Computer Organization

Computer Organization

•Each computer has a visible structure, which is referred to

as its architecture.
•The concept of architecture and making these hardware
components work in a harmonized manner in order to
achieve a common objective in an environment is known as
computer organization.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
•CPU is referred to as the brain of a computer system, which
converts data (input) into meaningful information (output).
• A CPU controls all internal and external devices, performs
arithmetic and logic operations, and operates only on binary
data (1s and 0s).
Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)

ALU contains the electronic circuitry that executes all

arithmetic and logical operations on the data made
available to it.
Arithmetic unit: It contains the circuitry that is
responsible for performing the actual computing and
carrying out the arithmetic calculations, such as
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
Logic unit: It enables the CPU to make logical
operations based on the instructions provided to it.
The unit can compare numbers, letters, or special
characters and can then take action based on the result
of the comparison.
Registers
•Registers are special purpose, high-speed
temporary memory units.
•These are temporary storage areas for
holding various types of information such as
data, instructions, addresses, and the
intermediate results of calculations.
Control Unit (CU)
•CU contains circuitry that uses electrical
signals to direct the entire computer system to
carry out, or execute, stored program
instructions.
•The control unit controls the I/O devices and
transfer of data to and from the primary
storage.
System Bus
•Bus is a set of connections between two or more
components/ devices, which are designed to transfer
several/all bits of a word from a specific source to
destination.
•It consists of multiple paths, which are also termed
as lines; each line is capable of transferring one bit at
a time.
Main Memory Unit
•Memory is that part of the computer that holds data and
instructions for processing.
•Memory stores program instructions or data for only as long
as the program they pertain to is in operation.
•This memory itself is implemented by two types of memory
technologies.
Random Access Memory (RAM): Random access memory
directly provides the required information to the processor.
Read Only Memory (ROM):
•Read only memory stores the initial start-up instructions and
routines in BIOS, which can only be read by the CPU.
•The contents of ROM are not lost even in case of a sudden
power failure, making it non-volatile in nature.
Cache Memory
•Cache is a very high speed, expensive piece of memory,
which is used to speed up the memory retrieval process.
•Cache memory can be categorized into three levels:
L1 cache, L2 cache, and L3 cache.

COMMUNICATION AMONG VARIOUS UNITS

•All the units in a computer system work in conjunction with
each other to formulate a functional computer system.
• There are two types of communication followed in the
computer architecture, these are:
•Processor to Memory Communication
•Processor to I/O Devices Communication
Computer Memory and Storage
•Memory refers to the electronic holding place for instructions
and data where the computer’s microprocessor can reach
quickly.
•Memory can classified into two broad categories:
• primary memory
•secondary memory.

Memory Representation
The basic unit of memory is bit. Digital computers work on
only two states, ON (1) and OFF (0).
The various units, used to measure computer memory, are:
bit,
byte
kilobyte, megabyte, gigabyte, and terabyte.
Unit Symbol Bytes
Byte B 20 = 1 byte
Kilobyte KB 210 = 1024 bytes
Megabyte MB 220 = 1024 KB
Gigabyte GB 230 = 1024 MB
Terabyte TB 240 = 1024 GB
MEMORY HIERARCHY
•The processor is the “brain” of the computer where all the
essential computing takes place.
•The memory in a computer system is of three types:
•Internal Processor Memory: Includes cache memory
and special registers.
•Primary Memory: Includes Random Access Memory
(RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM), also known as
main memory.
•Secondary Memory: Includes hard disk, magnetic
disk, and magnetic tapes, also known as auxiliary
memory.
RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)
•RAM allows the computer to store data for
immediate manipulation and to keep track of what is
currently being processed.
•It is the place in a computer where the operating
system, application programs, and data in current
use are kept so that they can be accessed quickly by
the computer's processor.
Types of RAM
Static RAM:
•This RAM retains its contents as long as power
remains applied to the memory chips.
•SRAM does not need to be 'refreshed' (pulse of
current through all the memory cells) periodically.
Dynamic RAM:
•This RAM must be continually 'refreshed' in order to
maintain the data.
•This is done by placing the memory on a refresh
circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times
per second.
READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)
•A computer system needs special instructions
(special boot programs) during a login operation.
•These instructions are stored in the special chips,
which enables the computer system to perform start
operations and transfer the control to the operating
system.
•This special chip is called ROM (Read Only
Memory). ROM chips are also used in electronic
items like washing machine and microwave oven.
Types of ROM
Masked ROM:
•The very first ROM was a hard-wired device that
contained a pre-programmed set of data/instructions.
•This kind of ROM is known as masked ROM.
Programmable ROM (PROM):
•Creating a ROM chip from scratch is time-consuming
and expensive.
•Thus, developers created a type of ROM known as
Programmable Read-only Memory (PROM), which can
be programmed.
Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM):
•An EPROM can be erased by simply exposing the
device to a strong source of ultraviolet light for a certain
amount of time and programmed repeatedly.
Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM):
•This type of ROM can be erased by an electrical
charge and then written to by using slightly higher-than-
normal voltage.
•EEPROM can be erased one byte at a time, rather
than erasing the entire chip.
Flash ROM:
• It is a type of constantly powered non-volatile
memory that can be erased and re-programmed in
blocks.
•It is a variation of EEPROM, which, unlike flash
memory, is erased and rewritten at the byte level.
SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES
•Secondary storage devices facilitates storing of
information and programs permanently.
•There are two methods of accessing data from the
secondary storage devices:
Sequential Access:
•Means the computer system must search the storage
device from the beginning until it finds the desired
information.
•The most common sequential access storage device is
magnetic tape where data is stored and processed
sequentially.
Direct Access:
•Also known as random access, means that the
computer can go directly to the information that the user
wants.
•The most common direct access storage are magnetic
and optical disks.
MAGNETIC TAPE
Magnetic tape looks similar to the tape used in music
cassettes.
The data is stored in the form of tiny segment of
magnetised and de-magnetised portion on the surface
of the material.
The tape is divided into vertical column (frames) and
horizontal rows (tracks).
MAGNETIC DISK
Magnetic disks are the widely used popular storage
medium for direct access secondary storage.
The surface of a disk is divided into imaginary tracks
and sectors.
Tracks are concentric circles where the data is stored,
and are numbered from the outermost to the innermost
ring, starting with zero.
Data is represented as magnetised spots on a disk. A
magnetised spot represents a 1 (bit) and the absence of
a magnetised spot represents a 0 (bit).
Types of Magnetic Disk
Floppy Disk: It is a removable, round, flat piece of
mylar plastic, coated with ferric oxide and encased in a
protective plastic cover.
Hard Disk: It is the primary storage unit of the
computer. It consists of a stack of disk platters that are
made up of aluminium alloy or glass substrate coated
with a magnetic material and protective layers.
Zip Disk: It is a removal storage device whose disk is
made up of plastic material on which magnetic oxide
particles are coated.
OPTICAL DISK
•An optical disk is a flat, circular, plastic disk coated with
material on which bits may be stored in the form of highly
reflective areas and significantly less reflective areas,
from which the stored data may be read when illuminated
with a narrow-beam source, such as a laser diode.
•An optical disk consists of single long track in the form of
spiral shape.
•This track starts from the outer edge and spirals inward
to the centre of the disk.
•Data can be written, but cannot be erased from an
optical disk.
 Input Output Devices
•An input device is an electromechanical device that allows
the user to feed information into the computer for analysis,
storage, and to give commands to the computer.
•After processing the input data, the computer provides the
results with the help of output devices.
•An output device converts machine-readable information
into human-readable form.
Keyboard
A keyboard is the most common data entry device that
allows the user to enter data into a computer by simply
pressing keys.
Pointing Devices
A pointing device is used to communicate with the
computer by pointing to locations on the monitor screen.
Such devices do not require keying of characters, instead
the user can move a cursor on the screen and perform
move, click or drag operations. Some of the commonly
used pointing devices are:
Mouse: Mouse is a small hand-held pointing device,
which is rectangular-shaped with a rubber ball embedded
at its lower side and buttons on the top.
Usually a mouse contains two or three buttons, which can
be used to input commands or information.
Trackball:
Trackball resembles a ball nestled in a square cradle and
serves as an alternative to a mouse.
In general, a trackball is as if a mouse is turned upside
down.
It has a ball, which can be rotated by fingers in any
direction, the cursor moves accordingly.
Joystick:
Joystick is a device that moves in all directions and
controls the movement of the cursor.
The joystick offers three types of control: digital, glide,
and direct.
Light Pen:
Light pen (sometimes called a mouse pen) is a hand-
held electro-optical pointing device which when touched
to or aimed closely at a connected computer monitor,
will allow the computer to determine where on that
screen the pen is aimed.
Touch Screen: Touch Screen is a special kind of
display screen device, which is placed on the computer
monitor in order to allow the direct selection or
activation of the computer when somebody touches the
screen.