time you spot a ding. Third, after installation, when all the field welds are being painted, go ahead and touch up those dings.

Pipe spool mark-numbers: Every fabricated pipe spool that leaves the shop must be identified for proper and timely installation. Who is responsible for the spool piece identification numbers? Every company has its own methods of operation and therefore some will add the MK number as a part of the isometric extraction process and others may produce plans and elevations then have the shop do the identification numbers. This identification is sometimes called the Mark-number and is normally shown as MK * (numbered in sequence). The MK number is normally preceded by the purchase order (PO) number for the shop fabrication work, the line number (or the isometric number) and the sheet number. Therefore, for example the first pipe spool for line number 10-122A1A on PO # 9876543-2 would be P.O. 9876543-2 10-122A1A-Sht 1 - MK -1. This is a very simple identification method and if it is on every spool the field has no problems. However, what if you are on a job that has over 10,000 individual pipe spools and many (maybe all) arrived in the field not marked with the proper identification. This has happened! It is a very costly process in the field to sort out what the spool piece number is supposed to be. The delay is costly in both money and schedule. A clear understanding needs to be established between the design office and the shop, before the order is placed, as to what MK number method is to be used and who is responsible for initiating and controlling the numbers.

In closing, learn everything you can about the pipe fabrication shop and look for and question any item or activity that may have a negative impact on the cost and delivery of the finished spools.

Section - VII, Management and Supervision

A: Introduction to Line Numbering By: James O. Pennock This article is intended to answer some of the questions that come up about the subject of Line Numbers and Line Lists for a typical process plant project.

Some of the questions that come up about Line Numbering include: What is it? Why is it? What does it mean? Who does it? Another question is that is often asked is there a common pipe line numbering system? Do engineering companies and clients have different line numbering systems? Another question is: Does ASME B31.3 or CSA (Canadian STDs), have a standard for line numbering? These are all good questions and it is important for every piper to know the answers to each one. I could be wrong but I think it is safe to say there is no common pipe line numbering system in use in the process plant engineering and design world. There are just too many companies and people and clients and project types to be able to achieve such commonality. I dont remember seeing anything in ASME B31.3 (or any other Code), but then again it is not the purpose of the B31 Code to dictate a line numbering system.

To properly discuss this subject we need to understand the purpose of the Line Number. We also need to acknowledge that some companies use the term Line Designation. Whether your company uses the term Line number or the term Line designation the purpose is still the same. It is the name for the line, it is for positive identification. It is the same as for you your name is the way to positively identify you. The pipe line identification is necessary through out the project and is used for many purposes by many different people or groups. The line numbering is an important aspect of the piping on a project and should only be created and controlled by the piping group for the project, specifically by the piping material engineer for that project.

As with any of the other gray hair pipers, I too have seen many different line numbering systems in my working past. Of all of them I have determined that while there are some similarities there is no totally common system. Here are some details that I have been able to determine for myself. There are two basic areas that tend to govern line numbering. These are the line number method and the line number elements. * Methods - There are two basic line numbering methods. The first method is based on the Purpose or Function of the line. The second method is based on the line Size. * Elements - There are many potential line identification elements that may be included in a line numbering system. The elements that are most commonly included in a line numbering scheme are: Plant Location, Line Identity, Line Class (or Line Specification), Size, Insulation Type (when required) and Heat Tracing Type (when required). Methods The purpose or functional method of line numbering is where the line is best defined as a single line having an origin and a terminus consistent with a purpose or function. An example of this might be a pump suction line. It might come from a Storage Tank, a Tower Bottom or an Accumulator. It travels some distance and then splits and connects to the two pumps designated for that one service or function. This is one line, it serves one purpose or function therefore it has only one line number. Another example would be the pump discharge that leaves both of these pumps and join to form the single pipe line that runs to the next piece of equipment. This line also has one purpose or function therefore it has only one number. The line size method is where the line number changes whenever and wherever the line size changes. When compared to the first (purpose or function) method, the pump suction line might have five line numbers instead of one. The pump discharge might also have five or more depending on what happens at the destination end of the line. One or the other of these two methods becomes the Rule for a company, client or project. As we all know, for every rule you will always be able to find an exception. One exception that is common to both of these Rules is the rule of the change of line class (or line specification). The change in line class is most often caused by a change in pressure or material. A line might be the same size from one point to another but includes a pressure control valve that lets the pressure down to a level that allows a lower flange rating and or another material therefore a different line class. There are other line class change initiators but I think you get the idea. Any change in a lines conditions or material causes a mandatory change in the line number no mater which line numbering method is being used. Elements The elements of a line number might be arranged and look something like this:

10-1021-CA1A-12- IH -ST Where: 10 = the plant Unit or Area (mandatory) 1021 = the numeric line number (mandatory) CA1A = the line class (mandatory) 12 = the line size (mandatory) IH = Hot Insulation (only when required) (1)

ST = Steam Tracing (only when required) (2)

(1) Other types of insulation include IC = Cold Insulation, IS = Safety Insulation, IA = Acoustic (or Sound) Insulation, etc. (2) Other types of tracing include: ET = Electric Tracing, CWT = Chill Water Tracing, TT = Thermon (Hot Oil) Tracing, etc.

* In this case the 10 refers to a physical plant area as defined by the project work breakdown structure document. Other Areas might be 20, 30, 40 or 11, 12, 13, etc. * The 1021 represents the twenty-first line in this area. All line numbers on this project will be four place numbers starting with 1000 in each area. * The CA1A represents the project piping material line class code for: 300# (C), Carbon Steel (A), 1/32 corrosion allowance (1) and a specific gasket type/material (A). I have no doubt that there are other items of information that could be or are added in some form or another based on the preference of a specific company of client. My credo is Keep It Simple. The manner of arranging the Elements to form a line number is something that is also dictated by the Company and or in some cases the Client. The sequence that is shown above is in the order of information priority that I am used to. The line numbering activity should only be done when the P&IDs are well along in the development process. The more complete the P&IDs are the less hours will be wasted and the better the results of the line numbering effort. The degree of P&ID completeness prevents recycle when new equipment or systems are added or when equipment or systems are deleted. As the Piping Material Engineer (or designate) performs the line numbering of the P&ID he or she also initiates the first draft of the Line List (or Line Designation Table) data base. The resultant document from this data base will be extensive for a whole project but will be broken down by plant area. In addition to the line identification elements (indicated above), the Line List (data base and document) will or should also include important information for the design process and construction process such as the following: * The line commodity * The phase (liquid or gas) * The origin of the line * The destination of the line * The line pressure, both the normal operating pressure and the maximum operation (or Design) pressure * The line temperature, both the normal operating temperature and the maximum operation (or Design) temperature * An indicator code for Stress Analysis requirements * PWHT requirements * The insulation thickness (optional) * The line schedule (optional) The line list once initiated will have many additions, deletions and be used by lots of people throughout the project both in the design office and in the field. One of the first and most important activities where the line list is used is when the definitive labor hour estimate is generated. The number of lines on a project has a direct bearing on the labor hours required. This is true for the piping design activities in the home office, the pipe fabrication shop and for the installation contractor in the field. So it is very important to get it right.

Section - VII, Management and Supervision

B: Checking, Quality Assurance and Quality Control of Piping Drawings By: James O. Pennock Checking or the Quality Assurance & Quality Control (QA/QC) in process plant piping engineering and design is a grossly misunderstood activity that is performed (or should be performed) by every piping group on every process plant project deliverable. Problems arise when checking is not done and when it is done it is often done incorrectly. When it is done incorrectly not only the end result (the document) suffers but the designer who

created the document suffers and the checker who does the checking also suffers. The document (the drawing or other deliverable) suffers because the "Check" was ineffective or incomplete. In some cases the checker "thinks" he or she is a better designer than the designer. So they turn the sheet over and redraw the configuration in "red" and send it to the correction group. The checker redraw is a document that in fact has never been checked. In other cases even after a normal check, mistakes may remain and this will cause another round of costs due to the re-checking, correcting (revision), approval, printing in the office to the cost of reissue handling in the field. The document creator (the designer) suffers because he or she gets blamed for every "red" mark the checker finds on a document. The designer's reputation suffers and they get the feeling that the "Checker" is out to get them. The truth is that most (if not all) of the "red" marks on a check print are in fact not the designers fault. They are more often traced to late changes to P&ID, vendor drawings or data from another discipline. The document checker suffers because he or she gets a bad reputation and people do not want to work with them. They do not learn to do it right so they keep making the same mistakes. As a checker you may ask the obvious question, how do you do it right? That is simple; when you (as a checker) find a "red" mark (indicating a mistake) you should dig deep and find out why is this "wrong." Is it really wrong and why? That is the real purpose of checking. "Why doesn't it work like this?" and the second: "Why is there so much animosity between the designers and the checkers?" These are both very good and very valid questions. The answer to both questions is the same. The answer is the lack of training. There is not now nor has there ever been proper training in what checking is or how to do checking. Before you did your first checking did anyone give you receive any training or any simple instructions about how to check or what to check? What kind of (checking) training should be given? Who should be given this (checking) training? The training given should include everyone in the piping design department. It must include the definition of what checking really is and what is the real target of the checking process. Checking is really the last stage in the process normally called QA/QC. QA/QC stands for Quality Assurance and Quality Control. QA or Quality Assurance is the things that are done ahead of time during job set-up to assure that things will be done a certain way. This includes filing systems, procedures, and specifications governing the work as it proceeds forward. QA is also the proper follow through during the work to remain in compliance with the procedures. Example, you set up a filing system for vendor data and the first drawings that came in got filed in their correct places. But later when revisions came in they got "lost" and were not placed in the correct file. This is not good. QC or Quality Control (Checking) is the verification of the product of all the accumulated data and work processes. Our business is the process plant engineering and design business. In the process plant engineering and design profession the deliverables are drawings. For the piping design department the deliverables include piping plan drawings and piping isometrics. The piping plan drawing (or the 3D model) is important but it is just a means to an end. The isometric is the end product and must contain all the information necessary to purchase the correct material, fabricate the piping configuration, and install the line or system complete with testing and check-out. The training for Piping Checking (QA/QC) should cover both the Purpose and the Process. The Purpose The purpose of checking as it applies to piping drawings in a Process Plant Project is to verify that all the specifications, drawings and other deliverables reflect the correct combination of the diverse issues impacting the end product. These include but are not limited to: Safety Function Operability Maintainability Constructability Mechanical integrity Mathematical Accuracy Piping Design and the deliverables of the piping design effort is an important part of any process plant project and the checking of the piping drawings cannot be diminished in its importance. With the above in mind: "Rule #1" all products and deliverables from the piping design group shall be checked. "Rule #2" checkers check the design, they do not do the design "Rule #3" all corrections shall be done by the original designer of the document (when ever possible)

The Process The Piping Design Supervisor for a project assigns the responsibilities for checking to one or more individuals. These "checkers" are held responsible for checking all (or a specific assigned group of) documents. These checkers should be well trained and well experienced individuals who can be fair, who can focus on quality and have a firmness of conviction. The process of checking includes: 1. Defining what is a "checkable" product 2. Freezing all work on the area that is in check 3. Becoming familiar with the assigned area 4. Defining what constitutes the source material for the assigned area. 5. Obtaining a copy of the current revision of each of all source material 6. Using a set (or standard) checking procedure

7. Diplomacy between the designer who made the drawings and the checker 8. Fairness when determining right from wrong 9. Proper correction of the drawing(s) based on the checker's direction 10. Proper backing and support of the Piping Design Supervisor You may question "What does all this mean?" Let's take each of the items from this list and discuss them in detail. "Defining what is a checkable product?" This means that you should not spend hours/money checking work that is not ready for check. This is the responsibility of the piping design supervisor. If a drawing is not finished, not ready for check then it should not be placed in the checking group. A checkable product in piping would or should be all the piping plan drawings (or CADD models) and all isometrics that are complete. They have been through all the required reviews with all changes and comments incorporated. All activities involving other groups such as stress analysis, or instrument checks have been completed and comments incorporated. A checkable piping plan or isometric is a document that, in the absence of checking should be thought of as ready to go out the door. If it is not ready to go out the door then it is not ready to be checked. A checkable product is also a complete package of the check prints and all source material. "Freezing all work on the area that is in check" This again this is the responsibility of the piping design supervisor. When all or a portion of an area is placed in the checking group for check then all work on that portion should stop. It makes no logical or economic sense to be changing what the checker thinks he or she is checking. Too often a checker will have a question about something on an in-check drawing and they go and seek a clarification from the designer only to be informed that "Oh, its not like that anymore." This shows that the product was not ready for check, or there is a lack of communication between the supervisor and the checker or that there is a lack of support by the supervisor for the checker and the checking effort. "Becoming familiar with the assigned area" This is a joint responsibility of the piping supervisor and the checker. The checker (if done right) is someone who is totally new to the area being checked. This would be someone who has not worked on the specific assigned area drawings. They may even be someone new to the company or the project and as such they do not have the history of the area. The piping supervisor should provide (and the checker should demand) an overview of the area including the basics of the process, the operation, key maintenance issues and any constructability issues. "Defining what constitutes the source material for the assigned area" This again is a joint responsibility between the supervisor and the checker. The source material to be used for the checking of the product (the drawing) should be the same material that was used when the last work was done to create the product (the drawing). Yes! There are times when a later revision of a source document (such as a structural drawing or an equipment outline) with changes will be received after the work was completed. These changes need to be reviewed by the piping design supervisor and a determination made as to whether the change requires pulling the drawings out of the checking group/process for modification. Remember checkers do not do the design. If the checker does the design then who checks the checker? "Obtaining a copy of the current revision of each of all source material" Having a copy of all the source material is one thing. Having the latest copy/revision of all the source material is an all together different matter. The checker needs to check with each discipline that created the source documents to determine what the latest revision is. The checker needs to check with the group responsible for vendor data to determine the current revision of drawings for each applicable piece of equipment. Once this is done and correct and up-to-date copies are in hand the checker should review the revisions of these drawings against the revision used to prepare the "in check" drawings. If it is found there are differences then the piping supervisor should be notified and a decision as to the suitability for check should be made. "Using a set (or standard) checking procedure" Using a standard checking procedure can be a company issue. Some may have very well defined guidelines for checking while others will have little or nothing. With or without the guidelines the checker himself or herself should follow a well structured and methodical procedure when checking piping documents. Piping documents as noted previously normally include piping plans and isometrics. The isometric is recognized as the defining deliverable of any piping effort. The checker should have a check list of normal things to check on the everyday isometric and any project specific items that exist. "Diplomacy between the designer who made the drawings and the checker"

This is a two way street. Both individuals should be motivated by the same goal. That goal is the accuracy of the information, the quality of the product (isometric), the reputation of the company and the interests of the client. With the proper attitude about the common goals there needs to be open and constructive communication between the checker and the designer whose work is in check. It would not be proper for the checker to "attack" the designer when seeking insight into why something was done a certain way. It is also not proper for the designer to rebuff the checker or be flippant with answers to the checkers inquiries. "Fairness when determining right from wrong" This is the checkers responsibility. The checker is a checker for now on this job but on the next job they may be in a different position and making enemies by arbitrary decisions would not prove to be productive in the long run. When an apparent error is found the checker should try to find out where the "error" came from not who made the "error." What information did the designer use to create the document and what information did the checker use to check the document. There may have been a revision to the source information between the time the designer did the original work and the time of the check. Decisions about right and wrong should be made solely on the basis of the source documents and issues such as safety, functionality, operability, maintainability and constructability. When done with the checking the checker should sign and date the check print and forward it for correction. "Proper correction of the drawing(s) based on the checker's direction" The proper correction of the drawings includes who does the correction and how the corrections are done. The first choice of who does the correction is the person who made the drawing in the first place. This is not always possible but where possible the originating designer gains insight as to mistakes he or she might have made, thus doing the corrections becomes a learning experience. When the originating designer does the correcting it affords a chance to catch items that the checker was not aware of that were deemed important to the original design. "How" the corrections are done is of even more importance. The corrector is to do the corrections completely and exactly as marked by the checker. When the corrector has an issue with a mark or change made by the checker then the corrector should discuss it with the checker. This conversation should be conducted with the proper attitude on the part of both parties. When done making the corrections the person doing the corrections should sign and date the check print properly. "Proper backing and support of the Piping Design Supervisor" The Design Supervisor needs to remember he (or she) is responsible for all of what the designer has produced. If the design is bad then it is the Supervisor's fault not the designer's. The Piping Design Supervisor is the supervisor of all of the piping design not just the good stuff. Proper design supervision means that the Design Supervisor makes frequent and detailed reviews of what each designer is doing and how they are doing it. The Design Supervisor is also responsible for all instructions, data flow and communications effecting information related to the design work. Proper backing does not mean always taking the side of the checker. It does mean backing the checker when the checker is right. When there is an issue that seemingly cannot be resolved between a checker and originating designer, a corrector or anyone else, the responsible piping supervisor needs to get involved. He or she needs to determine the facts, review the supporting source documentation listen closely to both sides and make a decision consistent with the goals of the project. If all of this is done, and done consistently everyone involved will benefit. The most important one to benefit will be the company. They will have a better trained, better functioning design group and they will be more likely to get repeat business from satisfied clients.

Section - VII, Management and Supervision

C: Piping Guidelines for P&ID Review By: James O. Pennock This document is intended to provide various members of the Piping Department with suggestions of what to look for and what questions to ask during a P&ID (Piping and Instrument Diagram) Review. The three key Piping entities that should be present during a P&ID Review are:

Piping Material Engineering Focus on all data and comments that will impact the development and or modification of the Piping Material Line Class Specifications, The need for and the details of SP Items, Insulation Specifications, etc. Piping Design Focus on all data and comments that relate to the actual routing of piping systems, including process requirements, operations, maintenance and safety.

Pipe Stress Engineering Focus on all data and comments that relate to factors that impact pipe stress including temperatures for both normal operations and any upset condition that might occur.

Each of these individuals (and groups) will have distinct but interrelated duties and responsibilities during the ongoing Detailed Design Phase of the project that will follow the P&ID Review. The person who will represent each of these groups (or functions) should be provided with (or obtain) ahead of time a copy of all diagrams to be reviewed. These copies should be studied and marked with questions and or comments before the review. To be prepared is to be forearmed. Here is something everyone needs to remember. A P&ID is a schematic drawing of a process plant system. It has no relationship to scale, relative dimensions or true shape or character. It has no relationship to north, south, east or west. It has only a marginal relationship to up and down. However, through the use of standard symbols, line conventions and notes a level of understanding must be achieved and communication must happen so that what is shown on these P&ID drawings in a schematic way is converted to reality. Areas of interest and suggested questions or items of interest: P&ID Lead Sheet: Does the project have a P&ID Lead Sheet? If possible the review should start with the Lead Sheet that lists all the common General Notes and may include a list of all P&IDs and Utility Diagrams for the Unit or Project depending on the project size. It should have project applicable acronyms with definitions.

Are all the Notes clear and understandable? Are all the notes applicable to the project? What else is on this sheet and what does it mean to this project?

P&ID Symbology Sheet: Does the project have a P&ID Symbology sheet? If there is not a Symbology Sheet, then ask why not? If there is a Symbology Sheet:

Are all the symbols consistent with the ISA standard and known to all present? Are there any new symbols required for this project? What are these new symbols and what do they mean?

P&ID Standard Detail Sheet: P&IDs on any project contain many situations that are repetitive and very detailed. Many times there are details that are similar but have small differences. These details, if repeated in full detail at every occurrence can cause congestion and confusion to the person reading the P&ID. So a full detail is drawn once and then a smaller and simpler symbol is placed at the use point. These common details might include:

High Pressure Steam Trap Station with bypass High Pressure Steam Trap Station without bypass Medium Pressure Steam Trap Station with bypass Medium Pressure Steam Trap Station without bypass Low Pressure Steam Trap Station with bypass Low Pressure Steam Trap Station without bypass Utility Station Requirements for Grade Utility Station Requirements for elevated platforms on Vessels Utility Station Requirements for at Heaters Safety Valve (SRV, PSV, PRV, etc) Manifold with bypass Safety Valve (SRV, PSV, PRV, etc) Manifold without bypass Steam-Out Connection Hard piped, with double block valve, spec blind, check valve and bleed Steam-Out Connection Block valve w/ blind flange, swing ell to valved steam line

P&ID Sheet Format:

P&ID formats are normally fairly standard and consistent with-in a specific company. However the Client may ask for special additions, deletions and or modifications that are new and different for a project.

Is there anything new and or different about the P&ID Format for this project? If so, what are they and what do they mean? Are there additional Notes for a specific P&ID in addition to the General Notes on the common Lead Sheet?

P&ID Equipment Review: The review for each type of equipment and each piece of individual equipment should follow a consistent pattern. If the review does not follow a pattern then things get forgotten.

Is each equipment type and piece shown by a standard and recognizable symbol? Is this symbol consistent with what is known about the actual planned equipment? Is the equipment identified? Is there an appropriate Data Box at the top (or bottom) of the P&ID for this type of equipment? Is all the Data Box information completed? If the Data Box information is not completed, when will it be completed? For trayed vessels, are the trays at all side entry nozzles numbered? For Shell & Tube Exchangers, is the correct number of shells shown? For Air Coolers (Fin Fan Coolers) is the correct number of Cells and Cell Nozzles shown? For Air Coolers, does the inlet and/or outlet headers need to be; Balanced Flow? Symmetrical Flow? Other?

Line by Line Piping Review: Piping on a P&ID is, as noted above, schematic. However, there are certain absolutes that rule the interpretation of the pipe lines. These rules apply to the sequence of appearance of the valves or other symbols on any given line. With only a few exceptions what the P&ID shows that is the way the finished physical piping shall be installed. As you review each line you should look for the following:

Does the line originate and terminate on the same sheet? If the line originates or terminates on another sheet does it have connectors? Do both connectors for the line match? Is there a Line Identification (Line Number, Line Designation or other) for the line? Is the commodity known? Have the Design Conditions been set? Is the maximum operation pressure known? Is the maximum operating temperature known? Is the line size known and shown? What is the specific function for This line? Are all special process required line conditions (Line Slope, Do Not Pocket, Free Drain, etc) shown or noted? Are all valves shown? Are the valve type symbols consistent with the actual valve type in the Piping Line Class Specification? What is the purpose and function of each valve? Is there a size on each valve? Or are all valves to be assumed to be line size unless noted otherwise? If there are Line Class Spec Breaks are they on the correct side of the valve? Are all Instruments in or on a line shown? If a Pressure instrument and a Temperature instrument are in close proximity (10 pipe diameters or less) to each other is the temperature instrument downstream (easy way to remember is alphabetical order) of the pressure instrument? When reducers are shown does process really want a reducer or are other common methods of pipe size changes (reducing TEE branches from a common header) acceptable? Is the term or note Min used and what is specifically needed and or to be avoided? Are all Process vents and drains shown?

Are there any odd mechanical device requirements that are not in (or will not be in) the normal Line Class Specifications? Are these items identified as SP Items and details available?

Utility Distribution Sheet Review: Utility Distribution Diagrams are also schematic drawings but they differ from a P&ID in that they are somewhat Plot Plan oriented. This is required and done so the supply and return headers can be properly sized. Utility Distribution Diagrams may have all services on one sheet or may have the services grouped by some family breakdown. Steam Utilities may include:

High Pressure Steam Medium Pressure Steam Low Pressure Steam Medium Pressure Condensate Low Pressure Condensate

Water Utilities may include:

Cooling Water Supply Cooling Water Return Plant Water Potable (Drinking) Water

Air Utilities may include:

Plant Air Instrument Air

Miscellaneous Utilities may include:

Nitrogen Flare Header Slops Pump-Out

Specific items to question are:

Is the Utility Distribution Diagram plot plan oriented? Are all Utilities shown? Are the branches from the Utility headers in the correct sequence? Are the sizes for all the branches all known and indicated? Are the main Utility header sizes correct for the number, size and sequence of the branches? Is the number of Utility Stations correct? Are the Utility Stations numbered? Are the Utility Stations schematically located correctly? For Steam Headers, are steam trap manifolds shown at the correct locations? Do the connectors from the Utility Distribution Diagram match the connector on the P&ID? Is there a Line Identification (Line Number, Line Designation or other) for each line?

Section - VII, Management and Supervision

D: What does a Piping Designer need to know? By: James O. Pennock The term "Piping Designer" as used in this document refers to that person responsible for the overall plant layout, the Plot Plan, the equipment location, the pipe routing, the development of the CAD

models, the piping isometrics. It does not refer to the Piping Material Engineer or the Pipe Stress Engineer who each are involved in the "design" of a piping system but in a totally different means and manner.

What does the Piping Designer need to know? Piping design is more than just knowing how to turn on the computer, how to find the piping menus and the difference between paper space and model space. So, appropriately, what else does the designer need to know about piping design besides how to operate a keyboard and a mouse or connect a piece of pipe to a fitting? Here is a list of the most basic of things that a good piping designer should know. Thinking about every one of these items should become as natural as breathing for a good piping designer. Pipe, Fittings, Flanges and Valves All designers need to know and understand the broad spectrum of items that make up the "vocabulary" of the piping language. This includes the many types of fittings, the many different schedules, the wide variety of common piping materials, the flange class ratings and the types and function of the different valve designs. Relationship of other Engineering groups All designers need to know and understand the relationship, activities and contribution of all the other engineering and design groups on the project. These include: Process, Civil, Structural, Mechanical Equipment, Vessels & Tanks, Electrical and Instruments/Control Systems. These groups have a responsibility for contributing to Piping's success just as Piping has a responsibility for contributing to their success. Piping Execution All designers must understand how piping design progress is linked to P&IDs, equipment vendor drawings, instrument vendor drawings, stress analysis and structural support design in order to identify areas where the piping design is being held up. Process Documents All designers need to be able to read, understand and know how to use the two major documents produced by the Process Engineering team. These documents are the PFD (Process Flow Diagram) and the P&ID (Piping and Instrument Diagram). The PFD is used by the more experienced Piping Designer early in the project for plot plan development before the P&ID's are available. The P&ID's are used by Piping Designers of all levels during activities throughout the Detailed Design phase of the job; the drawing production phase and any possible field follow up. Process Variables All designers must know and understand the four basic process variables: pressure, temperature, flow and level, and the instrumentation used to regulate and/or measure these variables. Process Plant Equipment All designers need to know and understand what the different types of equipment are. They also need to know and understand the piping related issues there are for each type of equipment. They must know which types of equipment have the nozzles fixed by the manufacturer and which types of equipment need to have the nozzles located (by the piping designer). The designer also needs to know and understand the operational, maintenance and installation/construction issues for each type of equipment. Equipment Operation and Internals All piping designers need to understand the equipment process function and the equipment internals in order to orient process and instrument nozzles/connections, and locate manway, platform, ladder and staircase access. Equipment piping All piping designers need to know the right and the wrong way to pipe up (connect pipe to) different kinds of equipment and for maintenance/disassembly space requirements. This includes pumps, compressors, exchangers, filters or any special equipment to be used on a specific project. Allowable pipe spans All designer need to know and understand the span capabilities of pipe in the different schedules for a wide variety of common piping materials. When a new project introduces a new material with severely reduced span capabilities; supplemental training may be required. Expansion of pipe All piping designers must understand that they need to treat a piping system as though it is alive. It has a temperature and that temperature causes it to grow and move. That growth and movement must be allowed for and incorporated in the overall design. Not just of that specific line but for all other lines close by. The process of expansion in a pipe or group of pipes will also exert frictional forces or anchor forces on the pipe supports they come in contact with. Routing for flexibility All piping designers must understand how to route pipe for flexibility. Routing for flexibility can normally be achieved in the most natural routing of the pipeline from its origin to its terminus. Routing for flexibility means (a) do not run a pipe in a straight line from origin to terminus and (b) building flexibility into the pipe routing is far cheaper and more reliable than expansion joints. Weight and loads (live loads and dead loads) All piping designers need to understand the effects of weight and loading. They need to know and understand that everything has a weight. They need to be able recognize when there is going to be a concentrated load. They need to have access to basic weight tables for all the standard pipe schedules, pipe fittings, flanges, valves for steel pipe. They also need to have the weight tables for other materials or a table of correction factors for these other materials vs. carbon steel. They need to be able to recognize when downward expansion in a piping system is present and is adding live loads to a support or equipment nozzle. Standards and specifications All piping designers need to understand the content and application of the client and engineering company standards and specifications used on the project. In particular the designer must have intimate knowledge of the primary standards and specifications he/she will use; these being pipe supports and piping classes.

Vessel piping All piping designers also need to understand about the connecting, supporting and guiding of piping attached to vessels (horizontal or vertical) and tanks. They need to know that nozzle loading is important and does have limitations. Rack piping All piping designers need to understand that there is a logical approach to the placement of piping in (or on) a pipe rack and the setting of rack elevations. It does not matter how wide or how high the rack or what kind of plant, the logic still applies. Starting from one or both outside edges the largest and hottest lines are sequenced in such a manner that allows for the nesting of any required expansion loops. Another good guideline is; Process lines on the lower deck(s) and Utility Lines on the upper deck(s). The spacing of the lines must also allow for the bowing effect at the loops caused by the expansion. One rule of thumb for setting the distance between piping levels is three times the largest pipe size. Expansion loops All designer need to understand and be able to use simple rules and methods for sizing loops in rack piping. This should include the most common sizes, schedules and materials. Cold spring/Pre-spring All piping designers should understand the basics rules of cold spring and pre-spring. They need to understand what each one is along with when to and when not to use each. Design production methods All piping designers need to be able to make all types of piping documents (sketches, layouts, detail piping plans, isometrics, etc) using different methods. These methods include first and most important, manually. Every piping designer must be able to go to the field or sit in front of a client and make proper, intelligent, and understandable piping sketches. They must also be able to produce detailed final drawings manually. Today, piping designers also need to know (or be able to learn) a wide range of electronic 2D or 3D design tools. Fabrication and Construction methods All piping designers need to understand shop spool fabrication, modularization and field erection construction methods, and be able to determine "shop' and "field" material splits, shipping box sizes, field welds and field (or final) fit-up welds. Heat Tracing All piping designers need to understand the purpose of process heat conservation, know the different methods (Jacketing, Tracer Tubing or Electric), Tracer commodity (Steam, Oil, Hot Water, etc.) and Tracer system requirements and be able to design heat tracing circuitry. Deliverables All piping designers need to understand the purposes of each of the piping deliverables, such as plot plans, key plans, piping plans and sections, and isometrics. Drawing Content All piping designers must understand how to present their designs. Drawing content and dimensioning practices must be well thought out in order to clearly communicate the designs to construction personnel. Economics All piping designers must be aware of economics. For instance, move a piece of equipment to reduce costly high pressure and alloy piping runs; reduce the number of fittings and welds, and eliminate unnecessary supports whenever possible to save on material, fabrication and erection costs. Any person that has this type of training, this type of knowledge and then consistently applies it is indeed a piping designer. He or she will also be a more valuable asset to their company and to themselves in the market place. On the other hand anyone who does not know or does not apply the knowledge about these issues while doing piping work is nothing more than a piping drafter or a CAD operator.

Section - VII, Management and Supervision

E: What does a Piping Material Controller need to know? By: James O. Pennock The term Piping Material Controller as used in this document refers to that person responsible for the all activities related to the identification of piping material and piping related material required for a process plant project. What does the Piping Material Controller need to know? Piping Material Control is more than just knowing how to count pipe, elbows and flanges. So, appropriately, what else does the Material Controller need to know about piping besides how to operate a keyboard and a mouse or total up a column of figures? Here is a list of the most basic of things that a good Piping Material Controller should know. Thinking about every one of these items should become as natural as breathing for a good Piping Material Controller. Pipe, Fittings, Flanges and Valves All Material Controllers need to know and understand the broad spectrum of items that make up the vocabulary of the piping language. This includes the many types of fittings, the many different schedules, the wide variety of common piping materials, the flange class ratings and the types and symbols of the different valve designs. Relationship of other Project groups All Material Controllers need to know and understand the relationship, activities and contribution of all the other engineering and non-engineering groups on the project. These include: Purchasing, Inspection, Expediting and Traffic. These groups have a responsibility for contributing to Pipings success.

 Piping Execution All Material Controllers must understand how the total piping effort and the processes are linked to piping material take-off and the total procurement cycle for the project. Process Documents All Material Controllers need to be able to read, understand and know how to use the major documents produced by the Process Engineering team. These document include the P&ID (Piping and Instrument Diagram) used by Piping Material Controllers to establish Preliminary quantities for RFQ (Request for Quote) pricing for items such as Valves, Specialty Items and Steam Traps. Standards and Specifications All Piping Material Controllers need to understand the content and application of the client and engineering company standards and specifications used on the project. In particular the Controller must have intimate knowledge of the primary standards and specifications he/she will use; these being the Piping Standard Drawings and the Piping Material Line Class Specifications. Design production methods All Piping Material Controllers need to be able to read and understand all types of piping drawings (manual or CAD sketches, layouts, detail piping plans, isometrics, etc) regardless of the manner of creation. Fabrication and Construction methods All Piping Material Controllers need to understand shop spool fabrication, modularization and field erection construction methods, and be able to determine shop and field material splits. Heat Tracing All Piping Material Controllers need to be able to read and understand drawings that depict process heat conservation, know the different methods (Jacketing, Tracer Tubing or Electric) and Tracer material. Documents All Piping Material Controllers need to understand the purposes of each of the Piping Material Control documents, such as BOM (Bill of Material), Material Summary, RFQ (Request for Quote), Quote Summary, PR (Purchase Request), PO (Purchase Order) , PO Supplement, RFI (Request for Information), PMI (Positive Material Identification), Material Certifications, . BOM (Bill of Material) Content All Piping Material Controllers must understand how to present their documents. BOM content and posting practices must be well thought out in order to clearly communicate the material requirements to Shop and Field personnel. Economics All Piping Material Controllers must be aware of economics. An example being the Material Bump philosophy (the amount added over and above the raw take-off quantity to cover loss, pilfering and last minute additions). Too much of the wrong material would be costly. The absence of even one single key item could be very a costly delay to the timely start-up of a multi-million dollar plant.

Any person that has this type of training, this type of knowledge and then consistently applies it is indeed a Piping Material Controller. He or she will also be a more valuable asset to their company and to themselves in the market place. On the other hand anyone who does not know or does not apply the knowledge about these issues while doing Piping Material Control work is not making a rightful contribution to the Project, the Company or to their own future career.

Section - VII, Management and Supervision

F: What does a Piping Material Engineer need to know? By: James O. Pennock The term "Piping Material Engineer" as used in this document refers to that person responsible for the development and maintenance of all Specifications related to the pipe, fittings, valves, bolts, gaskets, Paint, Coatings, Insulation and any other piping related item to be used in the design and construction of a Process Plant Project. It does not refer to the Piping Designer or the Pipe Stress Engineer who are both involved in the design of a piping system but in a totally different means and manner.

Piping Material Engineering is more than just opening a catalog and picking a valve or fitting. So, appropriately, what else does the Piping Material Engineer need to know?

Client Interface Every Piping Material Engineer must be able to sit in front of a client and make proper, intelligent, and understandable piping material decisions.

Relationship of other Engineering groups All Piping Material Engineer need to know and understand the relationship, activities and contribution of all the other engineering and design groups on the project. These include: Process, Civil, Structural, Mechanical Equipment, Vessels & Tanks, Electrical and Instruments/Control Systems. These groups have a responsibility for contributing to Pipings success just as Piping has a responsibility for contributing to their success. Piping Execution All Piping Material Engineer must understand how piping design progress is linked to P&IDs, equipment vendor drawings, instrument vendor drawings, stress analysis and structural support design in order to identify needs and the contribution of the PME. Process Documents All Piping Material Engineer need to be able to read, understand and know how to use the two major documents produced by the Process Engineering team. These documents are the PFD (Process Flow Diagram) and the P&ID (Piping and Instrument Diagram). The PFD is used by the more experienced Piping Material Engineer early in the project for Line Class development before the P&IDs are available. Once the P&IDs are developed they become the Base document for all piping material selection. Process Variables All Piping Material Engineer must know and understand the four basic process variables: pressure, temperature, flow and level, and the ramifications these variables have on a commodity and the piping system. Chemistry All Piping Material Engineers need to know and understand the many different kinds of commodities found in a process plant. They need to know and understand the characteristics and dangers of these chemicals. They need to know the dangers to humans and the reactions these chemicals have on different piping materials (metallic and non-metallic). Materials of Construction All Piping Material Engineers need to know and understand the common metallic, special alloy and non-metallic materials used for pipe, fittings, flanges and all the other piping related items. Pipe, Fittings, Flanges and Valves All Piping Material Engineer need to know and understand the broad spectrum of items that make up the vocabulary of the piping language. This includes the many types of fittings, the many different schedules, the wide variety of common piping materials, the flange class ratings and the types and function of the different valve designs. Specialty Piping Items (SP Items) All Piping material Engineers need to know and understand the difference between normal piping components (normally found in the Line Class Specifications) and items that are considered Special or different and are therefore called SP Items. Calculations All Piping Material Engineer must know and understand how to use the process variables and their affect on a commodity and do the calculations to select the proper Pipe material, Wall thickness, the correct Flange Class ratings and Gaskets for each system. Piping Welding, NDE and PWHT - All Piping Material Engineers need to know and understand the basics of pipe welding used for pipe, fittings and flanges along with the requirements for NonDestructive Examination and Post Weld Heat Treatment. Insulation - All Piping Material Engineer must know and understand the many types and the specific needs of insulation used for piping systems Paint, Galvanizing and Coatings - All Piping Material Engineer must know and understand the many types of Paints, Galvanizing and Coatings used on piping systems and the special requirements of for the application and handling. Fabrication and Construction methods All Piping Material Engineers need to understand shop spool fabrication, modularization and field erection construction methods. Heat Tracing All Piping Material Engineers need to understand the purpose of process heat conservation, know the different methods (Jacketing, Tracer Tubing or Electric), Tracer commodity (Steam, Oil, Hot Water, etc.) and Tracer system requirements and be able to select or specify the proper material for heat tracing circuitry. Process Plant Equipment All Piping Material Engineer need to know and understand what the different types of equipment are; what they do and the piping material related issues.

Standards and Specifications All Piping Material Engineers need to understand the content and application of the client and engineering company Standards and Specifications used on the project. In particular the Material Engineer must have intimate knowledge of the primary Piping Standards and Specifications. Design production methods All Piping Material Engineers need to be able to make use of all types of piping documents (sketches, layouts, detail piping plans, isometrics, etc). Software Database requirements - All Piping Material Engineers need to understand the responsibilities of the PME in the development of the 2D and 3D Design system material database. Deliverables All Piping Material Engineers need to understand the purposes of each of the piping material deliverables, such as Specifications, Specialty Item Data sheets, outlines and the Project Piping Commodity Code Catalog listing all Item Code Numbers. Economics All Piping Material Engineers must be aware of economics. This includes the material selection to reduce costly high pressure and alloy piping runs and reduce the use of odd, high cost fittings

Any person that has this type of training, this type of knowledge and then consistently applies it is indeed a Piping Material Engineer. He or she will also be a more valuable asset to their company and to themselves in the market place. On the other hand anyone who does not know or does not apply the knowledge about these issues while doing piping work is not making a proper cost effective contribution to the Project, their Company or to their own career.

Section - VII, Management and Supervision

G: What does a Pipe Stress Engineer need to know? By: James O. Pennock The term Pipe Stress Engineer as used in this document refers to that person responsible for insuring that the pipe routing done by the piping layout designer is consistent with the allowables in the applicable piping Code. This includes; the thermal forces and the live and dead loads the piping system imposes on equipment, equipment nozzles and structures. The Pipe Stress Engineer is also responsible for the selecting and specifying stress related products including various types of Expansion Joints, Constant Support Spring Hangers and Snubbers or Struts. What does the Pipe Stress Engineer need to know? Pipe Stress Engineering is more than just knowing how to turn on the Analysis software in the computer, how to find the menus and the difference between pass and fail. So, appropriately, what else does the Pipe Stress Engineer need to know about piping? Here is a list of the most basic of things that a good Pipe Stress Engineer should know. Thinking about every one of these items should become as natural as breathing for a good Pipe Stress Engineer.

Piping Codes All Pipe Stress Engineers need to know about the applicable Piping Codes for the different types of Process Plants and have access to the most up-to-date copy so the proper data is used and proper decisions can be made for the calculations and the good of the project. Pipe, Fittings, Flanges and Valves All Pipe Stress Engineers need to know and understand the broad spectrum of items that make up the vocabulary of the piping language. This includes the many types of fittings, the many different schedules, the wide variety of common piping materials, the flange class ratings and the types of the different valve designs. Relationship of other Engineering groups All Pipe Stress Engineers need to know and understand the relationship, activities and contribution of all the other engineering and design groups on the project. These include: Process, Civil, Structural, Mechanical Equipment, Vessels & Tanks and Instruments/Control Systems. These groups have a responsibility for contributing to Pipings success just as the effort of the Pipe Stress Engineer also has a responsibility for contributing to their success.

Piping Execution All Pipe Stress Engineers must understand how pipe stress progress is linked to P&IDs, Plot Plans, equipment vendor drawings, instrument vendor drawings and structural support design in order to understand areas where the Project may be impacted. Process Variables All Pipe Stress Engineers must know and understand the four basic process variables: pressure, temperature, flow and level, and the effect these have on a piping system. Process Plant Equipment All Pipe Stress Engineers need to know and understand the different types of equipment. They also need to know and understand the pipe stress related issues that effect each type of equipment. Equipment Operation and Internals All Pipe Stress Engineers need to understand the equipment process function and the equipment internals in order to give proper consideration to the effect of piping connected to and reacting on the various nozzles/connections. Equipment piping All Pipe Stress Engineers need to know the right and the wrong way to pipe up (connect pipe to) different kinds of equipment and for maintenance/disassembly space requirements. This includes pumps, compressors, exchangers, filters or any special equipment to be used on a specific project. Allowable pipe spans All Pipe Stress Engineers need to know and understand the span capabilities of pipe in the different schedules for a wide variety of common piping materials. When a new project introduces a new material with severely reduced span capabilities; supplemental training may be required. Expansion of pipe All Pipe Stress Engineers needs to understand that they should treat a piping system as though it is alive. It has a temperature and that temperature causes it to grow and move. That growth and movement must be allowed for and incorporated in the overall design. Not just of that specific line but for all other lines close by. The process of expansion in a pipe or group of pipes will also exert frictional forces or anchor forces on the pipe supports they come in contact with. Routing for flexibility All Pipe Stress Engineers must understand that the piping layout designer has routed the pipe for flexibility and support. Routing for flexibility can normally be achieved through the most natural routing of the pipeline from its origin to its terminus. Routing for flexibility means (a) do not run a pipe in a straight line from origin to terminus and (b) building flexibility into the pipe routing is far cheaper and more reliable than expansion joints. Weight and loads (live loads and dead loads) All Pipe Stress Engineers need to be able to calculate and analyze the effects of weight and loading. They need to know and understand that everything has a weight. They need to be able recognize when there is going to be a concentrated load. They need to have access to basic weight tables for all the standard pipe schedules, pipe fittings, flanges, valves for steel pipe. They also need to have the weight tables for other materials or a table of correction factors for these other materials vs. carbon steel. They need to be able to recognize when downward expansion in a piping system is present and is adding live loads to a support or equipment nozzle. Standards and Specifications All Pipe Stress Engineers need to understand the content and application of the client and engineering company Standards and Specifications used on the project. In particular the Pipe Stress Engineer must have intimate knowledge of the primary Standards and Specifications he/she will use; these being the Misc. (or Secondary) Pipe Support Standards and Piping Material Line Class Specifications. Vessel piping All Pipe Stress Engineers also need to understand about the connecting, supporting and guiding of piping attached to vessels (horizontal or vertical) and tanks. They need to know that nozzle loading is important and does have limitations. Rack piping All Pipe Stress Engineers need to understand that there is a logical approach to the placement of piping in (or on) a pipe rack and the setting of rack elevations. It does not matter how wide or how high the rack or what kind of plant, the logic still applies. Starting from one or both outside edges the largest and hottest lines are sequenced in such a manner that allows for the nesting of any required expansion loops. Another good guideline is; Process lines on the lower deck(s) and Utility Lines on the upper deck(s). The spacing of the lines must also allow for the bowing effect at the loops caused by the expansion. One rule of thumb for setting the distance between piping levels is three times the largest pipe size.

Expansion loops All Pipe Stress Engineers need to understand and be able to use simple rules, tools and methods for checking loops in rack piping. This should include the most common sizes, schedules and materials. They also need to be able to calculate forces of individual line anchors and the combined forces of all lines at a specific support. Cold spring/Pre-spring All Pipe Stress Engineers should understand the basics rules of cold spring and pre-spring. They need to understand what each one is along with when to and when not to use each. Design production methods All Pipe Stress Engineers need to be able to read of the various types of piping documents (manual or CAD sketches, layouts, detail piping plans, isometrics, etc). Every Pipe Stress Engineer must also be able to go to the field or sit in front of a client and make proper, intelligent, and understandable pipe stress decisions. They must also be able to produce detailed final analysis packages. Today, Pipe Stress Engineers also need to know (or be able to learn) a wide range of electronic 2D or 3D design tools. Heat Tracing All Pipe Stress Engineers need to understand the effect of process heat conservation, know the different methods (Jacketing, Tracer Tubing or Electric), Tracer commodity (Steam, Oil, Hot Water, etc.) and Tracer system requirements and be able to consider the heat tracing in the analysis process. Deliverables All Pipe Stress Engineers need to understand the purposes of each of the Pipe Stress deliverables, such as Specifications, Data Sheets, and System for individual line analysis packages, Pipe Sress Logs, Vendor Drawings (Expansion Joint, Spring Hangers and Struts). Stress Sketch Content All Pipe Stress Engineers must understand how to present their comments and instructions. Stress Sketches become a part of the Legal Records for the Project. Therefore all notes and comments on Stress Sketches must be well thought out and clearly written in order to clearly communicate the required and agreed to changes to the design. Economics All Pipe Stress Engineers must be aware of economics. Adding Expansion Joints at the expense of increased maintenance may not be the most cost effective solution to a perceived stress problem.

Any person that has this type of training, this type of knowledge and then consistently applies it is indeed a Pipe Stress Engineer. He or she will also be a more valuable asset to their company and to themselves in the market place. On the other hand anyone who does not know or does not apply the knowledge about these issues while doing piping work not making a proper cost effective contribution to the Project, the Company or to their own career.

Section - VIII, Drawings

a: Underground Piping Plans By: Mark Layport Underground Piping Plan One of easiest piping plans to be generated, but also one of the trickiest! Basically you are documenting ALL piping that is to be buried in a given area. This "area" is normally the whole facility! This is because this U/G (underground) piping is normally done at a smaller scale covering a larger area. Also it's a continually changing design with a lot of variables, and trying to get more then one designer to coincide (like in above ground piping) is far more difficult, so it's normally left up to a single designer to deal with it all. Because this designer has to take in all the controlling parameters and correctly deal with them, this is an assignment for a Sr. level designer! Information required you'll need the following information: - The "approved" equipment layout drawing (equipment location plan, or foundation location plan which ever drawing is used to locate the equipment exactly). I say "approved" plans because in locations the under ground piping can & will be routed very closely to

the equipment in locations, and having the engineers still moving things around can cause extensive re-designs causing lost of mans-hours of design work! - All the foundation drawings/details for that equipment & support/piperack locations. - You'll need a "cut sheet" (manufactures equipment drawing) to be able to locate all drains or commodity connections (where the piping to that connection will be routed under ground). Under Ground Piping Basically the underground piping falls into one of two categories, process lines & drain lines. Normally all buried piping is buried with a minimum cover requirement (18" to 36"approx.) over the top of pipe (T.O.P.) this is both for stress requirements & minimum installation/labor requirement. The weight of vehicles going over buried piping, a minimum required depth is needed to be able to distribute the load so not to damage the buried pipe basically "the deeper the better"! But why spend the man-hours ($) burying pipe deep into the ground to avoid damage when the same thing can be accomplish at a shallower depth and less effort? This is a balance of the two requirements. However "IF" the underground piping is located in an area that it is impossible to have heavy crossing traffic going over it, then the burial depth can be far less. Process piping is probably the easiest routed enters the ground at point "A" and follows a routing that should be half way agreed on by the powers that be on the project by this time, and exits the ground at point "B" only issues are line spacing, burial depth, & corrosion protection on the pipe (if any). Drain piping is more complicated, this normally falls in two categories pressure drains, and gravity drains. Pressure drains are a "closed systems" that utilize pressure to push the commodity through the piping system. This piping is normally routed in the same trench with gravity drains (I'll explain further during that discussion). This is a "closed system" cleans out are not required in these lines, and this piping does not need to be sloped. Gravity drains are an "open system" that utilizes a sloped piping system so the commodity can get from point "A" to point "B" on its own utilizing the gravitational force acting on it. This "open system" means at points along this piping system there are branches to this piping that is open to the atmosphere to allow two things to happen, first and most important, this is where the waste commodity is introduced into the drain header. Secondly this is where the system is "vented" this allows the commodity to run down the system (kind of like putting a straw down into a container of liquid and putting your thumb over the end of the straw, with drawing the straw, the liquid will remain in the straw until you remove your thumb and the liquid is allowed to flow out of the straw, because the system (straw) was allowed to "vent", same thing on a gravity drain). These open branches, where the drains on the equipment introduce the waste commodity into the drain system, are commonly called "drain funnels" or "drain hubs". The term "funnel" or "hub" is from the reducer placed at the opening of the branches in an inverted position so the large end is up to act as a "funnel" to this opening. This also allows multiple small drains (1/2" to 1" normally) to be centered onto one drain funnel (I personally witnessed 5 each " drains routed to a single 6" drain funnel). A common "funnel size is 6" so a 6"x 4" or a 6"x 3" reducer is used. The 3" & 4" size are a common branch size, but don't get too hung-up if the size is a bit different (note - don't use any size below 2" ...good piping designer practice is not to bury lines smaller then 2", For a couple of reasons, lines below 2" are normally threaded, so a potential leak at any threaded fittings. Also they are too easy to mangle with a backhoe causing major damage). Another "trick" with these funnels, they are normally positioned where the end is protruding approximately 3" out of the finishes surface (compacted dirt, gravel, or asphalt). This helps keep other "stuff" from getting into the drain system that doesn't need to be there (I have also seen screens cut out of perforated expanded metal that set just inside the "funnel" to further help filter the system). Sloping drain headers - A gravity drain system is where the piping is sloped to utilize gravitational forces action upon it to get the waste commodity to where it can be properly taken care of or stored (as I had indicated earlier). In my experience 3 slope angles are commonly used, " per foot, 1/8" per foot, & 1/16" per foot. Now " per foot is common slope in residential piping, it's a "fast" slope and can deal with most household "chunky" waste, however dropping a 1" deeper into the ground every 4 feet, this drain piping can get deep fairly quickly. As I discussed earlier, a minimum cover is usually required over the buried piping system, but now you are getting even deeper, now the man-hour installation factor or cost comes in to play. So as engineering compromise the 1/8" per foot slope is used quite often and it can deal with most industrial waste fluids. Lastly 1/16" per foot is used mostly where you have to cover longer distances only dropping 1" every 16 feet. This is alittle easier installation, but usually some "sagging" does occurs in the header. However this installation normally is capable of draining, even with this sagging, before the header is "slugged" full. Drain headers are normally run in there own trench with other drain headers. This is for a few reasons, first it is easier to slope the system if that has to occur with other sloped lines. Now pressure drains are routinely run with sloped gravity drains, normally because they end up in the same place (or close to it). Pressures drains

don't require sloped piping (as I indicated earlier), BUT it doesn't hurt that it is! Trying to slope some lines and not others in the same trench becomes a major construction headache so sloping the drains becomes the determining factor in the same trench, not only for engineering reasons, but only for a construction factor. This also dictates that any other buried lines that are routed with gravity drain will be configured using the 45 deg. ells. & a short spool piece between them, for any 90 Deg. change in direction (see this discussion in CleanOuts) again because it is routed with gravity drains that do require this "unique" configuration. As I mention earlier sloped drain systems can get pretty deep over a long run, so it is advantageous to centrally locate the buried drain tank(s), ponds, or waste disposal area where the waste commodity eventually ends up, where-by shortening the drain system piping that enter this area. This does not mean dead in the middle of the facility! But off-set to the side, waste disposal is not normally the most important "system" in a facility, so it wouldn't occupy a prime spot in that facility. Clean-outs these are the other branch connections on the main drain header. They are usually a 45 deg. lateral off the main header, & a 45 deg ell. in the vertical, and a threaded cap or a flange with a blind at the end. These clean-outs (C/O) are spaced approx. every 100 foot to provide a "port" so if the drain header becoming plugged maintenance people can go to this point, open up the port and introduces a "roto-router" (rotating blade at the end of a flexible cable) to be able to clear out the plug. This tool can normally reach about 100 ft., so positioning clean-outs ever 100 ft on the header is critical in case plugging does occurs deep in the drain header. This tool is very flexible and "could" make it through a couple 90 Deg ell., but the drain header needs to be designed to utilize this roto-router tool's flexible and not impede it, so all changes in direction on the drain header are done using 45 deg ell.s and not 90 Deg. ell.s (this helps the flow also). This configuration is also used in positioning/routing "drain funnels or drain hubs", this is because these points "could be" used to introduce this rooter-router tool as well, especially if the plug has occurred in that branch before the main header. A few design notes, as stated before, spacing for C/O's are approx. 100 ft., but there is another controlling issue, you don't want to try to push a roto-rooter through more then 5 fittings (this is a rule of thumb only) so a C/O would be required closer then the 100 ft. in this situation. One last clean-out location that needs to be discussed is the one on the very beginning of the main drain header. This is a configuration of 2 each 45 deg. ell.s in the vertical and a flange & blind (flg'd because of the larger size of the main header) could be a threaded cap on smaller drain headers. This is probably the most important one because it's the first entrance into the main drain header. It should be located where it can be easily accessed for maintenance equipment (all C/O's should be readily accessible!). An issue that can happen with all C/O's is "if" they could occur where there is vehicular traffic. Having a directly connected piping system exposed to traffic would cause stress/damage issues to that piping system. To eliminate this issue "covers" are fabricated to cover these C/O's. These covers have lids on them to be able to readily access these clean outs. These covers are basically a larger size section of pipe so you have 1" to 3" inches of clearance of any C/O flanges, this larger pipe would have 3 to 4 "lugs" welded to the inside and spaced roughly an 1" from the top edge so as a circular plate steel lid could be fashioned to just fit the inside bore of this "cover". A 1" diameter hole would be positioned into the center of this lid so the maintenance people could use a tool to remove this lid. Lid thickness to be able to with stand the traffic say around 3/8" to " thick. Design note - With the clean-out flange just fitting inside this cover, hex. headed bolts will have to be tack- welded to the underneath side of the flange so nuts are accessible from the top. Documentation this is usually done at a smaller scale then normal 3/8" scale piping plans say " down to 1/8" scale. This is done for a couple reasons, the U/G piping system is normally a less "complicated" system (visibly) then the above ground piping. Also the area of responsibility controlled by the single designer is larger (as stated earlier). So for expedience and simplicity of documentation these drawing use the smaller scales. SO what should be documented on a U/G piping plan? "Simplicity" is the key word here! It would start with the equipment location drawing showing all "control points", roads, battery limits, all support locations, and finally equipment locations. Now when we show supports and equipment locations we want to use the simplest depiction of this image! Centerlines, an outline of the foundation, and an outline of the equipment THAT IS ALL! Back on the board day (drafting by hand) this was done primarily to reduce time and effort required to make the drawing, but in the computer world that is not so much of an issue. However drawings that are over "decorated" (nozzles, bolt holes in flanges, skid structure, or trying to Xref in the entire U/G electrical system) the drawing now become visibly "busier" thus harder to read by everybody, but more importantly construction personnel (people that actually have to use this drawing to build from) and can easily lead to construction errors, so the drawings still needs to be as simple as possible! This simplicity can still help cut down on "drafting time" too, even in the computer world! Now the other "issue" is this, U/G piping is usually the first thing into the ground (not counting foundations) because this is normally the deepest item in grade. SO why would we show anything else that happens above it? Normally electrical conduit runs are at shallower depths, so above the U/G piping. Trying to document items that have no bearing on the U/G piping is a waste of time and effort, and gets back into the "over decoration issue" mentioned earlier! NOW if the electrical designer has "plans" for a particular area or the rare occasion that their electrical routing is as deep as your U/G piping, and you as the piping designer can avoid or take special note of that area or documenting a minimal representation of that conflict only that's all part of being a good designer and touching bases with the other disciplines to resolve issues before they start the backhoe operator & welders are not the people to be trying to resolve engineering &/or design problems! Documentation of this system can be tricky, but not impossible. Remember the contractor is going to need to know where every ell. is located and what the "invert elevation" is at that point. Invert elevation is the bottom of the inside bore of the pipe basically the "wet" part of the piping system. This

can sound like a formable task, but just remember it's just the normal B.O.P. elevation (bottom of pipe) plus the wall thickness. This is called out in this manner: INV. EL. 97'-6 " with a leader pointing to the intersection of the centerlines on the fitting (remember we are trying to maintain this as a common elevation on all U/G piping at the point!). Another thing to remember, if your calculations come up with a value in the 16's or 8's of an inch document it to the closest ". Remember this piping system is not being built in a machine shop, and trying to control a pipe to that degree of accuracy in a ditch is next to impossible (and normally cause the construction people to laugh at the engineer/designer that called it out!) SO again, keep it simple as possible! This points to the last issue, all points of intersection change of direction, drain connections, & clean-outs is clearly documented with either coordinates or dimensions & an invert elevation call out! Leaving this information out and putting notes like "Where the piping is not dimensionally tied down or located by coordinates, construction shall install this piping as close as practical to the indicated routing." notes like this are a "red flag" that the designer and/or engineering company does not full know what they are doing! This now requires the construction people to do the engineering, but doesn't relieve the original engineering firm of the responsibly for the system, or any errors made by the construction people. When are U/G piping drawings not required? "IF" you have a facility that doesn't have any piping that is routed U/G is one obvious reason. However if you only have a few lines that are run underground and they don't run in the same trench then just documenting them on the above ground piping plans would be acceptable. But any time you have more then one line that runs in the same trench and has to comply with the design requirements of any other pipe in that trench (such as sloped piping), then a separate "Under Ground Piping Plan" would be advisable. Remember a few design requirements, main U/G headers are not to be routed under equipment, tanks, or buildings foundations (however branches can start from these locations). This is because that "IF" a line becomes plugged, and maintenance people can't remove the plug, then the line will have to be excavated and replaced (plugged portion only). Try not to route line closer then 18" to foundations (edge to edge, & 12" in a pinch). Again line excavation should not disturb set equipment foundations! Use a smaller scale to cover large areas on the drawing, keeping things simple (do not over decorating the drawing), run all sloped piping in one trench (if possible), position all drain funnels (hubs) and C/O's for maintenance, fully documenting location, slope, anddepth. Don't bury piping smaller then 2". Following these guidelines will help produce a professional drawing that is easily read and constructed from,culminating in a key piping system in any facility.

Section - VIII, Drawings

B: Checking Colour Code Table By: James O. Pennock

Checking Color Code

Color Sample Meaning Primary Use & Purpose Comments

Yellow

Good

Yellow is used for this Yellow is to be used by purpose because it is the Checkers and others on all most transparent of the types of drawings and other primary colors. Yellow should documents to indicate that also be used by the piping the highlighted data is supervisor for P&ID "yellowcorrect and does not need to off" of each line as piping be changed. isometrics are approved and released for issue.

Green

Notes

Green is to be used by Checkers to indicate instructions to the person doing the corrections.

Green is not used for DELETE because it is the universal color for GO or okay.

Red

Add

Red is to be used by Checkers and others to indicate information or drawing data that is to be added.

RED is used because it is the Universal color for STOP, DANGER and BE ALERT. It tends to get peoples attention.

Blue

Delete

Blue is to be used by Checkers and others to indicate data or drawing information that is to be removed for one reason or another.

Lead Pencil

Initial / Date

A standard lead pencil is to be used by Checkers to record who did the checking and to make calculations.

A standard lead pencil is to be used by reviewers of vendor drawings and interdisciplinary documents for mark-ups to record who made the changes or comments (i.e.: Initial & Date)

We used to use stub ins and repads more in years past but most branch tables do not allow for their use now. The prefered method is an olet or tee size depending. It depends on the spec and service as some specs may call for sweepolets if it is 100% RT, laterals if there is flow shearing involved. They are rarely used in Oil & Gas now but I believe the mining industry still uses them. They can be time consuming as the stress department has to calculate the stress at the joint and design a re pad.