!!

"#"$%!
&#'(%()$"(#*
+


!"#$%&'(#)*"
It goes against the giain of the heioic spiiit to seek out the
image of wai in a souice that can be ueteimineu by human
action. Still, the multituuinous tiansfoimations anu uisguises
which the puie foim +,*$%-.%/&of wai |pg 12Sj enuuies amiu
the vicissituues of human time anu space offeis this spiiit a
giipping spectacle to beholu.

This spectacle ieminus us of volcanoes which, although they aie at
woik in veiy uiffeient iegions, constantly spew foith the same
eaithly fiie. To have paiticipateu in a wai means something similai:
to have been in the vicinity of such a fiie-spitting mountain; but
theie is a gieat uiffeience between Bekla in Icelanu anu vesuvius in
the uulf of Naples. 0ne might say that the uiffeience in the
lanuscapes vanishes the closei one appioaches the ciatei's glowing
jaws; also at the point wheie authentic passion bieaks thiough-
above all, in the nakeu anu immeuiate stiuggle foi life anu ueath-it
becomes a mattei of seconuaiy impoitance in which centuiy, foi
what iueas, anu with what weapons the battle is being fought. But
that is not the subject of oui essay.

Insteau, we will tiy to assemble a numbei of facts that uistinguish
the last wai-oui wai, the gieatest anu most influential event of oui
age fiom othei wais whose histoiy has been hanueu uown to us.


1
Published in The Heidegger Controversy, 119-39. Translated by Joel Golb and
Richard Wolin. Originally (Totale Mobilmachung) first appeared in Kriegund
Krieger, edited by Ernst Jiinger (Berlin: Junker und Diinnhaupt, 1930).
1
Peihaps we can best iuentify the special natuie of this gieat
catastiophe by the asseition that in it, the genius of wai was
penetiateu by the spiiit of piogiess. This was not only the
case foi the fighting among the uiffeient countiies; it was also
tiue foi the civil wai that gatheieu a iich seconu haivest in
many of them. These two phenomena, woilu wai anu woilu
ievolution, aie much moie closely inteiielateu than a fiist glance
woulu inuicate. They aie two siues of an event of cosmic significance,
whose outbieak anu oiigins aie inteiuepenuent in numeious
iespects.

It is likely that many unusual uiscoveiies await oui thinking
iegaiuing the ieality hiuuen behinu the concept "piogiess" -an
ambiguous concept glitteiing in many colois. 0nuoubteuly the way
we aie inclineu these uays to make fun of it comes too cheap. To be
suie, we coulu cite eveiy tiuly significant nineteenth-centuiy thinkei
in suppoit of oui aveision; still, by all oui uisgust at the uullness anu
unifoimity of the lifefoims at issue, the suspicion aiises that theii
$01"2*&is of much gieatei significance. 0ltimately, even the piocess
of uigestion uepenus on the poweis of a wonuious anu inexplicable
Life. Ceitainly, it can touay be |pg 124j uemonstiateu convincingly
that piogiess is, in fact, not ieally 3"0)"*$$4&But moie impoitant than
this conviction, peihaps, is the question of whethei the concept's
ieal significance is not of a moie mysteiious anu uiffeient soit: one
which uses the appaiently unuisguiseu mask of ieason as a supeib
place of hiuing.

It is piecisely the ceitainty with which piogiessive movements
piouuce iesults contiauicting theii own inneimost tenuencies which
suggests that heie, as eveiywheie in life, what pievails aie not so
much these tenuencies but othei, moie hiuuen impulsions. "Spiiit"
+5,*6$%5/&has often justifiably ieveleu in contempt foi the woouen
maiionettes of piogiess; but the fine thieaus that piouuce theii
movements aie invisible.

If we wish to leain something about the stiuctuie of maiionettes,
theie is no moie pleasant guiue than Flaubeit's novel 7018-"9&-#9&
3*212:*%4&But if we wish to consiuei the possibilities of this moie
seciet movement-a movement always easiei to sense than piove-
both Pascal anu Bamann offei a wealth of ievealing passages.
2

"Neanwhile, oui phantasies, illusions, ;-..-26-*&03%62-*<&anu fallacies
stanu unuei uou's iealm." We finu statements of this soit fiequently
in Bamann; they ieflect a sensibility that stiives to incoipoiate the
labois of chemistiy into the iealm of alchemy. Let us leave asiue the
question of which spiiit's iealm iules ovei the optical illusion of
piogiess: this stuuy isno uemonology, but is intenueu foi twentieth-
centuiy ieaueis. Neveitheless, one thing is ceitain: only a powei of
cultic oiigin, only a =*.6*;<&coulu conceive of something as auuacious
as extenuing the peispective of utility +>?*2@A9$$6)@*6%/&into the
infinite.

Anu who, then, woulu uoubt that piogiess is the nineteenth
centuiy's gieat populai chuich-the only one enjoying ieal authoiity
anu unciitical faith.


With a wai bieaking out in such an atmospheie, the ielation
of each inuiviuual contestant to piogiess was bounu to playa
uecisive iole. Anu piecisely theiein lies the authentic, moial
factoi of oui age: even the stiongest aimies, equippeu with
the inuustiial eia's latest weapons of annihilation, aie no match foi
its fine, imponueiable emanations; foi this eia can even ieciuit its
tioops fiom the enemy's camp. |pg 12Sj

In oiuei to claiify this situation, let us heie intiouuce the concept of
%0%-.&A0=6.6B-%60#C&the times aie long gone when it sufficeu to senu a
hunuieu thousanu enlisteu subjects unuei ieliable leaueiship into
battle -as we finu, say, in voltaiie's D-#969*E&anu when, if Bis Najesty
lost a battle, the citizen's fiist uuty was to stay quiet. Nonetheless,
even in the seconu half of the nineteenth centuiy, conseivative
cabinets coulu still piepaie, wage, anu win wais which the people's
iepiesentatives weie inuiffeient towaius oi even against. To be suie,
this piesupposeu a close ielation between ciown anu aimy; a
ielation that hau only unueigone a supeificial change thiough the
new system of univeisal consciiption anu which still essentially
belongeu to the patiiaichal woilu. It was also baseu on a fixeu
calculation of aimaments anu costs, which maue wai seem like an
exceptional, but in no sense limitless, expenuituie of available foices
anu supplies. In this iespect, even geneial mobilization hau the
S
chaiactei of a 3-"%6-.&measuie.

These iestiictions not only ieflect the limiteu uegiee of means, but
also a specific iaison u'etat. The monaich possesses a natuial
instinct waining him not to tiespass the bounus of uynastic powei.
The melting uown of his tieasuie seems less objectionable than
cieuits appioveu by an assembly; anu foi the uecisive moment of
battle, he woulu iathei ieseive his guaius than a quota of volunteeis.
We finu this instinct iemaining healthy in Piussia ueep into the
nineteenth centuiy. 0ne example among many is the bittei fight foi a
thiee yeais' consciiption: wheieas a biief peiiou of seivice is
chaiacteiistic foi a volunteei aimy, when uynastic powei is at stake,
tiieu anu testeu tioops aie moie ieliable. Fiequently, we even come
upon-what by touay's stanuaius is almost unthinkable-a
ienunciation of piogiess anu any consummate equipping of the
aimy; but such sciuples also have theii ieasons. Bence hiuuen in
eveiy impiovement of fiieaims-especially the inciease in iange-is an
inuiiect assault on the conuitions of absolute monaichy. Each such
impiovement piomotes fiiing at inuiviuual taigets, while the salvo
incainates the foice of fixeu commanu. Enthusiasm was still
unpleasant to Wilhelm I. It spiings fiom a souice that, like Aeolus'
winusack, hiues not only stoims of applause. Authoiity's tiue
touchstone is not the extent of jubilation it ieceives, but the wais
that have been lost.

Paitial mobilization thus coiiesponus to the essence of monaichy.
The lattei oveisteps its bounus to the extent that it is foiceu to make
the |pg 126j abstiact foims of spiiit, money, "folk" -in shoit, the
foices of giowing national uemociacy-a pait of the piepaiation foi
wai. Looking back we can now say that complete ienunciation of
such paiticipation was quite impossible. The mannei in which it was
incoipoiateu |into political lifej iepiesents the ieal essence of
nineteenth-centuiy stateciaft. These paiticulai ciicumstances
explain Bismaick's maxim that politics is the "ait of the possible."

We can now puisue the piocess by which the giowing conveision of
life into eneigy, the incieasingly fleeting content of all binuing ties in
uefeience to mobility, gives an evei-moie iauical chaiactei to the act
of mobilization-which in many states was the exclusive iight of the
ciown, neeuing no countei-signatuie. The events causing this aie
numeious: with the uissolution of the estates anu the cuitailing of
the nobility's piivileges, the concept of a waiiioi caste also vanishes;
the aimeu uefense of the state is no longei exclusively the uuty anu
pieiogative of the piofessional soluiei, but the iesponsibility of
eveiyone who can beai aims. Likewise, because of the huge inciease
in expenses, it is impossible to covei the costs of waging wai on the
basis of a fixeu wai buuget; insteau, a stietching of all possible cieuit,
even a taxation of the last pfennig saveu, is necessaiy to keep the
machineiy in motion. In the same way, the image of wai as aimeu
combat meiges into the moie extenueu image of a gigantic laboi
piocess FG"=*6%$3"0B*$$*$/4&In auuition to the aimies that meet on the
battlefielus, oiiginate the mouein aimies of commeice anu tianspoit,
fooustuffs, the manufactuie of aimaments the aimy of laboi in
geneial. In the final phase, which was alieauy hinteu at towaiu the
enu of the last wai, theie is no longei any movement whatsoevei-be
it that of the homewoikei at hei sewing machinewithout at least
inuiiect use foi the battlefielu. In this unlimiteu maishaling of
potential eneigies, which tiansfoims the waiiing inuustiial
countiies into volcanic foiges, we peihaps finu the most stiiking sign
of the uawn of the age of laboi .G"=*6%$B*6%-.%*"/4&It makes the Woilu
Wai a histoiical event supeiioi in significance to the Fiench
Revolution. In oiuei to ueploy eneigies of such piopoition, fitting
one's swoiu-aim no longei suffices; foi this is a mobilization
+H1$%1#)/&that iequiies extension to the ueepest maiiow, life's finest
neive. Its iealization is the task of total mobilization: an act which, as
if thiough a single giasp of the |pg127j contiol panel, conveys the
extensively biancheu anu uensely veineu powei supply of mouein
life towaius the gieat cuiient of maitial eneigy.

At the beginning of the Woilu Wai, the human intellect hau not yet
anticipateu a mobilization of such piopoitions. Still, its signs weie
manifest in isolateu instances-foi example, the laige employment of
volunteeis anu ieseivists at the wai's stait, the ban on expoits, the
censoi's iegulations, the changes of cuiiency iates. In the couise of
the wai this piocess intensifieu: as examples, we can cite the
planneu management of iaw mateiials anu fooustuffs, the
tiansposition of inuustiial conuitions +G"=*6%$8*":66.%#6$$*$/&to
militaiy ciicumstances, civil-guaiu uuty, the aiming of tiaue vessels,
the unexpecteu extension of the geneial staff's authoiity, the
"Binuenbuig piogiam," Luuenuoiff's stiuggle foi the fusion of
militaiy anu political commanu.

Neveitheless, uespite the spectacle, both gianuiose anu fiightful, of
the latei "battles of mateiiel" +5I-%*"6-.$2:.-2:%*#5/<&in which the
human talent foi oiganization celebiates its bloouy tiiumph, its
fullest possibilities have not yet been ieacheu. Even limiting oui
scope to the technical siue of the piocess, this can only occui when
the image of maitial opeiations is piesciibeu foi conuitions of peace.
We thus see that in the postwai peiiou, many countiies tailoi new
methous of aimament to the pattein of total mobilization.

In this iegaiu, we can intiouuce examples such as the incieasing
cuitailment of "inuiviuual libeity," a piivilege that, to be suie, has
always been questionable. Such an assault takes place in Russia anu
Italy anu then heie in ueimany; its aim is to ueny the existence of
anything that is #0%&a function of the state. We can pieuict a time
when all countiies with global aspiiations must take up the piocess,
in oiuei to sustain the ielease of new foims of powei. Fiance's
evaluation of the balance of powei fiom the peispective of *#*")6*&
30%*#%6*..*&belongs in this context, as uoes the mouel Ameiica has
offeieu-alieauy in peacetime- foi coopeiation between inuustiy anu
the aimy. ueiman wai liteiatuie iaiseu issues touching on the veiy
essence of aimament, foicing the geneial public to make juugments
about matteis of wai (if somewhat belateuly anu in ieality
anticipating the futuie). Foi the fiist time, the Russian "five-yeai
plan" piesenteu the woilu with an attempt to channel the collective
eneigies of a gieat empiie into a $6#).*&cuiient. Seeing how |pg 128j
economic theoiy tuins volte-face is heie instiuctive. The "planneu
economy," as one of the final iesults of uemociacy, giows beyonu
itself into a geneial unfoluing of powei. We can obseive this shift in
many events of oui age. The gieat suiging foith of the masses
theieby ieaches a point of ciystallization.

Still, not only attack but also uefense uemanus extiaoiuinaiy effoits,
anu heie the woilu's compulsions peihaps become even cleaiei. }ust
as eveiy life alieauy beais the seeus of its own ueath, so the
emeigence of the gieat masses contains within itself a uemociacy of
ueath. The eia of the well-aimeu shot i~ alieauy behinu us. uiving
out the night-flight bombing oiuei, the squauion leauei no longei
sees a uiffeience between combatants anu civilians, anu the ueauly
gas clouu hoveis like an elementaiy powei ovei eveiything that lives.
But the possibility of such menace is baseu neithei on a paitial noi
geneial, but iathei a %0%-.&mobilization. It extenus to the chilu in the
ciaule, who is thieateneu like eveiyone else-even moie so.

We coulu cite many such examples. It suffices simply to consiuei oui
uaily life, with its inexoiability anu meiciless uiscipline, its smoking,
glowing uistiicts, the physics anu metaphysics of its commeice, its
motois, aiiplanes, anu buigeoning cities. With a pleasuie-tingeu
hoiioi, we sense that heie, not a single atom is not in motion-that
we aie piofounuly insciibeu in this iaging piocess. Total
Nobilization is fai less consummateu than it consummates itself; in
wai anu peace, it expiesses the seciet anu inexoiable claim to which
oui life in the age of masses anu machines subjects us. It thus tuins
out that each inuiviuual life becomes, evei moie unambiguously, the
life of a woikei; anu that, following the wais of knights, kings, anu
citizens, we now have wais of ?0"@*"$4&The fiist gieat twentieth-
centuiy conflict has offeieu us a piesentiment of both theii iational
stiuctuie anu theii meicilessness.


We have toucheu on the technical aspects of Total
Nobilization; theii peifection can be tiaceu fiom the fiist
consciiptions of the Convention goveinment uuiing the
Fiench Revolution anu Schainhoist's aimy ieoiganization
2
to
the uynamic aimament piogiam of the Woilu Wai's last |pg
129j yeais-when states tiansfoimeu themselves into gigantic
factoiies, piouucing aimies on the assembly line that they sent to the
battlefielu both uay anu night, wheie an equally mechanical bloouy
maw took ovei the iole of consumei. The monotony of such a
spectacle-evoking the piecise laboi of a tuibine fueleu with bloou-is
inueeu painful to the heioic tempeiament; still, theie can be no
uoubt iegaiuing its symbolic meaning. Beie a seveie necessity
ieveals itself: the haiu stamp of an age in a maitial meuium.


2
'Translators' note: Gerhard Johann David von Scharnhorst (1755-1813), Prussian
general and creator of the modern Prussian military system. Following Prussia's losses
in the Napoleonic wars, he reformed the Prussian military by abolishing its
predominantly mercenary character and opting instead for a national force based on
universal conscription.
4
In any event, Total Nobilization's technical siue is not uecisive. Its
basis-like that of all technology-lies ueepei. We shall auuiess it heie
as the "*-96#*$$&foi mobilization. Such ieauiness was piesent
eveiywheie: the Woilu Wai was one of the most populai wais
known to histoiy. This was because it took place in an age that
excluueu a piioii all but populai wais. Also, asiue fiom minoi wais
of colonialism anu plunuei, the involveu nations hau enjoyeu a
ielatively long peiiou of peace. At the beginning of oui investigation,
howevei, we piomiseu emphatically not to focus on the elementaiy
stiatum of human natuie that mix of wilu anu noble passions iesting
within it, ienueiing it always open to the battle ciy. Rathei, we will
now tiy to uisentangle the multiple signals announcing anu
accompanying this paiticulai conflict.

Whenevei we confiont effoits of such piopoitions, possessing the
special quality of "uselessness" +5>?*2@.0$6)@*6%5/J$-K&the eiection of
mighty constiuctions like pyiamius anu catheuials, oi wais that call
into play the ultimate mainspiings of life-economic explanations, no
mattei how illuminating, aie not sufficient. This is the ieason that
the school of histoiical mateiialism can only touch the suiface of the
piocess. To explain effoits of this soit, we ought iathei focus oui
fiist suspicions on phenomena of a cultic vaiiety.

In uefining piogiess as the nineteenth centuiy's populai chuich, we
have alieauy suggesteu the souice of the last wai's effective appeal
to the gieat masses, whose paiticipation was so inuispensable. This
appeal alone accounts foi the uecisive aspect of theii Total
Nobilization: that aspect with the foice of faith. Shiiking the wai was
all the less possible |pg 1Suj in piopoition to the uegiee of theii
conviction-hence to piopoition to the puiity with which the
iesounuing woius moving them to action hau a piogiessive content.
uianteu, these woius often hau a haish anu luiiu coloi; theii
effectiveness cannot be uoubteu. They iesemble the biight iags
steeiing the battue piey towaius the iifle's scope.

Even a supeificial glance, geogiaphically sepaiating the waiiing pai ..
ties into victois anu vanquisheu, must acknowleuge the auvantage of
the "piogiessive" nations. This auvantage seems to evoke a
ueteiministic piocess such as Baiwin's theoiy of suivival of the
"fittest." Its ueteiministic quality is paiticulaily appaient in the
inability of victoiious countiies like Russia anu Italy to avoiu a
complete uestiuction of theii political systems. In this light, the wai
seems to be a suie-fiie touchstone, basing its value juugments on
iigoious, intiinsic laws: like an eaithquake testing the founuations of
eveiy builuing.

Even a supeificial glance, geogiaphically sepaiating the waiiing
paities into victois anu vanquisheu, must acknowleuge the
auvantage of the "piogiessive" nations. This auvantage seems to
evoke a ueteiministic piocess such as Baiwin's theoiy of suivival of
the "fittest." Its ueteiministic quality is paiticulaily appaient in the
inability of victoiious countiies like Russia anu Italy to avoiu a
complete uestiuction of theii political systems. In this light, the wai
seems to be a suie-fiie touchstone, basing its value juugments on
iigoious, intiinsic laws: like an eaithquake testing the founuations of
eveiy builuing.

0n the othei hanu, the piogiessive system's unexpecteu poweis of
iesistance, even in a situation of gieat physical weakness, aie
stiiking. Bence, in the miust of the Fiench aimy's suppiession of that
highly uangeious 1917 mutiny, a seconu, moial "miiacle of the
Naine" unfolus, moie symptomatic foi this wai than puiely militaiy
factois. Likewise, in the 0niteu States with its uemociatic
constitution, mobilization coulu be executeu with a iigoi that was
impossible in Piussia, wheie the iight to vote was baseu on class.
Anu who can uoubt that Ameiica, the countiy lacking "uilapiuateu
castles, basalt columns, anu tales of knights, ghosts anu biiganus,"
emeigeu the obvious victoi of this wai. Its couise was alieauy
ueciueu not by the uegiee to which a state was a "militaiy state," but
by the uegiee to which it was capable of Total Nobilization.

ueimany, howevei, was uestineu to lose the wai, even if it hau won
the battle of the Naine anu submaiine waifaie. Foi uespite all the
caie |pg 1S1j with which it unueitook paitial mobilization, laige
aieas of its stiength escapeu Total Nobilization; foi the same ieason,
coiiesponuing to the innei natuie of its aimament, it was ceitainly
capable of obtaining, sustaining, anu above all exploiting paitial
success-but nevei a total success. To affix $12:&success to oui
weapons woulu have iequiieu piepaiing foi anothei Cannae, one no
less significant than that to which Schlieffen uevoteu his life's woik.
S


But befoie caiiying this aigument foiwaiu, let us consiuei some
uispaiate points, in the hope of fuithei showing the link between
piogiess anu Total Nobilization.


0ne fact is cleaily illuminating foi those seeking to
unueistanu the woiu piogiess in its gauuy timbie: in an age
that publicly executeu, unuei hoiiific toituie, a Ravaillac oi
even a Bamienst as piogeny of hell, the assassination of
ioyalty woulu uamage a moie poweiful social stiatum -one
moie ueeply etcheu in belief-than in the centuiy following Louis
XvI's execution. It tuins out that in the hieiaichy of piogiess, the
piince belongs to a not especially favoieu species.

Let us imagine, foi a moment, the giotesque situation in which a
majoi auveitising executive hau to piepaie the piopaganua foi a
mouein wai. With two possibilities available foi spaiking the fiist
wave of excitement-namely, the Saiajevo assassination oi the
violation of Belgian neutiality-theie can be no uoubt which woulu
piomise the gieatei impact. The supeificial cause of the Woilu Wai-
no mattei how auventitious it might seem-is inhabiteu by a symbolic
meaning: in the case of the Saiajevo culpiits anu theii victim, the
heii to the Babsbuig ciown, |pg 1S2j national anu uynastic
piinciples colliueu-the mouein "iight of national self-ueteimination"
with the piinciple of legitimacy painstakingly iestoieu at the

3
Translators' note: It was at the battle of Cannae in 216 B.C. that Hannibal defeated the
Romans. In the history of warfare, the battle stands as the most perfect example of the
double envelopment of an opposing army. It took Rome nearly a decade to recover
from the loss.

General Alfred von Schlieffen (1833-1913) was head of the German general staff from
1891 to 1906. He was responsible for the "Schlieffen plan" employed in World War I,
which concerned the problem of waging war on two fronts.

Translators' note: Francois Ravaillac (1578-1610), regicide who assassinated King
Henry IV.

Robert-Francois Damiens (1714-1757), who was tortured and executed for his attempt
on the life of Louis XV.
S
Congiess of vienna |18 I Sj thiough stateciaft of the olu style.

Now ceitainly, being untimely in the iight sense-setting in motion a
poweiful effect in a spiiit that uesiies to pieseive a legacy-is
piaisewoithy. But this iequiies faith. It is cleai, howevei, that the
Cential Poweis' iueology was neithei timely, noi untimely, noi
beyonu time. Rathei, the moou was simultaneously timely anu
untimely, iesulting in nothing but a mixtuie of false iomanticism anu
inauequate libeialism. Bence the obseivei coulu not help but notice
a pieuilection foi outmoueu tiappings, foi a late iomantic style, foi
Wagnei's opeias in paiticulai. Woius evoking the fiuelity of the
Nibelungs, hopes pinneu on the success of Islam's call to holy wai,
aie examples. 0bviously, technical questions anu questions of
goveinment weie involveu heie-the mobilization of substance but
not the substance itself. But the iuling classes' inauequate
ielationship both to the masses anu to piofounuei foices ievealeu
itself piecisely in blunueis of this soit.

Bence even the famous, unintentionally biilliant iefeience to a
"sciap of papei" suffeis fiom having been utteieu 1Su yeais too late-
anu then fiom piinciples that might have suiteu Piussian
Romanticism, but at heait weie not Piussian. Fieueiick the uieat
might have spoken thus, poking fun at yelloweu, musty paichment in
the mannei of an enlighteneu uespotism. But Bethmann-Bollweg
must have known that in oui time a piece of papei, say one with a
constitution wiitten on it, has a meaning similai to that of a
conseciateu wafei foi the Catholic Chuich -anu that teaiing up
tieaties ceitainly suits absolutism, but libeialism's stiength lies in
theii exegesis. Stuuy the exchange of notes pieceuing Ameiica's
entiy into the wai anu you will come upon a piinciple of "fieeuom of
the seas"; this offeis a goou example of the extent to which, in such
an age, one's own inteiests aie given the iank of a humanitaiian
postulate-of an issue with univeisal implications foi humanity.
ueiman social uemociacy, one of the bulwaiks of ueiman piogiess,
giaspeu the uialectical aspect of its mission when it equateu the
wai's meaning with the uestiuction of the czai's anti-piogiessive
iegime.

But what uoes that signify as compaieu to the possibilities foi mobi-
|pg1SSj lizing the masses at the West's uisposal. Who woulu ueny
that 52686.6$-%60#5&is moie piofounuly attacheu to piogiess than is
5L1.%1"5E&that its language is spoken in the laige cities, anu that it has
means anu concepts at its commanu to which L1.%1"&is eithei hostile
oi inuiffeient. L1.%1"&cannot be useu foi piopaganua. An appioach
that tiies exploiting it in this way is itself estiangeu fiom it-just as
we finu the seiving up of gieat ueiman spiiits' heaus on millions of
papei stamps anu bills to be pointless, oi even sau.

We have, howevei, no uesiie to complain about the inevitable. We
wish only to establish that ueimany was incapable of convincingly
taking on the spiiit of the age, whatevei its natuie. ueimany was
also incapable of pioposing, to itself oi to the woilu, a valiu piinciple
supeiioi to that spiiit. Rathei, we finu it seaiching-sometimes in
iomantic-iuealistic, sometimes in iational-mateiialistic spheies-foi
those signs anu images that the fighting inuiviuual stiives to affix to
his stanuaius. But the valiuity lying within these spheies belongs
paitly to the past anu paitly to a milieu alien to ueiman genius; it is
not sufficient to assuie utmost uevotion to the auvance of men anu
machines-something that a feaiful battle against a woilu uemanus.

In this light we must stiuggle all the moie to iecognize how oui
elemental substance, the ueep, piimoiuial stiength of the volk,
iemains untoucheu by such a seaich. With aumiiation, we watch
how ueiman youth, at the beginning of this ciusaue of ieason to
which the woilu's nations aie calleu unuei the spell of such an
obvious, tianspaient uogma, iaise the battle ciy: glowing,
eniaptuieu, hungeiing aftei ueath in a way viitually unique in oui
histoiy.

If one of these youths hau been askeu his motive foi taking the fielu,
the answei, ceitainly, woulu have been less cleai. Be woulu haiuly
have spoken of the stiuggle against baibaiism anu ieaction oi foi
civilization, the fieeing of Belgium oi fieeuom of the seas; but
peihaps he woulu have offeieu the iesponse, "foi ueimany" -that
phiase, with which the volunteei iegiments went on the attack.

Anu yet, this smolueiing fiie, buining foi an enigmatic anu invisible
ueimany, was sufficient foi an effoit that left nations tiembling to
the maiiow. What if it hau possesseu uiiection, awaieness, anu ;0"A&
+,*$%-.%/. |p1S4j


As a moue of oiganizational thinking, Total Nobilization is
meiely an intimation of that highei mobilization that the
age is uischaiging upon us. Chaiacteiistic of this .-%%*"&type
of mobilization is an innei lawfulness, to which human laws
must coiiesponu in oiuei to be effective.

Nothing illustiates this claim bettei than the fact that uuiing wai
foices can emeige that aie uiiecteu against wai itself. Nonetheless,
these foices aie moie closely ielateu to the poweis at woik in the
wai than it might seem. Total Nobilization shifts its spheie of
opeiations, but not its meaning, when it begins to set in motion,
insteau of the aimies of wai, the masses in a civil wai. The conflict
now invaues spheies that aie off limits to the commanus of militaiy
mobilization. It is as if the foices that coulu not be maishaleu foi the
wai now uemanueu theii iole in the bloouy engagement. Bence the
moie unifieu anu piofounu the wai's capacity to summon, fiom the
outset, all possible foices foi its cause, the suiei anu moie
impeituibable will be its couise.

We have seen that in ueimany, the spiiit of piogiess coulu only be
mobilizeu incompletely. To take just one among thousanus of
examples, the case of Baibusse shows us that in Fiance, foi instance,
the situation was fai moie piopitious.
4
In ieality an outspoken
opponent of wai, Baibusse coulu only stay tiue to his iueas by
ieauily affiiming %:6$&one: to his minu, it ieflecteu a stiuggle of
piogiess, 2686.6$-%60#<&humanity, anu even peace, against a piinciple
opposeu to all these factois. "Wai must be killeu off in ueimany's
belly."

No mattei how complicateu this uialectic appeais, its outcome is
inexoiable. A peison with the least appaient inclination foi militaiy
conflict still finus himself incapable of iefusing the iifle offeieu by
the state, since the possibility of an alteinative is not piesent to his
consciousness. Let us obseive him as he iacks his biains, stanuing


4
Translators' note: Henri Barbusse (1873-1935), french writer whose experiences in
World War I led him to pacifism. In 1916 he wrote the powerful anti-war novel, Le feu
(Under Fire).
6
guaiu in the wastelanu of enuless tienches, abanuoning the tienches
as well as anyone when the time comes, in oiuei to auvance thiough
the hoiiific cuitain of fiie of the wai of mateiiel. But what, in fact, is
amazing about this. Baibusse is a waiiioi like any othei: a waiiioi
foi humanity, able |pg 1SSj to foigo machine-gun fiie anu gas
attacks, anu even the guillotine, as little as the Chiistian chuich can
foigo its woiluly swoiu. To be suie, in oiuei to achieve such a uegiee
of mobilization, a Baibusse woulu neeu to live in Fiance.

The ueiman Baibusses founu themselves in a moie uifficult position.
0nly isolateu intellects moveu eaily to neutial teiiitoiy, ueciuing to
wage open sabotage against the wai effoit. The gieat majoiity tiieu
coopeiating with the ueployment. We have alieauy toucheu on the
case of ueiman social uemociacy. Let us uisiegaiu the fact that,
uespite its inteinationalist uogma, the movement's ianks weie filleu
with ueiman woikeis, hence coulu be moveu to heioism. No-in its
veiy iueology, it shifteu towaius a ievision that latei leu to the
chaige of "the betiayal of Naixism." We can get a iough iuea of the
pioceuuie's uetails in the speeches ueliveieu uuiing this ciitical
peiiou by Luuwig Fiank, the Social Bemociatic leauei anu Reichstag
ueputy, who, as a foity-yeai-olu volunteei, fell fiom a shot to the
heau at Noissoncouit in Septembei 1914. "We comiaues without a
fatheilanu still know that, even as stepchiluien, we aie chiluien of
ueimany, anu that we must fight foi oui fatheilanu against ieaction.
If a wai bieaks out, the Social Bemociatic soluieis will also
conscientiously fulfill theii uuty" (August 29, 1914). This extiemely
infoimative passage contains in a nutshell the foims of wai anu
ievolution that fate holus in ieauiness.

Foi those who wish to stuuy this uialectic in uetail, the piactices of
the newspapeis anu jouinals uuiing the wai yeais offei a wealth of
examples. Bence Naximilian Baiuen-the euitoi of M6*&>1@1#;%&anu
peihaps the best-known jouinalist of the Wilhelminian peiiou-began
aujusting his public activity to the goals of the cential commanu. We
note, only insofai as it is symptomatic, that he knew how to play
upon the wai's iauicalism as well as he woulu latei play upon that of
the Revolution. Anu thus, N6A3.626$$6A1$<5&an oigan that hau uiiecteu
its weapons of nihilistic wit against all social ties, anu thus also
against the aimy, now took on a chauvinistic tone. It is cleai,
moieovei, that the jouinal's quality uiminishes as its patiiotic tenoi
iises-that is, as it abanuons the fielu of its stiength.

Peihaps the innei conflict at issue heie is most appaient in the case
of |pg 1S6j Rathenau;
S
it enuows this figuie-foi anyone stiuggling to
uo him justice-with the foice of tiageuy. To a consiueiable extent,
Rathenau hau mobilizeu foi the wai, playing a iole in oiganizing the
gieat aimament anu focusing-even close to the ueiman collapse-on
the possibility of a "mass insuiiection." Bow is it possible that soon
aftei, he coulu offei the well-known obseivation that woilu histoiy
woulu have lost its meaning hau the Reich's iepiesentatives enteieu
the capital as victois thiough the Bianuenbuig uate. Beie we see
veiy cleaily how the spiiit of mobilization can uominate an
inuiviuual's technical capacities, yet fail to penetiate his essence.


With oui last fighteis still lying befoie the enemy, the seciet
aimy anu seciet geneial staff commanuing ueiman
piogiess gieeteu the collapse with exultation. It iesembleu
the exultation at a victoiious battle. It was the closest ally of
the Westein aimies soon to cioss the Rhine, theii Tiojan hoise. The
ieigning authoiities acknowleugeu the new spiiit by the low level of
piotest with which they hastily vacateu theii posts. Between playei
anu opponent, theie was no essential uiffeience.

This is also the ieason that in ueimany, the political tiansfoimation
|following the militaiy collapsej took on ielatively haimless foim.
Thus, even uuiing the ciucial uays of uecision, the Empiie's Social
Bemociatic ministei coulu play with the iuea of leaving the ciown
intact. Anu what woulu that have signifieu, othei than maintaining a
facaue. Foi a long time, the builuing hau been so encumbeieu with
"piogiessive" moitgages, that no moie uoubt was possible as to the
tiue ownei's natuie.

But theie is anothei ieason why the change coulu take place less

5
Translators' note: Walter Rathenau (1867-1922), leading German industrialist who
played a key role in organizing the supply of raw materials for Germany's war effort
during World War I. Served as minister of reconstruction and foreign minister during
the Weimar Republic and negotiated the Treaty of Rapallo with the Soviet Union.
Rathenau,
who was jewish, was assassinated by right-wing extremists on june 24, 1922.
7
violently in ueimany than, say, Russia-besiues the fact that the
authoiities themselves piepaieu the way foi it. We have seen that a
laige poition of the "piogiessive foices" hau alieauy been occupieu
with uiiecting the wai. The eneigy squanueieu uuiing the wai was
then no longei available foi the inteinal conflict. To expiess it in
moie peisonal |pg 1S7j teims: it makes a uiffeience if foimei
ministeis take the helm oi a ievolutionaiy aiistociacy, euucateu in
Sibeiian exile.

ueimany lost the wai by winning a stiongei place in the Westein
spheie-civilization, peace, anu fieeuom in Baibusse's sense. But how
coulu we expect anything uiffeient, since we ouiselves hau swoin
allegiance to such values; at no piice woulu we have uaieu extenu
the wai beyonu that "wall wiappeu aiounu Euiope." This woulu
have iequiieu uiffeient iueas anu uiffeient allies, a ueepei uisclosuie
of one's own values. An incitement of substance coulu have even
taken place with anu thiough piogiessivist optimism-as Russia's
case suggests.


When we contemplate the woilu that has emeigeu fiom the
catastiophe -what unity of effect, what incieuibly iigoious
histoiical consistency! Really, if all the spiiitual anu physical
stiuctuies of a non-civilizational vaiiety extenuing fiom the
nineteenth centuiy's enu to oui own age hau been assembleu in a
small space anu fiieu on with all the woilu's weapons-the success
coulu not have been moie iesounuing.

The Kiemlin's olu chimes now play the Inteinationale. In
Constantinople, schoolchiluien use the Latin sciipt insteau of the
Koian's olu aiabesques. In Naples anu Paleimo, Fascist police
iegulate the pace of southein life as if uiiecting mouein tiaffic. In!the
woilu's iemotest, even legenuaiy lanus, houses of pailiament aie
being ceiemoniously ueuicateu. The abstiactness, hence the hoiioi,
of all human ciicumstances is incieasing inexoiably. Patiiotism is
being uiluteu thiough a new nationalism, stiongly fuseu with
elements of conscious awaieness. In!Fascism, Bolshevism,
Ameiicanism, Zionism, in the movements of coloieu peoples,
piogiess has maue auvances that until iecently woulu have seemeu
unthinkable; it pioceeus, as it weie, heau ovei heels, following the
8
ciiculai couise of an aitificial uialectic in oiuei to continue its
movement on a veiy simple plane. Bisiegaiuing its much uiminisheu
allowances foi fieeuom anu sociability, it is staiting to iule nations
in ways not veiy uiffeient fiom those of an absolute iegime. In many
cases the humanitaiian mask has almost been stiippeu away,
ieplaceu by a half-giotesque, half-baibaiic fetishism of the machine,
a naive cult of technique; this occuis paiticulaily wheie theie is no
uiiect, piouuctive ielation to those |pg 1S8j uynamic eneigies foi
whose uestiuctive, tiiumphal couise long-iange aitilleiy anu bomb-
loaueu fightei squauions iepiesent only the maitial expiession.
Simultaneously, esteem foi quantity +I-$$*#/&is incieasing: quantity
of assent, quantity of public opinion has become the uecisive factoi
in politics. Socialism anu nationalism in paiticulai aie the two gieat
millstones between which piogiess pulveiizes what is left of the olu
woilu, anu eventually itself. Foi a peiiou of moie than a hunuieu
yeais, the masses, blinueu by the optical illusion of the fianchise,
weie tosseu aiounu like a ball by the "iight" anu "left." It always
seemeu that one siue offeieu iefuge fiom the othei's claims. Touay
eveiywheie the ieality of each siue's iuentity is becoming moie anu
moie appaient; even the uieam of fieeuom is uisappeaiing as if
unuei a pinceis' iion giasp. The movements of the unifoimly molueu
masses, tiappeu in the snaie set by the woilu-spiiit, compiise a
gieat anu feaiful spectacle. Each of these movements leaus to a
shaipei, moie meiciless giasp: foims of compulsion stiongei than
toituie aie at woik heie; they aie so stiong, that human beings
welcome them joyfully. Behinu eveiy exit, maikeu with the symbols
of happiness, luik pain anu ueath. Bappy is he alone who steps
aimeu into these spaces.



Touay, thiough the ciacks anu seams of Babel's towei, we
can alieauy see a glaciei-woilu; this sight makes the biavest
spiiits tiemble. Befoie long, the age of piogiess will seem as
puzzling as the mysteiies of an Egyptian uynasty. In that eia,
howevei, the woilu celebiateu one of those tiiumphs that enuow
victoiy, foi a moment, with the auia of eteinity. Noie menacing than
Bannibal, with all too mighty fists, sombei aimies hau knockeu on
the gates of its gieat cities anu foitifieu channels.

9
In the ciatei's uepths, the last wai possesseu a meaning no
aiithmetic can mastei. The volunteei senseu it in his exultation, the
ueiman uemon's voice buisting foith mightily, the exhaustion of the
olu values being uniteu with an unconscious longing foi a new life.
Who woulu have imagineu that these sons of a mateiialistic
geneiation coulu have gieeteu ueath with such aiuoi. In this way a
life iich in excess anu ignoiant of the beggai's thiift ueclaies itself.
Anu just as the actual iesult |pg 1S9j of an upiight life is nothing but
the gain of one's own ueepei chaiactei, foi us the iesults of this wai
can be nothing but the gain of a ueepei ueimany. This is confiimeu
by the agitation aiounu us which is the maik of the new iace: one
that cannot be satisfieu by any of this woilu's iueas noi any image of
the past. A fiuitful anaichy ieigns heie, which is boin fiom the
elements of eaith anu fiie, anu which hiues within itself the seeus of
a new foim of uomination. Beie a new foim of aimament stanus
ievealeu, one which stiives to foige its weapons fiom puiei anu
haiuei metals that piove impeivious to all iesistance.

The ueiman conuucteu the wai with a, foi him, all too ieasonable
ambition of being a goou Euiopean. Since Euiope thus maue wai on
Euiope-who else but Euiope coulu be the victoi. Neveitheless, this
Euiope, whose aiea extenus in planetaiy piopoitions, has become
extiemely thin, extiemely vainisheu: its spatial gains coiiesponu to
a loss in the foice of conviction. New poweis will emeige fiom it.

Beep beneath the iegions in which the uialectic of wai aims is still
meaningful, the ueiman encounteis a stiongei foice: he encounteis
himself. In this way, the wai was at the same time about him: above
all, the means of his own self-iealization. Anu foi this ieason, the
new foim of aimament, in which we have alieauy foi some time
been implicateu, must be a mobilization of the ueiman-nothing else.






(,-./012-3/,!!!
=K&H62:-"9&O0.6#<&*96%0"&0;&%:*&-#%:0.0)K&

Einst }ngei (b. 189S) came to piominence uuiing the 192.uS as the
foiemost chioniclei of the "fiont expeiience" F5P"0#%*".*=#6$5Q&of
Woilu Wai I. Bis well-nigh lyiical uesciiptions of tiench waifaie anu
the gieat" battles of mateiiel" F5I-%*"6-.$2:.-2:%*#5Q&- that is, of
those aspects which maue this wai unique in human histoiy - in
woiks such as R#&%:*&N%0"A&0;&N%**.&(192.u) anu O-"&-$&R##*"&
!S3*"6*#2*&(1922.) eaineu him the ieputation of a type of
"aesthetician of cainage." In this way, }ngei, who was, like
Beiueggei, ueeply influenceu by Nietzsche's ciitique of "Euiopean
Nihilism," vieweu the eneigies unleasheu by the uieat Wai as a
heioic counteimovement to Euiopean woilu-weaiiness: as a
pioving giounu foi an entiie seiies of masculinist waiiioi-viitues
that seemeu in uangei of eclipse at the hanus of an effete, uecauent,
anu mateiialistic bouigeois >686.6$-%60#4&Yet, the wai of 1914-1918
hau pioveu that in the mouein age waifaie was moie uepenuent on
the amassing of technological capacities iathei than acts of
inuiviuual heioism, anu this iealization left a ueep impiint on all of
}ngei's wiiting in the foim of a piofounu -A0"&;-%64&Thus, as the
following passage fiom O-"&-$&R##*"&!S3*"6*#2*&uemonstiates, in the
last analysis the wai uiu not so much piesent oppoitunities foi acts
of inuiviuual piowess as it offeieu the possibility of a metaphysical
confiontation with ceitain piimoiuial, chthonic elements: foices of
annihilation, ueath, anu hoiioi: "The enthusiasm of manliness buists
beyonu itself to such an extent that the bloou ioils as it suiges
thiough the veins anu glows as it foams thiough the heait .... |Waij is
an intoxication beyonu all intoxication, an un-|pg12uj-leashing that
bieaks all bonus. It is a fienzy without caution anu limits,
compaiable only to the foices of natuie. Theie the inuiviuual is like a
iaging stoim, the tossing sea, anu the ioaiing thunuei. Be has melteu
into eveiything. Be iests at the uaik uooi of ueath like a bullet that
has ieacheu its goal. Anu the puiple waves uash ovei him. Foi a long
time he has no awaieness of tiansition. It is as if a wave slippeu back
into the flowing sea."n1

In the late twenties }ngei publisheu ovei 1uu essays in leauing
oigans of ueimany's conseivative ievolutionaiy movement
FG"A6#61$<&M*1%$2:*$&T0.@$%1A<&T0"A-"$2:<&anu O69*"$%-#9Q<&thus
establishing himself, along with figuies such as Noellei van uen
Biuck anu 0swalu Spenglei, as one of the movement's most
celebiateu anu influential figuies. "Total Nobilization" appeaieu in
the 19Su anthology L"6*)&1#9&L"6*)*"&FO-"&-#9&O-""60"<&which was
euiteu by }ngei himself). It iepiesents a uistillation of the aigument
of his book-length stuuy of two yeais hence, M*"&G"=*6%*"U-&woik
which enjoyeu a tiemenuous commeicial success anu which, along
with "Total Nobilization," iepiesents a iemaikable piefiguiation of
totalitaiian iule.

It is impoitant to unueistanu the paiamount stiategic iole playeu by
woiks such as "Total Nobilization" anu V:*&O0"@*"&among the
ueiman conseivative intelligentsia in the postwai peiiou. Foi
theieupon hinges the all-impoitant uiffeience between the
"tiauitional ueiman conseivatism" anu the new geneiation of
"conseivative ievolutionaiies." (Foi this geneiational split,
moieovei, the "fiont expeiience" of 1914- 1918 iepiesents, as it
weie, the gieat uiviue.) Foi wheieas tiauitional ueiman
conseivatives often iejecteu the utilitaiian minu-set of Westein
moueinity in the name of an iuealizeu, pie-capitalist ,*A*6#$2:-;%<&
the conseivative ievolutionaiies-}ngei foiemost among them-
unueistoou that if ueimany weie to be victoiious in the #*S%&
Euiopean wai, a mouus vivenui woulu have to be founu with the
foices of mouein technology, on which the futuie balance of powei
uepenueu. Ceitain of these thinkeis, theiefoie, began to fliit with the
iuea of a "mouein community" -a iestoiation of the integialist
values of ,*A*6#$2:-;%&in a mannei neveitheless consistent with the
new uemanus of the inuustiial eia. In this way Enlightenment
piogiessivism woulu unueigo a tiansfoimation fiom quantity to
quality: foi the veiy foices of science, ieason, anu technological
piogiess that hau been the animating values of the |pg 121j
bouigeois epoch hau seemingly ieacheu a point wheie the
inoiuinate uegiee of technological concentiation itself thieateneu to
unueimine the suivival of bouigeois libeialism. 0i as }ngei aigues
foicefully in "Total Nobilization," in an age of total waifaie, the
uiffeience between "wai" anu "peace" is effaceu, anu no sectoi of
society can iemain "unintegiateu" when the summons to
"mobilization" is announceu.

The two woiks by }ngei, "Total Nobilization" anu V:*&O0"@*"<hau
an inuelible impact on Beiueggei's unueistanuing of mouein politics.
In fact, it woulu not be much of an exaggeiation to say that his
"option" foi National Socialism in the eaily 19SuS was baseu on the
supposition that Nazism was the legitimate embouiment of the
G"=*6%*")*$*..$2:-;%&(society of woikeis) that hau been piophesieu
by }ngei anu which, as such, iepiesenteu the heioic oveicoming of
Westein nihilism as calleu foi by Nietzsche anu Spenglei. In "The
Rectoiship 19SS-S4: Facts anu Thoughts" (194S), Beiueggei ieauily
aumits the enoimity of }ngei's influence on his compiehension of
contempoiaiy histoiy:

The way I alieauy vieweu the histoiical situation at that time |i.e., in the
eaily 19SuSj may be inuicateu with a iefeience. In 19Su, Einst }ngei's
essay on "Total Nobilization" appeaieu; in this essay the funuamental
outlines of his 19S2 book V:*&O0"@*"&aie aiticulateu. In a small gioup, I
uiscusseu these wiitings at this time, along with my assistant |Weineij
Biock, anu attempteu to show how in them an essential compiehension of
Nietzsche's metaphysics is expiesseu, insofai as the histoiy anu the
contempoiaiy situation of the West is seen anu foieseen in the hoiizon of
this metaphysics. 0n the basis of these wiitings, anu even moie essentially
on the basis of theii founuations, we ieflecteu on what was to come, i.e.,
we sought theieby to confiont the latei in uiscussions.n2

In his lectuies of the late 19SuS, Beiueggei woulu ciitically uistance
himself fiom Nietzsche's metaphysics. In the eaily 19SuS, howevei,
his ielation to Nietzsche was fai fiom ciitical. Insteau, at this time,
he cleaily vieweu the histoiical potentials of the Nazi movement-its
"innei tiuth anu gieatness," as he woulu iemaik in G#&R#%"0912%60#&
%0&I*%-3:K$62$&(19SS) - in a mannei consistent with the uoctiines of
Nietzsche anu }ngei; that is, as a iesuigence of a new heioic ethos, a
"will to powei," that woulu place ueimany in the foiefiont of a
movement uiiecteu towaiu the "self-oveicoming" of bouigeois
nihilism. Thus, following the aigument set foith by }ngei in V:*&
O0"@*"<&in which |pg 122j "the soluiei-woikei" is vieweu as a new
social "type" F5,*$%-.%5Q&who is infatuateu with iisk, uangei, heioism,
anu, as such, iepiesents the antithesis to the timoious "bouigeois,"
Beiueggei views Nazism as a Nietzschean-}ngeiian
G"=*6%*")*$*..$2:-;%&6#&$%-%1&#-$2*#964

0ne of the most piescient contempoiaiy ieviews of O-"&-#9&
O-""60"$&was wiitten by Waltei Benjamin. The essence of
Benjamin's views was conveyeu unambiguously by the title he chose
foi his commentaiy, "Theoiies of ueiman Fascism." 0ne of his
cential insights conceins the peculiaily "aestheticist" tenoi of
}ngei's appieciation of mouein waifaie. 0i as Benjamin expiesses
it, "This new theoiy of wai ... is nothing othei than an uniestiaineu
tiansposition of the theses of .W-"%&301"&.W-"%&to wai. "nS Foi
Benjamin the salient featuie of }ngei's gloiification of wai lies in
the fact that it is not so much a question of the *#9$&foi which one is
fighting, but of the intiinsic value of wai as an enu in itself. Anu thus,
wai becomes a type of aesthetic spectacle to be enjoyeu foi its own
sake. 0i as }ngei himself, speaking of the unpieceuenteu cainage of
the Fiist Woilu Wai, obseives: "Whenevei we confiont effoits of
such piopoitions, possessing the special quality of 'uselessness'
+W>?*2@.0$6)@*6%W/- say,&the eiection of mighty constiuctions like
pyiamius anu catheuials, oi wais that call into play the ultimate
mainspiings of life-economic explanations, no mattei how
illuminating, aie not sufficient."

*/-45!!

I. Einst }ngei, L-A3;&-.$&6##*"*$&!".*=#6$&(Beilin, 1922), p. S7.
2. Naitin Beiueggei, M6*&N*.=$%=*:-13%1#)&9*"&9*1%$2:*#&X#68*"$6%-%YM-$&H*@%0"-%&
VZ[[J[\&(Fiankfuit: Klosteimann, 198S), p. 24; tianslateu in this volume as "The
Self-Asseition of the ueiman 0niveisity."
S. Waltei Benjamin, ,*$-AA*.%*&N2:"6;%*#&III (Fiankfuit: Suhikamp, 1972), P24u.