DEFINTION OF ESP Our concern in this section is to arrive at a workable definition of ESP.

But before defining what ESP is we would prefer to let gradually emerge as we work through the section. Lets begin our concern with a question: Why ESP? As we know, the English Language world got along well without ESP for many years. Therefore, why has ESP become such an important part of English language teaching? In this section we would like to speak about The Origin of ESP; The Development of ESP; and ESP as an Approach. 1. The Origin of ESP There are three main reasons why ESP came into existence, they are: a. The Demands of a Brave New World The Second World War II between the Facist countries (Germany, Japan, etc) on the one hand and the Aligned countries (The USA, The UK, etc) on the other ended in 1945. The end of the war heralded an age of enormous and unprecedented expansion in scientific, technical and economic activity on an international scale. The expansion created a world unified and dominated by two forces: technology and commerce. Their progress soon generated a demand for an international language. For various reasons, most notably the economic power of the United States in the post-war world, this role fell to English. The effect of this created a new mass of people wanting to learn English not for pleasure or prestige of knowing the language, but because English was the key to the international currencies of technology and commerce. Previously, a knowledge of a foreign language in this case English had been generally regarded as a sign of a well-rounded education. Few learners of English had really questioned why it was necessary. People say, learning a language was its own justification.. As English became the accepted international language of technology and commerce, it created a new generation of learners

who

knew

specifically

why

they

were

learning

language.

Businessmen and businesswomen who wanted to sell their products, mechanics who had to read instruction manuals, doctors who needed to keep up with developments in their field and a large number of students whose course of study included textbooks and journals only available in English. All these and many others needed English and, most importantly they knew why they needed it. This development was also accelerated by the Oil Crisis in the early 1970s. The crisis resulted in a massive flow of funds and Western expertise into the rich-oil countries. It made English suddenly become big business and commercial pressures became to exert an influence. b. A revolution in linguistics At the same time as the demand was growing for English courses designed to specific needs, influential new ideas began to emerge in the study of language. Traditionally the aim of linguistics had been to describe the rules of English grammar. However, the new studies shifted attention away from defining the normal features of language usage to discovering the ways in which language is actually used in real communication. According to the research finding, it was found that the language we speak and write varies considerably, from one context to another. In the teaching of English this gave rise to the view that there are important differences between for instance the English of commerce and that of engineering. These ideas married up naturally with the development of English courses for specific groups of learners. In short, the view gained ground that the English needed by a particular group of learners could be identified by analysing the linguistic characteristics of their specialist area of work or study. So an ESP teacher or practitioner will say to the learners of English, Please tell me what you need English for and I will tell you the English that you need,

c. Focus on the learner It is also said that new development in educational psychology also contributed to the emergence of ESP by emphasing the central importance of the learners and their attitudes to learning. Learners were seen to have different needs and interests. These would have an important influence on their motivation to learn. The standard way of achieving this was to take texts from the learners specialist area. Lets say, texts about Geography for Geography students, texts about Physics for Physics students, and so forth. The assumption underlying this approach was that the clear relevance of the English course to their needs would improve the learners motivation. Therefore, this makes learning process better and faster. 2. The Development of ESP From its early beginnings in the 1960s ESP has undergone three main phases of development. It is now in a fourth with a fifth phase starting to emerge: a. The concept of Register Analysis The first stage ESP constituted a specific register. For instance, the English of Electrical Engineering constituted a specific register is different from that of Biology or of General English. The aim of the analysis was to identify the grammatical and lexical features of these registers. The main motive behind register analysis was the pedagogic one of making the ESP course more relevant to learners need. b. Rhetorical or Discourse Analysis The first stage of its development ESP had focused on language at the sentence level. The second phase of development shifted attention to the level above the sentence. ESP became closely involved with the emerging field of discourse or rhetorical analysis. Register analysis had focused on sentence grammar, but now attention shifted to understanding how sentences were combined in discourse to produce meaning. In stage one there was a more or less tacit assumption in this approach that

the

rhetorical

patterns

of

text

organization

differed

significantly between specialist areas of use. Thus, the rhetorical structure of science texts was regarded as different from that of commercial texts, for example. The typical teaching materials based on the discourse approach taught students to recognize textual patterns and discourse exercises. c. Target Situation Analysis The third stage did not really add anything new to the range of knowledge about ESP. The aim was to take the existing knowledge and set in on a more specific basis, by establishing procedures for relating language analysis more closely to learners reasons for learning. The purpose of an ESP course is to enable to function adequately in a target situation, i.e. the situation in which the learners will use the language they are learning. The ESP course design process should proceed by first identifying the target situation and then carrying out a rigorous analysis of the linguistic features of that situation. This process is usually known as needs analysis. d. Skills and Strategies In the first two stages of the development of ESP all the analysis had been of the surface forms of the language. The target situation analysis approach did not really change this, because in its analysis of learner need it still looked mainly at the surface linguistic features of the target situation. The fourth stage of ESP has seen an attempt to look below the surface and to consider not the language itself but the thinking processes that underlie language use. The principal idea behind the skills-centred approach is that underlying all language use there are common reasoning and interpreting processes which enable us to extract meaning from discourse. The focus should rather be on the underlying markers mainly means of text-diagramming

interpretive strategies, which enable the learner to cope with the surface forms. For example guessing the meaning of words from context, using visual layout to determine the type of text, exploiting cognates i.e. words which are similar in the mother tongue and the target language. In terms of materials this approach generally puts the emphasis on reading or on listening strategies. The characteristic exercises get the learners to reflect on and analyse how meaning is produced and retrieved from written or spoken discourse. In this way, the language learners are treated as thinking beings who can be asked to observe and verbalise the interpretive processes they employ in language use. e. A Learning-Centred Approach All of the stages In outlined that they so far all have been on fundamentally flawed. are based

descriptions of language use. The concern in each case is with describing what people do with language. The next stage of ESP development is not language use. This concern is with language learning. A truly valid approach to ESP must be based on an understanding of the process of language learning. This brings us to the fifth stage of ESP development the learning-centred approach. 3. ESP as an Approach The previous survey shows that in its relatively brief history there have been major shifts in the development of ESP. In spite of their differences, the successive stages have all concentrated on the linguistic aspects of ESP: they are all essentially language-centred approaches. ESP is just one branch of EFL/ESL, which are themselves the main branches of English Language Teaching in general ELT, in turn is one variety of the many possible kinds of language teaching. It shows that: a. ESP is not a matter of teaching specialised varieties of English.

b. ESP is not just a matter of Science words or grammar for scientists, Hotel words and grammar for Hotel staff and so on. c. ESP is not different in kind from any other form of language teaching. In that it should be based in the first instance on principles of effective and efficient learning. So what is ESP? Having stressed the commonality of language and learning, how does ESP differ from other forms of ELT? To answer this, ESP must be seen as an approach not as a product. ESP is not a particular kind of language and methodology, nor does it consist of a particular type of teaching material. It is an approach to language learning, which is based on learner need. The foundation of all ESP is the simple question: Why does this learner need to learn a foreign language? ESP can be defined as an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learners reasons for learning. A DEFINITION OF ESP 1. Hutchinson & Waters (1987) define ESP as an approach rather than a product, by which they mean that ESP does not involve a particular kind of language, teaching material or methodology. They suggest that the foundation of ESP is the simple question: Why does this learner need to learn a foreign language? The answer to this question relates to the learners, the language required and the learning context, and this establishes the primacy of need in ESP. Need is defined by the reasons for which the student is learning English, which will vary from study purposes such as following a postgraduate course in an English speaking country to work purposes such as participating in business meetings or taking hotel bookings. These purposes are the starting points which determine the language to be taught. 2. Strevens (1988) definition of ESP makes distinction between four absolute characteristics and two variable characteristics. The absolute characteristics are that ESP consists of English Language Teaching which is: designed to meet specified needs of the learners; related in content to particular disciplines, occupation and activities.

 centred on language appropriate to those activities in syntax, lexis, discourse, semantics and so on, and analysis of the discourse. in contrast with General English The variable characteristics are that ESP: may be restricted as to the learning skills to be learned. may not be taught according to any pre-ordained methodology. 3. Robinson (1991) also accepts the primacy of needs analysis in defining ESP. Her definition is based on two key defining criteria and number of characteristics that are generally found to be true of ESP. Her key criteria are that ESP is normally goal-directed, and that ESP courses develop from a needs analysis, which aims to specify as closely as possible what exactly it is that students have to do through the medium of English. 4. Dudly, et al (1992) make dictinction between between three absolute characteristics and four variable characteristics. Absolute characteristics: ESP is designed to meet specific needs of the learner; ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the disciplines it serves. ESP is centred on the language (grammar, lexis, register), skills, discourse and genres appropriate to these activities. Variable characteristics: ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines. ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of general English. ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at tertiary level institution or in a professional work situation. It could, however, be used for learners at secondary school level; ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students. Most ESP courses assume basic knowledge of the language system, but it can be used with beginners.

Classification of ESP according to Robinson: Pre-experience EOP Simultaneous/In-service Post-experience ESP Pre-study For study in a Specific discipline EEP/EAP Independent As a school subject Integrated In-study Post-study

COURSE DESIGN In the previous session it is concluded that ESP is an approach to language teaching which aims to meet the needs of particular learners. In practice it means that much of the work done by ESP teachers is concerned with designing appropriate courses for various groups of the learners. The courses here are usually determined either by tradition, choice of textbook or ministerial decree. For the ESP teacher course design is often a substantial and important part of the workload. Designing a course is fundamentally a matter of asking questions so as to provide a reasoned basis for the subsequent processes of syllabus design, materials writing, classroom teaching and evaluation. Kipling outlines the basic questions as follows:

a. Why does the student need to learn? b. Who is going to be involved in the process? In this way, it will need to
cover not only the student, but also the people who may have some effect on the process such as teachers, sponsors, inspectors, etc.

c. Where is the learning to take place? What potential does the place
provide? What limitations does it impose?

d. When is the learning to take place? How much time is available?

How will it be distributed?

e. What does the student need to learn? What aspects of language will
be needed and how will they be described? What level of proficiency must be achieved? What topic areas will need to be covered?

f. How will the learning be described? What learning theory will

underlie the course? What kind of methodology will be employed? These basic questions will be more thoroughly investigated by considering three main headings: Language description, Theories of learning, and Needs analysis. 1. Language description a. Classical or traditional grammar Descriptions of English were based on the grammars of the classical languages, Greek and Latin. These descriptions were based on an analysis of the role played by each word in the sentence. b. Structural linguistics

In a structural description the grammar of the language is described in terms of syntagmatic structures which carry the fundamental propositions (statement, interrogative, negative, imperative, etc) and notions (time, number, gender, etc) By varying the words within these structural frameworks, sentences with different meanings can be generated. This method of linguistic analysis led in English language teaching to the development of the substitution table as a typical means of explaining grammatical patterns. c. Transformational Generative (TG) Grammar Chomsky argued that structural description was too superficial, because it only described the surface structure of the language, and thus could not explain relationships of meaning which were quite clearly there, but which were not realised in the surface structure. In line with Chomskys work was the distinction between performance (i.e. surface structures) and competence (i.e. the deep level rules) d. Language variation and register analysis The concept of language variation gave rise to the type of ESP which was based on register analysis. If language varies according to context, it was argued, then it should be possible to identify the kind of language associated with a specific context, such as an area of knowledge (legal English, social English, medical English, business English, scientific English, etc) or an area of use (technical manuals, academic texts, business meetings, advertisements, doctor-patient communication, etc). e. Functional/ Notional grammar The second major offshoot of work into language as communication which has influenced of language ESP is the functional/notional concept description.

Functions are concerned social behaviour and represent the attention of the speaker or writer, for example, advising, warning, threatening, describing, etc. They can be approximately equated with the communicative acts that

10

are carried out through language. Notions, on the other hand, reflect the way in which the human mind thinks. They are the categories into which the mind and thereby language divides reality, for example, time, frequency, duration, gender, number, location, quantity, quality, etc. f. Discourse (Rhetorical) analysis So far language had been viewed in terms of the sentence. Now the emphasis moved to looking at how meaning is generated between sentences. This was a logical development of the functional/notional view of language which had shown that there is more to meaning than just the words in the sentence. The context of the sentence is also important in creating the meaning. If we take this simple sentence: It is raining and we put it into three different dialogues, we can see how the meaning changes. Can I go out to play? Its raining. (refusal) Have you cut the grass yet? Its raining. (excuse) I think Ill go out for a walk? Its raining. (advice) 2. Theories of learning The starting point for all language teaching should be an understanding of how people learn. But it is too often the case that learning factors are the last to be considered. Yet, language can only be properly understood as a reflection of human thought processes. Language learning is conditioned by the way in which the mind observes, organises and stores information. In other words, the key to successful language learning and teaching lies not only in the analysis of the nature of language but in understanding the structure and processes of the mind. Unfortunately, we still know too little about how people learn. We can identify five main stages of developments of theories of learning since then, which are of relevance to the modern language teacher,

11

a. Behaviourism This theory of learning was the behaviorist theory based mainly on the work of Pavlov and Skinner. The theory said that learning is a mechanical process of habit formation and proceeds by means of the frequent reinforcement of stimulus-response sequence. This theory provided the theoretical underpinning of the widely used Audio-lingual Method of the 195os and 1960s. Modern ESP books have also looked for more interesting ways of handling pattern practice and a number of useful variation on the basic idea have been developed. In particular, authors have tried to provide a meaningful context for the drills. b. Mentalism Chomsky (1964) tackled behaviourism on the question of how the mind was able to transfer what was learnt in one stimulusresponse sequence to other novel situations. There was a vague concept of generalisation in behaviourist theory. Chomsky dismissed the generalisation idea as unworkable, because it simply could not explain how from a finite range of experience, the human mind was able to cope with an infinite range of possible situations. His conclusion was that thinking must be rule-governed i.e. a finite, and fairly small, set of rules enables the mind to deal with the potentially infinite range of experiences it may encounter. Based on this theory, it is concluded that learning consists of not forming habits but of acquiring rules, a process in which individual experiences are used by the mind to formulate a hypothesis. In other words, the mind does not just respond to a stimulus; it uses individual stimuli in order to find the underlying pattern or system, It can then use this knowledge of the system in a novel situation to predict what is likely to happen, what is an appropriate response, or whatever. The mentalist view of the mind as a rule-seeker led naturally to the next important stage the cognitive theory of learning. c. Cognitive code

12

The beaviourist theory of learning portrayed the learner as a passive receiver of information. The cognitive view takes the learner to be an active processor of information. Learning and using a rule require learners to think, i.e. to apply their mental powers in order to distil a workable generative rule from the mass of data presented, and then to analyse the situations where the application of the rule would be useful or appropriate. Learning, then, is a process in which the learner actively tries to make sense of data, and learning can be said to have taken place when the learner has managed to impose some sort of meaningful interpretation or pattern on the data. The basic teaching technique associated with a cognitive theory of language learning is the problem-solving task. In ESP such exercises have been modelled on activities associated with the learners subject specialism. d. The affective factor People think, but they also have feelings. It is one of the paradoxes of human nature. Although we are all aware of our feelings and their effects on our actions, we invariably seek answers to our problems in rational terms. Human beings always act in a logical and sensible manner. This attitude affects the way we see learners more like machines to be programmed than people with likes and dislikes, fears, weaknesses and prejudices. But learners are people, and even ESP learners are people. They may be learning about machines and systems, but they still learn as human beings. Learning, particularly the learning of a language, is an emotional experience, and the feelings that the learning process evokes will have a crucial bearing on the success or failure of the learning. The importance of the emotional factor is easily seen if we consider the relationship between the cognitive and affective aspects of the learner. Before learners can actively think about something, they must want to think about it. The emotional reaction to the learning experience is the essential foundation for the initiation of the cognitive process. How the learning is perceived by the learner will affect what learning will take place.

13

e. Learning and acquisition Much debate has recently centred around the distinction made by Krashen (1981) between learning and acquisition. Learning is seen as a conscious process, while acquisition proceeds unconsciously. This reflects our view that for the second language learner both processes are likely to play a useful part and that a good ESP course will try to exploit both. 3. Needs analysis We have defined ESP as an approach to course design which starts with the question Why do these learners need to learn English? The answer to this very reasonable question is in theory nothing, in practice a great deal. What distinguishes ESP from General English is not the existence of a need as such but rather an awareness of the need. If learners, sponsors and teachers know why the learners need English, that awareness will have an influence on what will be acceptable as reasonable content in the language course and, on the positive side, what potential can be exploited. a. Target needs Target needs is something of an umbrella term, which in practice hides a number of important distinctions. It is more useful to look at the target situation in terms of necessities, lacks, and wants. (1) necessities We call necessities the type of need determined by the demands of the target situation, i.e. what the learner has to know in order to function effectively in the target situation. For example, a businessman or businesswoman might need to understand business letters, to communicate effectively at sales conferences. To get necessary information from sales catalogues, and so on. He or she will presumably also need to know the linguistic features which are commonly used in the situation identified. (2) lacks To identify necessities alone is not enough, since the concern in ESP is with the needs of particular learners. We also need to know what the learner knows already, so that we can then decide which of the necessities the learner lacks. The target proficiency needs to be

14

matched against the existing proficiency of the learners. The gap between the two can be referred to as the learners lacks. (3) Wants The learners also have a view as to what their needs are. They may well have a clear idea of the necessities of the target situation. They will certainly have a view as to their lacks. But it is quite possible that the learners views will conflict with the perceptions of other interested parties: course designers, sponsors, and teachers. Bearing in mind the importance of learner motivation in the learning process, learner perceived wants cannot be ignored. APPROACHES TO COURSE DESIGN Course design is the process by which the raw data about a learning need is interpreted in order to produce an integrated series of teachinglearning experiences, whose ultimate aim is to lead the learners to a particular state of knowledge. In practical terms this entails the use of the theoretical and empirical information available to produce a syllabus, to select, adapt or write materials and to establish evaluation procedures by which progress towards the specified goals will be measured. There are probably as many different approaches to ESP course design as there course designers. We can identify three main types: languagecentred, Skills-centred, and learning-centred. 1. Language-centred approach This is the simplest kind of course design and is probably the one most familiar to English teachers. The language-centred course design process aims to draw as direct a connection as possible between the analysis of the target situation and the content of the ESP course. The process of designing the course runs as follows: identify learners target situation select theoretical view of language identify linguistic features of target situation create syllabus design materials to exemplify syllabus items etablish evaluation procedures to test acquisition of syllabus items 2. Skills-centred approach

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The skills-centred approach to ESP has been widely applied in a number of countries. Students in universities and colleges have the limited but important need to read subject texts in English, because they are unavailable in the mother tongue. In response to this need, a number of ESP projects have been set up with the specific aim of developing the students ability to read in English. The skills-centred approach can certainly claim to take the learner more into account than the language-centred approach. First, it views language in terms of how the mind of the learner processes it rather than as an entity in itself. Second, it tries to build on the positive factors that the learners bring to the course, rather than just on the negative idea of lacks. Third, it frames its objectives in openended terms, so enabling learners to achieve at least something. The process of designing a course is as follows: Identify target situation analyse skills/strategies required to cope in target situation theoretical views of language theoretical views of learning write syllabus select texts and write exercises to focus on skills/ strategies in syllabus establish evaluation procedures which require the use of skills/ strategies in syllabus. 3. A learning-centred approach The learning-centred approach is based on the principle that learning is totally determined by the learner. As teachers we can influence what we teach, but what learners learn is determined by the learners alone. Learning is seen as a process in which the learners use what knowledge or skills they have in order to make sense of the flow of new information. Learning, therefore, is an internal process, which us crucially dependent upon the knowledge of the learners already have and their ability and motivation to use it. Learning is not just a mental process. It is a process of negotiation between individuals and society. Society sets the target and individuals must do their best to get as close to that target as is possible.

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ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES English for Academic Purposes (EAP) refers to any English teaching that relates to a study purpose (Dudly: 2000). Students whose first language is not English may need help with both the language of academic disciplines and the specific study skill required of them during their academic course. The study skills may involve any of the main skills depending on the context. It is very important to be aware of how seen as one movement within ESP. There are four types of EAP situation. They are: (1) An English-speaking country, such as UK or USA. (2) An English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL) situation where English is the official language of education and is widely spoken, as in a former British colonies in Africa or South East Asia. (3) A situation in which certain subjects, such as medicine, engineering or science, are officially taught in English, while for other subjects and at other levels of education the national language is used. the emphasis on different skills also needs to change. EAP has sometimes been

17

(4) A situation where all subject courses are taught in the national language, but English may be important for ancillary reasons.

SUPPLEMENT A DEFINITION OF ESP 1. Hutchinson & Waters (1987) define ESP as an approach rather than a product, by which they mean that ESP does not involve a particular kind of language, teaching material or methodology. They suggest that the foundation of ESP is the simple question: Why does this learner need to learn a foreign language? The answer to this question relates to the learners, the language required and the learning context, and this establishes the primacy of need in ESP. Need is defined by the reasons for which the student is learning English, which will vary from study purposes such as following a postgraduate course in an English speaking country to work purposes such as participating in business meetings or taking hotel bookings. These purposes are the starting points which determine the language to be taught. 2. Strevens (1988) definition of ESP makes distinction between four absolute characteristics and two variable characteristics. The absolute characteristics are that ESP consists of English Language Teaching which is: designed to meet specified needs of the learners; related in content to particular disciplines, occupation and activities. centred on language appropriate to those activities in syntax, lexis, discourse, semantics and so on, and analysis of the discourse. in contrast with General English The variable characteristics are that ESP: may be restricted as to the learning skills to be learned.

18

 may not be taught according to any pre-ordained methodology. 3. Robinson (1991) also accepts the primacy of needs analysis in defining ESP. Her definition is based on two key defining criteria and number of characteristics that are generally found to be true of ESP. Her key criteria are that ESP is normally goal-directed, and that ESP courses develop from a needs analysis, which aims to specify as closely as possible what exactly it is that students have to do through the medium of English. 4. Dudly, et al (1992) make dictinction between between three absolute characteristics and four variable characteristics. Absolute characteristics: ESP is designed to meet specific needs of the learner; ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the disciplines it serves. ESP is centred on the language (grammar, lexis, register), skills, discourse and genres appropriate to these activities. Variable characteristics: ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines. ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of general English. ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at tertiary level institution or in a professional work situation. It could, however, be used for learners at secondary school level; ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students. Most ESP courses assume basic knowledge of the language system, but it can be used with beginners. Classification of ESP according to Robinson: Pre-experience EOP Simultaneous/In-service Post-experience ESP

19

Pre-study For study in a Specific discipline EEP/EAP Independent As a school subject Integrated In-study Post-study

ROLES OF THE ESP PRACTITIONER According to Dudley (2000), the ESP practitioner has five key roles: (1) The ESP practitioner as teacher ESP is a practical discipline with the main focus on helping students to learn. The teacher is not in the position of being the primary knower of the carrier content of the material. The students in many cases, certainly where the course is specifically oriented towards the subject content or work that the students are engaged in, know more about the content than the teacher. It is often stated that this provides the ESP teacher with the opportunity to draw on students knowledge of the content in order to generate genuine communication in the classroom. When teaching much more specific course, it is essential that the teacher adopts the stance of the consultant who has knowledge of communication practices, but needs to negotiate with the students on how best to exploit these practices to meet the objectives they have. In some situations the role of the ESP teacher goes beyond that of the classroom teacher and extends to giving one-to-one advice to students. For example, to give a tutorial or series of tutorials on the actual piece of writing in improving students ability to write essays, reports, or dissertations ESP teachers also need to have a great deal of flexibility, be willing to listen to learners, and to take interest in the disciplines or professional activities the students are involved in. ESP teachers must also be happy to take some risks in their teaching. The willingness to be flexible and to take risks is one of the keys to success in ESP teaching.

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(2) The ESP practitioner as a course designer and materials provider ESP practitioners often have to plan the course they teach and provide the materials for it. It is rarely possible to use a particular textbook without the need for supplementary material, and sometimes no really suitable published material exists for certain of the identified needs. The role of ESP involves choosing suitable published material, adapting material not suitable, or even writing material where nothing suitable exists.

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(3) The ESP practitioner as researcher Research has been particularly strong in the area of EAP, where there is a healthy and developing range of published research, especially in genre analysis. ESP teachers need to be aware of and in touch with this research. Those carrying out a need analysis, designing a course, or writing teaching materials need to be able to incorporate the findings of the research. An ESP practitioner has to go beyond the stage of Needs Analysis Target Situation Analysis to observe as far as possible the situation in which students use the identified skills, and analyse samples of the identified texts. As part of this process, ESP teachers generally need to be able to carry out research to understand the discourse of the texts that students use. (4) The ESP practitioner as collaborator Subject specific work is often best approached through collaboration with subject specialists. This may involve simply cooperation in which the ESP teacher finds out about the subject syllabus in an academic context or the tasks the students have to carry out in a work or business situation. There are some alternatives: (a) it may involve specific collaboration so that there is some integration between specialist studies or activities and the language, (b) it might involve the language teacher specifically preparing learners for the language of subject lectures or business presentation one or two days before the subject lecture or presentation, (c) a specialist teacher checks and comments on the content of teaching materials that the ESP teacher has prepared, (d) the fullest collaboration is where a subject expert and a language teacher team-teach classes (in EAP) might help with the understanding of subject lectures or writing of examination answers, essays or theses, in EOP they might involve the language teacher and a business trainer working together to teach both skills and the language related to business communication. (5) The ESP practitioner as evaluator

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THE SYLLABUS

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