Campbell (8th ed.

) p 452 -466

Early Attempts to Explain Evolution of Organisms

John Baptiste de Lamarck - 1809 Organisms can acquire traits making them better adapted to their environments by striving, and will pass these traits on to their offspring. Traits that are constantly used develop, while those that are not used disappear. These changes occur within one generation and allow for organisms to match their environment.

Use and Disuse parts of the body that are used extensively become larger and stronger, while those that are not used deteriorate. Acquired Characteristics - are passed onto an individuals offspring. Increasing Complexity - organisms have and innate drive to complex. become more

Lamarck was incorrect. Significant changes in the genetic will not occur in just one generation. Individuals do not species can not evolve in every new generation. However, Lamarcks ideas were plausible in the 19th century reproduction was not understood. It was thought that all the contributed to the gametes by sending minute particles collection point in the gonads. Thus, changes in an individual the gametes made. Today, Lamarck deserves credit for recognizing that there is organisms and their environment and that evolutionary for this match. However, his mechanism for explaining is incorrect.

make-up of a parent evolve and a new because sexual different organs through the blood to a would be expressed in a match between change is responsible evolutionary change

Charles Darwin and Alfred Russell Wallace 1858 Both Darwin and Wallace were naturalists aboard ships. Their job was to document and collect unique, new specimens that were not found in England. Independent of each other, they arrived at the same hypothesis in regard to how different species of organisms came into being. Darwin - HMS Beagle (1831) - Voyage around the world with stops at many oceanic islands. The Galapagos Islands in the Pacific proved very interesting.

Wallace - (1854 - 1862) - Many voyages to the Indonesian Islands in the Pacific While Darwin traveled and developed his ideas in the 1840s, he never published his ideas since he knew they would be highly controversial. In 1858, Wallace sent his paper to Darwin for review, and Darwin realized that they come to the same conclusions. Wallace published his paper first, and then a year later Darwin published his book entitled On the Origin of

Species, which included detailed evidence for the ideas of descent with modification and natural selection.

Darwins Ideas
Descent with Modification all organisms have descended from an ancestral species that lived in the remote past. The descendents of this group have accumulated diverse modifications (adaptations) that make them fit for their niche and environment. As a result, live can be viewed as a tree with multiple branching from a common ancestor.

This idea was based on observed similarities and differences he observed in organisms in his travel and through his study of nature, geology, and fossils. As well, he was influenced by the writings of the following individuals.

Linnaeus (naturalist) classification of plants and animals Hutton (geologist) gradual changes occur to geologic features over time Lamarck (biologist) organisms can change and match their environment Malthus (economist) the human population increases faster than food supplies and other resources Cuvier (geologist) the fossil record shows changes in organisms and the extinction of organisms Lyell (geologist) mechanisms of geologic change are uniform over time (uniformitarianism)

Natural Selection - nondifferential survival and reproduction of certain individuals occurs within a population. In 19th century agriculture, individual animals (and were selectively bred based desirable characteristics to different breeds of animals plants. This was called artificial selection. From selective breeding and artificial selection,

random,

plants) on produce (and drastic

differences a species occurred over a few generations. Darwin and Wallace thought that selective breeding occurred in nature to produce new species over many generations. This idea was called natural selection. As well, Darwin made 4 important observations during his time as a naturalist on the HMS Beagle. These observations led to two important inferences related to the idea of natural selection. Observations: 1. Members of a population often vary greatly in regard to their traits. 2. Traits are inherited from parents to offspring. 3. All species are capable of producing more offspring that their environment can support. 4. Owing to lack of food or other resources, many of these offspring do not survive. Inferences: Individuals whose inherited traits give them a higher probability of surviving and reproducing in a given environment tend to leave more offspring than other individuals. This unequal ability of individuals to survive and to the accumulation of favorable traits in the population generations. reproduce will lead over many

Even though Darwins ideas were carefully and meticulously book On the Origin of Species, the idea of evolution was highly largely theistic society. Creationists argued that there was no selecting factor in nature no mind or purpose in selecting. Darwin could not provide support his idea. However, scientific support came later with study. As well, Darwin could not explain how variations occur genetic terms. Today, scientifically documented examples of evolution in knowledge of genetic systems completely support Darwins is considered to be the core theme in every branch of biological

described in his controversial in a and that nature had examples to directly the Peppered Moth in organisms in nature and ideas, and evolution science.

Modern Theory of Evolution - based on Darwins Idea of Natural Selection

1. Variation of Individuals Individuals in a population possesses genetic variations that result in phenotypic variations. 2. Overproduction - In every generation, more individuals are produced than can survive. 3. Struggle for Existence Only the most fit individuals survive in and environment. 4. Survival and Reproduction of the Fittest The environment in an area only allows the most-fit individuals in a generation to survive and reproduce. 5. Descent with Modification - As a result, their fit genes are selected and passed on to the next generation. The most-fit individuals in the next generation subsequently survive and breed. After many generations of breeding, a new species may arise due to the accumulation of selected genes and loss of other genes in a population

Evidence Supporting Evolution

1. Fossil Evidence
Fossils are preserved parts of organisms that are embedded in amber, ice or in rock. Fossils may be dated by examining the rock surrounding the fossil or by using C-14 dating to estimate the age of the fossil. Some fossils will contain traces of DNA that may be cloned for use in genetic studies. Types of Fossils: Preserved Body Parts - bones, shells, teeth Whole Organisms - embedded in amber or frozen in ice Imprints (molds and casts) left in sediment which turns into rock

Coprolites - fossilized pieces of dung By arranging fossils that have been dated in order, an evolutionary lineage showing change over time occurs. In some cases, evolutionary divergence into two species can be documented. Example: Evolution of the Horse (Marsh - 1879) Marsh unearthed fossilized bones from different eras that showed similarities to the modern day horse. He established an evolutionary lineage that spanned 60 million years and showed the progression from Eohippus to Equus.

Eohippus

Equus

Trilobite changes in head shape and spine angle as species evolves

2. Homology
Anatomical and embryological structures that show a common ancestor and common evolutionary origin are called homologous structures. Example: Comparative Anatomy - Bone Structure of Forelimbs These structures may perform different functions, but are anatomically similar. Thus, they are related.

Example: Comparative Embryology - Developmental Similarities Vertebrates all exhibit a notochord, dorsal nerve cord, post-anal tail, and pharyngeal gill slits during development. This shows they are related in terms of evolution. As well, the species whose embryos that are most similar for the longest period of time during development are most closely related to each other.

Analogous Structures Structures that perform the same function, but are not related anatomically are called analogous structures. These do not provide evidence for common origin or evolutionary relatedness. Similar adaptations simply evolved in response to a particular environment from different lineages through what is known as convergent evolution. Example: Shark Fin and Whale Flipper

Example: Bird Wing and Insect Wing

Genetic homology and biochemical homology are now considered the most important characteristics in establishing evolutionary lineages. Example: Comparative Biochemistry Cytochrome C Cytochrome C is a highly conserved protein that transports electrons in the inner mitochondrial membrane. The number of amino acid differences between species indicates their degree of relatedness. Species with the fewest differences are closest within an evolutionary lineage.

Example: Comparative Genetics DNA in the mitochondria is highly conserved. The number differences in bases that differ between different species may be used determine their degree of relatedness. RFLP Analysis - Electrophoresis

Note: Direct analysis of DNA sequences is now possible due to advances in sequencing technology.

3. Biogeography
Biogeographical regions are separated from each other by geological barriers including mountain ranges, oceans, and deserts. The boundaries separating these zones may not be clear cut and involve transition zones. If the biogeographical region has niches that are not filled, organisms that migrate into the new area will adapt to the specific environmental conditions present as beneficial mutations are selected. This specialization in a new area is called adaptive radiation. Adaptive radiation leads to the evolution of new species, and occurs independently in each biogeographical region as mutations accumulate. This results in endemic species that are unique to the area and highly adapted to the specific conditions of their specific environment. Example: Finches of the Galapagos Islands The Galapagos Islands are close together in in their environmental conditions and food sources. considered a different biogeographical region and favored the development of unique endemic is exemplified by the various species of different islands. Darwin speculated that a small group of from the Galapagos The first island and underwent generations changes population to as the genes in South within the This called (Darwin) proximity, but differ greatly Each island may actually be adaptive radiation has species on each island. This finches, which inhabit the

finches was blown with a storm coast of South America to the Islands. few birds inhabited a single the population they comprised rapid changes in relatively few as it specialized to the new environment. These rapid that occur when a small enters a new region are referred founder effect. During this time, found in the original population America were completely lost small population on the island. permanent loss of certain genes is genetic drift.

After the population grew on the island and competition increased, it is thought that small groups of birds migrated to other islands that were uninhabited by finches.

Each group underwent the founder effect and genetic drift on its new island and quickly specialized to the specific conditions on the island. This movement and adaptation of the original population to new regions is called adaptive radiation, and is thought to have eventually resulted in new species of finches.

Eventually each island had a unique set of finch species called endemic species. As the endemic populations on each different island grew, small groups of birds radiated (migrated) to other islands. However, they were different enough in behavior and niche from the other species of finches already present so that they could not mate with each other but could co-exist side by side.

As well, the new species again underwent the founder effect and genetic drift. Thus, up to eleven different species of finches, specialized for specific feeding niches, can be found on islands in the Galapagos.

4. Direct Observations of Evolutionary Change

Although Darwin had accurately proposed how evolution occurred, he did not have specific case studies that supported his idea. However, the force driving natural selection is known to be the environment (environmental conditions) as evidenced by scientific data from the Peppered Moth Study, Antibiotic Resistant Strains of Bacteria, Drug Resistant

Strains of HIV, and Insecticide Resistant Species of Arthropods Example: Peppered Moth Study The peppered moth in England has two different colors, black/gray and light/speckled. These were originally classified as two different species, but are now known to interbreed and are considered members of the same species. Color is simply determined by genetic make-up.

Butterfly collections in the early 1800s show a predominance of the light speckled form. However, with the onset of the industrial revolution in the 1840s, the frequency of the dark gray form increased. In the 1930s, E.B. Ford proposed the idea of industrial melanism to explain the change in color frequency of the peppered moth. He hypothesized that light moths were camouflaged when sitting on the light color bark of birch trees. The dark moths were not, and were easily detected by predators and readily eaten. With the industrial revolution, soot from factories coated trees and the birch bark turned to a sooty gray color. The dark moths were now camouflaged, and the light moths were not. This led to the decrease in light moths and increase in dark moths. The environmental conditions had selected for the dark moths.

In the 1950s, Bernard Kettlewell set out to test Fords hypothesis. To do so, he used the mark-release-recapture method.

1. Large numbers of light and dark moths were bred in captivity. 2. They were marked with a dot of paint and released into a specific area. 3. Approximately the same number of moths that were released was then recaptured in the area. If equal percentages of each form were recaptured, there is no selective pressure against either form. Kettlewells Results:

Kettlewell also hid and watched birds eat moths. In polluted areas 164 of the 190 moths he watched being eaten were light in color.

Variation exists within the resistant strain, and if a higher dose of the antibiotic is used the same selective process results.

Example: Resistant HIV

Example: Insecticide Resistant Insects