Chapter 18

A Paradigm Shift in Teaching Music in Schools

Traditional Music and Multiculturalism in Malaysian Education: Approaches in Music Appreciation Classes
Tan Sooi Beng

Until recently, music education in South East Asian countries such as Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and the Philippines has been based mainly on European models. Music programmes focus mainly on Western classical music theory, harmony and history. Students play Western percussion instruments and recorders in the classroom and join Western kinds of school bands, orchestras or choirs as extra-curricular activities. By stressing the importance of the Western system, educators have implied that other musical systems including their own are relatively unimportant or even inferior. In recent times, efforts have been made by music educators in South East Asia to re-evaluate the nature of music education. Increasing numbers of educators realize that there is a need to introduce their own traditional music (including the music of minorities) as well as the music of South East Asia and other parts of the world to the young through the music curriculum. This new trend in music education in South East Asia has occurred in tandem with the rise of an articulate middle class (including music educators) who are experiencing a new wave of nostalgia for their traditional culture and identity. This new middle class is concerned with the demise of its traditions caused by the emergence of a global consumer culture that has dominated many aspects of everyday life. This chapter looks at how particular forms of traditional Malaysian music and selected genres of traditional music taught in certain schools in Thailand, Indonesia and the Philippines have been introduced in Malaysian secondary schools to children aged between 13 and 17. A comparative approach, which could be adapted to teaching the traditional music of South East Asia in music appreciation classes through active music-making and guided listening, is illustrated in this article. The notation and methods of teaching used in the respective countries have been adopted. It should be stressed that cross-cultural studies are new in Malaysia and educators are still experimenting with appropriate instructional approaches.

Professor in Ethnomusicology, School of Arts, Universiti Sains, Malaysia; e-mail: sbtan2@yahoo.com

L. Joubert (ed.) Educating in the Arts The Asian Experience: Twenty-Four Essays, Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2008

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1. Why Multiculturalism?
A multicultural approach to music learning is important for many reasons. Many countries in South East Asia have long histories of cross-cultural influence emanating from both Asian and Western sources. They also have multi-ethnic populations resulting from migration and colonial intervention. The population of Malaysia, for instance, comprises over 60% Bumiputera (Malays and other indigenous groups such as the Orang Asli, Kadazan, Bajau, Iban, Bidayuh, Melanau, Penan and many others), 28% Chinese (of different dialect groups), nearly 8% Indians (originating from different parts of India) and over 3% others (which includes Arabs, Eurasians, Indonesians, Thais and Philipinos) (Department of Statistics, 1993). Given this diversity, a music curriculum designed to help students understand cultural diversity in their own country as well as in the region will encourage inter-ethnic understanding and intercultural communication. This approach will also give recognition to the value of all kinds of music (including the music of ethnic minorities and ones own traditional music). Students exposed to a variety of sounds can also develop greater musical flexibility. Through involvement in other musical styles, they will be less prone to judge new music without first trying to understand it. They will also learn different ways to construct and notate music. Through the multicultural approach, students in Malaysia will be able to see not only the similarities (as well as the regional differences) in instrumentation, musical style, form, playing and learning techniques of South East Asian ensembles but also the differences between South East Asian music and Western classical music. They will be able to see that Malaysian music has many similarities with the music of its neighbours.

2. Music Curriculum in Malaysian Secondary Schools

Music education in Malaysia is compulsory and centralized at the primary level (ages 712) but is an elective subject at lower secondary (ages 1315) and upper secondary (ages 1617) levels. All schools are governed by curricula, textbooks and teaching materials provided by the Ministry of Education. There are similarities in the music education systems of Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines and Indonesia. Music is a compulsory subject at the elementary level. Music classes can be taken as electives at the secondary level. As education is centralized, all public schools share a common syllabus. Music first became an intra-curricular subject at the primary school level in 1982. It should, however, be noted that many middle-class families send their children for private piano (and other instrumental) lessons outside school hours. These children take the graded exams of the Royal Schools of Music of Trinity College, London, or Yamaha exams every year. Malaysia has one of the highest number of private candidates taking these exams in the region.

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The primary school syllabus was very Westernized till 1994 when the curriculum was revised. Some basic rhythms and forms of Malaysian music have been included in the new syllabus. At the same time, the new syllabus promotes creativity and spontaneity as well as ensuring that there is conformity between its objectives and its content (Ministry of Education, 1993). In 1996, music was introduced as a subject in 20 pilot secondary schools in Malaysia. In 1997, the pilot project was extended to boarding schools. Musical instruments are provided by the Ministry of Education. The music curriculum is divided into the following parts: Basic theory and elements of style, where students learn the elements of music such as rhythm, melody, scale, pitch, dynamics and form. The level of difficulty in basic theory and harmony is increased each year; Music appreciation, concentrating on the traditional music of Malaysia, South East Asia and Asia and the lives and works of a few famous Western composers; Performance skills and expression, on selected traditional and Western instruments and Documentation, where students are encouraged to carry out group projects of selected traditional music based on interviews with performers, collection of photographs, attendance of performances and documentation in the form of a folio or a scrapbook and tape recordings. The core components of basic theory, music appreciation and performance skills and expression are also found in the music curricula of other South East Asian countries such as Thailand, the Philippines and Indonesia. However, most public schools do not teach students to play traditional instruments in class at either elementary or lower secondary levels, due to the lack of trained teachers and instruments.1 At the secondary level, the music curriculum is multicultural and emphasizes knowledge of the traditional music and cultures of Malaysia as well as that of other countries. The objectives of this curriculum include raising the level of knowledge regarding traditional music and culture through music that is inherited, as well as the music of other cultures; defining the special characteristics of traditional music and other elements connected to music; discussing other elements connected to the traditional music of other cultures and studying and comparing several types of traditional music of Malaysia with the traditional music of other countries (Ministry of Education, 1995). As a result, there is a conscious effort to include Malaysian and South East Asian musical components in all sections of the curriculum. For instance, in the theory section, basic dance rhythms in Malaysia and the musical

1 Students can learn how to play traditional musical instruments as an extra-curricular activity at the primary and secondary level, especially in richer schools, which can afford to acquire the instruments. The type of traditional ensemble taught depends on the instruments available in the particular region. For instance, in Bangkok, students may learn to play the pi phat and mahori ensembles while in Chiengmai, students may learn the lanna ensemble.

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elements of selected forms of Malaysian music are explored; in the appreciation section, the musical styles and instruments of the various ethnic groups in Malaysia as well as of South East Asia, Asia and Europe are discussed and in the performance section, students are required to learn how to play specific traditional pieces for Malay instruments such as the kompang (year 1), caklempong (year 2) and gamelan Melayu (year 3) in addition to the Western keyboard and recorder. The students also sing Malay, Iban, Kadazan, Chinese and Indian folksongs as well as the songs of other Malaysian and Asian communities.

3. Current Limitations of Music Teaching

Schools that offer music as an elective at the secondary school level face many problems and music instructors have to work within a number of constraints. To start with, music teachers are given only two and a half h to teach music each week. Because the syllabus is wide and students have to cover all four components of the curriculum, the actual number of hours devoted to playing traditional music is limited. Many teachers have no background in traditional music and are learning as they teach. Classes are big (with 40 or more students in a class) and the majority of the students have not seen the instruments or heard the music taught before. Only selected instruments used in performance classes, such as kompang, caklempong, gamelan, keyboards, recorders and percussion instruments are supplied to selected pilot schools. Very often, there are not enough instruments for all students to play at the same time. Furthermore, teachers and students are sometimes prevented from playing musical instruments by certain religious authorities, especially in rural schools. The music curriculum is centralized by the Ministry of Education and standard textbooks, notation and musical pieces are used by all schools. There is little room for improvisation. Due to the lack of time, instruments, skilled teachers and other limitations, it is thus not possible to teach musical skills at a high level in public schools. Talented students are expected to pursue advanced training at specialized colleges for the arts (such as the Akademi Seni Kebangsaan in Malaysia). The music classes in the public schools are meant to introduce the diverse forms of music to the students, to show how the different cultures interrelate with one another and to promote mutual understanding.

4. Example of an Instructional Approach in Music Appreciation Classes

In order to sustain the interest of students in the music of different ethnic groups in Malaysia as well as of South East Asia and Asia, a participatory and comparative approach should be employed in music appreciation classes.

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Active music making. The study of multicultural music should be approached through various experiences in singing, playing instruments, moving to music and guided listening. It is important that the students are allowed to experience performing and hearing how traditional pieces work to give them some kind of practical experience, even though musical instruments are not available. We emphasize that students cannot learn about a musical form or ensemble through the textbook without hearing or experiencing the musical sound itself. Improvized instruments, singing and body percussion. Teachers are also encouraged to substitute actual instruments with other instruments available or to create their own instruments that simulate the sounds of the original instruments. If there are no instruments available, the music can be sung, using the mnemonic syllables used in traditional music. In Malaysia, as a result of constraints of time and lack of instruments, teachers rely greatly on singing and body percussion to experience music. Audiovisual aids. Practical exercises should be supplemented with photographs, musical recordings and videotapes of the particular ensemble. Cultural context. Discussions of the cultural context and historical development of the respective ensembles, focusing on cross-cultural influences, should be introduced. Students should be encouraged to find out more about the cultures of the ethnic groups studied by looking up books, encyclopaedias or the Internet (if computers are available, especially in urban schools) and to document these cultures in their folios. Similarities and differences. The similarities and differences between musical instruments, musical textures, scales and forms of other ensembles in Malaysia and South East Asia should be discussed so that students understand that the different forms of music of the region share commonalities and that they are different from Western classical music. Examples of lesson plans using the above approach are given below.

5. Lesson Plans
Gong ensembles of South East Asia (comprising mainly knobbed gongs which sit on a rack, suspended gongs, drums, xylophones, flutes and stringed instruments) and bamboo ensembles (mainly struck and stamped bamboo instruments) have been selected for these lesson plans, as these ensembles can be found in all South East Asian countries, including Malaysia. It should be noted that a similar approach may be applied to the introduction of many other instruments, such as bamboo and wooden flutes, jaws harp, lutes and mouth organs as well as vocal music in South East Asia, all of which have similar musical characteristics.

5.1. Lesson Plan 1 (Wayang Kulit Kelantan)

Objectives. Introduction to basic instruments and polyphonic texture played by melodic instruments and various drums, rhythmic cycles played by drums, the gong

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cycle (gongan), which is punctuated by other gongs and cymbals, melody and cross-cultural influences. Materials. Wayang Kelantan instruments (other gongs and drums can be substituted). If instruments are not available, the exercises can be sung. Learning Wayang Kelantan, Lagu Pak Dogol. Wayang Kelantan is an indigenous form of Malay shadow puppet theatre which combines Thai, Javanese, Middle Eastern, Indian and South East Asian elements. It is found in the northeastern state of Kelantan near the ThaiMalaysian border. It uses the Kelantan-Patani dialect of Malay and is based on local versions of the Indian epic, Ramayana. Occasionally, local folk stories are also performed. The Wayang Kelantan puppets have Thai, Javanese and Malay characteristics. For instance, the giant ogre (raksaksa), Maharaja Wana resembles Thai puppets because of its snub nose and pinnacled crown. At the same time, Maharaja Wana has Javanese characteristics. These include the round eyes portraying violence and the feet, which are spaced close together. The faces of the refined princes and princesses, such as Seri Rama and Siti Dewi, respectively, depict the ideal of Malay beauty. They have small mouths and noses and narrow eyes similar to refined Javanese puppets. Siti Dewi wears a traditional Malay female headdress while Seri Rama is adorned with a Thai pinnacled crown.

6. Instruments (see Fig. 18.1) 6.1. Musical Elements

Polyphonic texture. The gong cycle. The music of the Wayang Kelantan is based on gong cycles (gongan), which are repeated throughout the piece. The end of each cycle is marked by a gong. For example, Lagu Pak Dogol, which accompanies the clown Pak Dogol when he walks, consists of eight-beat gong cycles. The end of each cycle is marked by the tetawak ibu (G). The gongan is binary and is subdivided in half by the tetawak anak (g) which is played on the fourth beat. The gongan is further subdivided by the canang (dong = the pitch of canang ibu, ding = the pitch of canang anak) and kesi, which play on every beat. The kesi produces two timbres (x = dampened sound cap, c = ringing sound cing) (see Fig. 18.2). Students are asked to play the gongan if instruments are available; other drums and gongs can be substituted; or students can sing using mnemonic syllables. Students exchange parts. The rhythmic cycle. The gedumbak and gendang anak play interlocking patterns producing a resultant rhythm which is repeated throughout the lagu. Together, the two drums provide the steady pulse of the gong unit. Students are asked to play the rhythmic cycle if instruments are available; other drums and gongs can be substituted; or students can sing using drum syllables. Students exchange parts (see Fig. 18.3).

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Tetawak

Canang

Kesi

Gedumbak

Gendang

Geduk

Serunai ibu/anak

Fig. 18.1 Musical instruments of Wayang Kelantan (Tan and Matusky 1999: 15)

Dx

G
dc 7 xD

8 1

dc

6
5 dc

2 Dx 4 g
Dx 3 dc

Fig. 18.2 Gongan of lagu pak dogol (Tan and Matusky 1999: 21)

Fig. 18.3 Interlocking patterns of the gedumbak and gendang anak

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c = drum syllable cap produced by the right hand striking the drum head towards its centre with a springy hand and closing the base end with the other hand; d = drum syllable dung produced by the right hand striking the drum head towards its centre and leaving the base end open; t = drum syllable ting produced by striking the drum head near its rim with the fingers of one hand and closing the base end of the drum with the other. Melody (serunai, dalang). The melody is played by the serunai. Because of its quadruple reed, the serunai provides a loud sound, which can be heard above the drumming. In sung pieces, the serunai alternates with the dalang to produce the melodic line (changing at the end of the gong cycle).The melodies are improvisatory and are highly ornamented. Five to seven tone scales are used. Students are asked to listen to the serunai melody of lagu pak dogol and the stepwise movement with small leaps, repeated notes and ornamentation.

7. Intercultural Influences in Instrumentation and Musical Style

Thai, Malay and Middle Eastern elements are found in the music of wayang kelantan. This musical ensemble resembles that of the Menora, the Thai dance drama of Kelantan and South Thailand. The gedombak corresponds to the thap, the geduk to the klong, the serunai to the pi, the kesi to the cing and the canang and tetawak to the mong of Thailand. Rhythmic and gong cycles are found in the different musical cultures of South East Asia. The serunai is also similar to other reed instruments in the Middle East, such as the surnay of Iraq and the zurna of Turkey. Note on notation. The cipher notation and mnemonic syllables have been adapted from the notation used in the respective South East Asian societies. As in the countries of origin, the notation functions as a reference and is available only for the main melody and percussion instruments. As far as possible, the notation should not be used for reading while playing. It must be emphasized that one cannot learn an entire musical system by just looking at notation. For this, intensive training is needed with a teacher on a one-to-one basis. Summary. Although I have focused on Wayang Kelantan as an example, the same lesson plan and method of teaching could be applied to introduce other gong ensembles such as the makyong, gendang silat, gamelan Melayu of West Malaysia, engkerumong (Sarawak), kulintangan (Sabah), gamelan Jawa, mahori (Thailand), kulintang (Philippines) caklempung (Sumatra), gamelan gong kebyar (Bali), saing waing (Burma), pin peat (Kampuchea), pi phat (Laos and Thailand) and so on. Through this practical approach, students are introduced to the similarities (with regional differences) in instrumentation and instrumental functions, polyphonic texture, highly ornamented melodies and the cyclic nature of forms and cipher notation found in South East Asian gong ensembles.

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7.1. Lesson Plan 2 (Togunggu/ Togunggak)

Objectives. Introduction to basic instruments, polyphonic texture played by various bamboo instruments, rhythmic cycle, interlocking and resultant rhythms and crosscultural context. Materials. Togunggu/togunggak instruments, but other bamboo instruments can be substituted and students can be encouraged to make their own bamboo instruments by cutting strips of bamboo from the surrounding vegetation. If instruments are not available, the exercises can be clapped; body percussion can be used. Learning Togunggu/togunggak. Bamboo instruments in a cross-cultural context. Bamboo is an old plant of pre-Neolithic origin. It is found in the tropical jungles of Asia and has many uses. In many Asian communities, bamboo is used to carry water, to cook rice and other foods and as musical instruments. Bamboo instruments are therefore one of the earliest instruments found in Asia. Today they are still played to drive away evil spirits during healing ceremonies and harvest festivals or for entertainment in many parts of Asia. In Malaysia, bamboo instruments still prevail in the musical lives of small communities such as the Temiar of Kelantan, the Jah Hut of Pahang, the Iban, Kajang, Kayan and Kenyah of Sarawak and the Kadazan Dusun of Sabah. As in other parts of Asia, bamboo instruments can be played solo or in ensembles. Solo bamboo instruments in Malaysia comprise mainly aerophones such as the mouth organ and flute; plucked idiophones such as the jaws harp and chordophones such as the tube zither. These instruments are usually played for courting and entertainment. Solo instruments play short melodic motifs, which are improvised. Sometimes the melody is accompanied by a drone. It should be noted that a number of mouth organs or tube zithers can also be played at the same time if the performers wish. The performers improvise upon the same melodic motifs. Ensemble instruments comprise mainly idiophones, such as bamboo tubes of different lengths, which are stamped or struck with pieces of wood. These ensembles often accompany dances, rituals and festivals. Bamboo ensembles are often used to substitute for gong ensembles, which are expensive and difficult to acquire. Ensemble instruments play interlocking patterns that produce the resultant rhythms. The timbres and interlocking rhythms of the bamboos should be emphasized. Instruments. The Dusun of Sabah are known for their gong ensembles, which comprise hanging gongs of various sizes used to accompany dances, rituals and festivals. These gongs play complex interlocking rhythms. When expensive gongs are not available, bamboo tubes, known as togunggu or togunggak struck with wooden sticks may be substituted (see Fig. 18.4). Rhythmic cycles, interlocking rhythms, resultant rhythm. The bamboo tubes play interlocking rhythmic patterns with their entrances staggered. The koritikon (named after the koritikon gong) starts playing a basic rhythmic pattern. This bamboo tube is played with an unpadded stick, imitating the ringing sound of the koritikon gong, which is also beaten with an unpadded stick. This is followed by the gendang (imitating the drum) playing a similar pattern. The other bamboo tubes take turns to join

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Fig. 18.4 Togunggu/Togunggak names of instruments (left to right): gandang, koritikon, loposon, kuribadon, kutowon, dururung, tururui, tangon, polombuson

the ensemble, producing a complex rhythm and intricate interlocking timbres. The other bamboo tubes are struck with sticks padded with rubber, producing slightly dampened sounds that imitate those of the corresponding gongs. Students are asked to play the interlocking rhythmic patterns if instruments are available. If not, other bamboo instruments can be substituted or students can clap the parts or use body percussion. Students can also exchange parts. Summary. The same lesson plan and method of teaching can be applied to introduce other bamboo ensembles such as the alu dan tangbut (stamping tubes of the Kayan, Sarawak), ding galung (stamping tubes of the Jah Hut, Malaysia), patteteg (xylophone blades, Kalingga, Philippines), tongatong (stamping tubes, Kalingga, Philippines) and many other ensembles in other parts of South East Asia. Through this practical approach, students are introduced to the similarities (with regional differences) in instrumentation and instrumental functions and complex interlocking rhythmic patterns found in Malaysian and South East Asian bamboo ensembles.

8. Conclusion
By way of conclusion, let me stress that developing music materials for the classroom in public schools requires a long process of planning and experimentation prior to its implementation. We are still gathering materials from Malaysia and South East

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Fig. 18.5 Interlocking Rhythms in Gong Ensembles of the Dusun of Tambunan, Sabah (Played on the Togunggu/Togunggak)

Asia. School teachers have to be provided with teaching aids and training workshops. We recognize that there are some limitations in the approach put forward here but these cannot be avoided. They include the standardization of pitches for gongs, which is necessary for class participation throughout the country. Creativity and improvisation are limited as the lesson plans are meant to introduce the music of gong and bamboo ensembles to students who have no knowledge of the respective

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forms of music. Nevertheless, we believe that through active participation and music-making in a multicultural context in the classroom, children learn about the diverse cultures in the region, and how cultures interrelate and enhance one another, thus encouraging positive attitudes towards multicultural experiences and living with one another.
Acknowledgements I would like to thank the Toyota Foundation for providing me with a grant to conduct fieldwork in schools and institutions of higher learning in South East Asia. Materials obtained during fieldwork helped in the development of the music curriculum, the instructional approaches and textbooks for secondary schools. I would also like to thank the Curriculum Development Centre (Ministry of Education, Malaysia) for inviting me to sit on the planning committee of the Music Programme for Secondary Schools in Malaysia, to write the textbooks and to run workshops for music teachers. My gratitude also goes to Orawan Banchongsilpa (Chulalangkorn University Demonstration School), Felicidad Prudente and Kristina Benitez (University of Philippines), Endo Suanda (Bandung), Juju Masunah (Yogyakarta) and Jenny Lindsay (Ford Foundation, Jakarta) for introducing me to selected music programmes and individuals involved in school music curricula in the individual countries.

References
Benitez, K. and Prudente, F. 1991. A Training Manual for the Workshop on Traditional Philippine Musical Instruments. Manila: Centre for Philippine Music Traditions. Department of Statistics 1993. Population and Housing Census of 1991. Kuala Lumpur: Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia Huraian Sukatan Pelajaran Menengah Atas, Pendidikan Muzik. Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (Ministry of Education, Malaysia) 1998. Buku Sumber dan Aktiviti Pendidikan Muzik Tingkatan Satu. Kuala Lumpur: Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. Lundquist, B. and Szegc, C.K. 1998. Musics of the Worlds Cultures: A Sourcebook for Music Educators. United Kingdom: CIRCME and ISME. Tan, S.B. and Matusky, P. 1998. Pengantar Muzik Malaysia Buku I, Pulau Pinang: Asian Centre. Tan, S.B. and Matusky, P. 1999. Pengantar Muzik Malaysia Buku 2, Pulau Pinang: Asian Centre. Takizawa, T. 1998. Asian Bamboo Music, Japan: Research Committee for World Musics in Schools. Wisuttipaet, M. 1990. Theoretical Concepts in Thai Classical Music. Trans. by F. Ellsworth Peterson. Bangkok: Srinakharinwirot University.