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Assignment 01
ASSIGNMENT # 1
MOBILE AND WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
SUBMITTED BY:
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Fig. cross-layer framework for design of ad-hoc wireless networks to support delay-critical applications, such as conversational voice or real-time video
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Most CLDs today are evolutionary, because compability with existing systems and networks is extremely important both for end users and commercial actors. The simple, yet effective, CLD solutions are by far the most common today. The reason for this is quite simple: Since an evolutionary CLD is always bound by its original strict layered structure, an extension of this will also always be limited.
Applications
Wireless Internet access Ad hoc networks (tactical) Sensor networks
Diverse requirements
High-bandwidth video and data Low-bandwidth voice and data
Goal
Reliable communication-on-the-move in highly dynamic environments QoS provisioning
2. Cognitive Radio
A cognitive radio is a transceiver that automatically changes its transmission or reception parameters, in a way where the wireless communications can have spectrum agility in terms of selecting available wireless channels opportunistically. The main process is also called dynamic spectrum management. A cognitive radio, as defined by the researchers at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, is "a software defined radio with a cognitive engine brain The concept of cognitive radio was first proposed by Joseph Mitola III in a seminar at KTH, the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, in 1998, published later in an article by Mitola and Gerald Q. Maguire, Jr in 1999. It was a novel approach in wireless communications that Mitola later described as: The point in which wireless personal digital assistants (PDAs) and the related networks are sufficiently computationally intelligent about radio resources and related computer-to-computer communications to detect user communications needs as a function of use context, and to provide radio resources and wireless services most appropriate to those needs.
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Cognitive radio is considered as an ideal goal towards which a software-defined radio platform should evolve: a fully reconfigurable wireless transceiver that automatically adapts its communication parameters to network and user demands.
Full Cognitive Radio: in which every possible parameter observable by a wireless node or network is taken into account. Spectrum Sensing Cognitive Radio: in which only the radio frequency spectrum is considered.
Depending on the parts of the spectrum available for cognitive radio, we can distinguish:
Licensed Band Cognitive Radio: in which cognitive radio is capable of using bands assigned to licensed users, apart from unlicensed bands, such as U-NII band or ISM band. The IEEE 802.22 working group is developing a standard for wireless regional area network (WRAN) which will operate in unused television channels. Unlicensed Band Cognitive Radio: which can only utilize unlicensed parts of radio frequency spectrum. One such system is described in the IEEE 802.15 Task group 2 specification which focuses on the coexistence of IEEE 802.11 and Bluetooth
Spectrum Sensing: detecting the unused spectrum and sharing it without harmful interference with other users. It is an important requirement of the Cognitive Radio network to sense spectrum holes. Detecting primary users is the most efficient way to detect spectrum holes. Spectrum sensing techniques can be classified into three categories: o Transmitter detection: cognitive radios must have the capability to determine if a signal from a primary transmitter is locally present in a certain spectrum. There are several approaches proposed: matched filter detection energy detection cyclostationary feature detection Cooperative detection: refers to spectrum sensing methods where information from multiple Cognitive radio users are incorporated for primary user detection. Interference based detection.
o o
Spectrum Management: capturing the best available spectrum to meet user communication requirements while not creating undue interference to other (primary) users. Cognitive radios should decide on the best spectrum band to meet the Quality of service requirements over all available spectrum bands, therefore spectrum management functions are required for Cognitive radios. These management functions can be classified as: o spectrum analysis o spectrum decision 4
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Spectrum Mobility: is defined as the process when a cognitive radio user exchanges its frequency of operation. Cognitive radio networks target to use the spectrum in a dynamic manner by allowing the radio terminals to operate in the best available frequency band, maintaining seamless communication requirements during the transition to better spectrum. Spectrum Sharing: providing the fair spectrum scheduling method. One of the major challenges in open spectrum usage is the spectrum sharing. It can be regarded to be similar to generic media access control MAC problems in existing systems
Practical Applications
CR can sense its environment and without the intervention of the user can adapt to the users communication needs while conforming to FCC rules. Thus providing efficient use of the spectrum is a growing concern. CR offers a solution to this problem. A CR can intelligently detect whether any portion of the spectrum is in use or not, and can temporarily latch into or out of it without interfering with the transmissions of other users thereby efficiently utilizing spectrum.
3. ZigBee
ZigBee is a specification for wireless personal area networks (WPANs) operating at 868 MHz, 902-928 MHz, and 2.4 GHz. A WPAN is a personal area network (a network for interconnecting an individual's devices) in which the device connections are wireless. Using ZigBee, devices in a WPAN can communicate at speeds of up to 250 Kbps while physically separated by distances of up to 50 meters in typical circumstances and greater distances in an ideal environment. ZigBee is based on the 802.15 specification approved by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Standards Association (IEEE-SA). ZigBee provides for high data throughput in applications where the duty cycle is low. This makes ZigBee ideal for home, business, and industrial automation where control devices and sensors are commonly used. Such devices operate at low power levels, and this, in conjunction with their low duty cycle (typically 0.1 percent or less), translates into long battery life. Applications well suited to ZigBee include heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC), lighting systems, intrusion detection, fire sensing, and the detection and notification of unusual occurrences. ZigBee is compatible with most topologies including peer-to-peer, star network, and mesh networks, and can handle up to 255 devices in a single WPAN. ZigBee has been developed to meet the growing demand for capable wireless networking between numerous low-power devices. In industry ZigBee is being used for next generation automated manufacturing, with small transmitters in every device on the floor, allowing for communication between devices to a central computer. This new level of communication permits finely-tuned remote monitoring and manipulation. In the consumer market ZigBee is being explored for everything from linking low-power household devices such as smoke alarms to a central housing control unit, to centralized light controls.
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A high degree of common functionality worldwide while retaining the flexibility to support a wide range of local services and applications in a cost-efficient manner Compatibility of services within IMT and with fixed networks Capability for interworking with other radio systems High quality mobile services User equipment suitable for worldwide use User-friendly applications, services, and equipment Worldwide roaming capability Enhanced peak data rates to support advanced mobile services and applications (100 Mbps for high mobility and 1 Gbps for low mobility)
Continual improvement to the LTE radio technology and architecture Scenarios and performance requirements for interworking with legacy radio access technologies Backward compatibility of LTE-Advanced with LTE. An LTE terminal should be able to work in an LTE-Advanced network and vice versa. Any exceptions will be considered by 3GPP. Account taken of recent WRC-07 decisions for new IMT spectrum as well as existing frequency bands to ensure that LTE-Advanced geographically accommodates available spectrum for channel allocations above 20 MHz Also, requirements must recognize those parts of the world in which wideband channels are not available.
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efficiency and other features such as VoIP capacity. Thus 4G LTE work will be focused on the challenges of raising average and cell-edge performance.
OFDM working
OFDM is based on the concept of frequency-division multiplexing (FDD), the method of transmitting multiple data streams over a common broadband medium. That medium could be radio spectrum, coax cable, twisted pair, or fiber-optic cable. Each data stream is modulated onto multiple adjacent carriers within the bandwidth of the medium, and all are transmitted simultaneously. A good example of such a system is cable TV, which transmits many parallel channels of video and audio over a single fiber-optic cable and coax cable. Today The FDD technique is typically wasteful of bandwidth or spectrum because to keep the parallel modulated carriers from interfering with one another, you have to space them with some guard bands or extra space between them. Even then, very selective filters at the receiving end have to be able to separate the signals from one another. What researchers discovered is that with digital transmissions, the carriers could be more closely spaced to one another and still separate. That meant less spectrum and bandwidth waste. The serial digital data stream to be transmitted is split into multiple slower data streams, and each is modulated onto a separate carrier in the allotted spectrum. These carriers are called subcarriers or tones. The modulation can be any form of modulation used with digital data, but the most common are binary phase-shift keying (BPSK), quadrature phase-shift keying
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(QPSK), and quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). The outputs of all the modulators are linearly summed, and the result is the signal to be transmitted. It could be upconverted and amplified if needed.
Advantages of OFDM
The first reason is spectral efficiency, also called bandwidth efficiency. What that term really means is that you can transmit more data faster in a given bandwidth in the presence of noise. The measure of spectral efficiency is bits per second per Hertz, or bps/Hz. For a given chunk of spectrum space, different modulation methods will give you widely varying maximum data rates for a given bit error rate (BER) and noise level. Simple digital modulation methods like amplitude shift keying (ASK) and frequency shift keying (FSK) are only fair but simple. BPSK and QPSK are much better. QAM is very good but more subject to noise and low signal levels. Code division multiple access (CDMA) methods are even better. But none is better than OFDM when it comes to getting the maximum data capacity out of a given channel. It comes close to the so called Shannon limit that defines channel capacity C in bits per second (bps) as C = B x log2 (1 + S/N) Here, B is the bandwidth of the channel in hertz, and S/N is the power signal-to-noise ratio. With spectrum scarce or just plain expensive, spectral efficiency has become the holy grail in wireless.
Disadvantages of OFDM
Like anything else, OFDM is not perfect. It is very complex, making it more expensive to implement. However, modern semiconductor technology makes it pretty easy. OFDM is also sensitive to carrier frequency variations. To overcome this problem, OFDM systems transmit pilot carriers along with the subcarriers for synchronization at the receiver. Another disadvantage is that an OFDM signal has a high peak to average power ratio. As a result, the complex OFDM signal requires linear amplification. That means greater inefficiency in the RF power amplifiers and more power consumption.