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LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT

The types of a Government can be categorized into National, State and Local. Local SelfGovernments are those bodies that look after the administration of an area or small community such as village, town or a city. These bodies are appointed by the Government representing the local inhabitants, which raises its revenue partially through local taxation and other means. The Local Self- Government can be divided into various classes: I. II. III. IV. V. Corporations; Cities; Town Municipalities; Town panchayats on the basis of population; Village panchayats.

 FUCTIONS OF LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENTS

The Local Self Government is entitled to discharge certain compulsory functions like: 1. Drinking water: Supplying safe and clean drinking water in the town & villages by fixed pipe lines or mobile vehicles in the areas where there is no fixed water pipe line. The water should be purified and should be fit for drinking purposes.

2. Drainage and Sewage Systems: Imparting and maintaining proper drainage and sewage systems are another important role local self governments has to play. It should be adequate for daily purposes and strong enough to face normal water discharge during rainy season.

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3. Lighting: Providing public street lighting in residential, commercial and on public streets are other essential roles which local self government has to full-fill as its duties. Not only providing them but maintaining them is also its duties.

4. Sanitation and Hygiene To keep up and set up sanitation and hygiene of public places by making public toilets and washrooms. Appointment of safai karamcharis by municipal

coorporation for cleaning of roads, public places and collecting garbage for maintaining of hygienic conditions of the given area.

5. Infrastructure Building and maintenance of bus terminals, roads, culverts and bridges for improved public transport, connectivity of various areas and overall development of infrastructure of town or sub-urban areas.

6. Public parks Preservation of public parks and gardens for the beautification of the towns and for providing recreation to people living there and giving good impression who visit the area.

7. Systematic growth To make sure that the urban or rural growth is systematic and planned proper master plans are made and implemented in a phase manner so that the growth and development does not clash with each other.

8. Guidelines Preparing guidelines, master plans for buildings and passing of maps for new building or house construction. Keeping a watch on construction according to the norms of construction.

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9. Permissions Issuing Licenses to traders, shopkeepers and businessmen for trading and setting up new business in the area.

10. Administration Issuing and maintaining Birth and Death records is also important duty of Municipal Corporation of the town for hassle free future of the person and family members of the deceased person. Apart from these the Local Self Government can deliver some discretionary functions including
1. Educational 2. Health

Community 4. Recreational services etc.

3.

In order to deliver the above duties, the Local Self Government have been given certain powers to earn revenues by levying certain taxes and fees. In addition to it, the State Government also transfers some of its general revenues to the Local Self Government. Their main sources of income are from taxes on construction and lands, taxes levied on people for water supply, and fee from trade license.

LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT

LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT IN RURAL INDIA

 AN INTRODUCTION TO PANCHAYATI RAJ

Panchayats have been the backbone of the Indian villages since the beginning of recorded history. Gandhiji, the father of the nation, in 1946 had aptly remarked that the Indian Independence must begin at the bottom and every village ought to be a Republic or Panchayat having powers. Gandhiji s dream has been translated in to reality with the introduction of the three-tier Panchayati Raj system to ensure people s participation in rural reconstruction. The constitution of free India envisaged organization of village Panchayats and endow those with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of Local self government. The government of India set up a committee in June 1986 which recommended the Panchayati Raj institutions should be constitutionally recognized, protected and preserved. Late Shri Rajiv Gandhi's government accepted the recommendations of the Committee and brought forward the 64th Constitutional Amendment Bill. But the Bill could not been acted. Panchayati Raj Institutions were constituted in the various states but it could not live up to the expectations for various reasons. Keeping in view the past experiences, it become imperative to provide constitutional status to local self government to impart certainty, continuity and strength. Thus, the constitution 73rd Amendment Act 1992 came into effect which envisages states to establish at three tier system of strong, viable and responsive Panchayats at the village, intermediate and district level. Although, the Panchayati Raj in Rajasthan enjoys good reputation but it could not go up to many expectations till today i.e., strong, viable and responsive solidarity among large number of masses. Situation may not improve merely by amending the Act, What is to be needed today is a change in thinking and bringing about a sense of consciousness among the people as well as the administrators. New norms and ethics need to be created for both which will sub serve the ideals of underlying decentralisation. Even learned foreign experts may be invited to form opinion before studying the situation. For achieving better result sand greater commitments to PRI's bodies. Likewise, Panchayats
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should be made more active and responsive so that social awareness and consciousness could be created at the grassroots level. It is then, that the true ideals and experience in democratic decentralization would walk hand in hand. Then only, as Nehru said, everyone in the country would be a partner in the progress.

 CHARACTERSTICS
1. A three-tier system of Panchayati Raj for all States having population of over twenty-lakh. 2. 3. Panchayat elections are held regularly every 5 years. Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and women (not less than one-third of seats). 4. Appointment of State Finance Commission to make recommendations as regards the financial powers of the Panchayats. 5. Constitution of District Planning Committees to prepare development plans for the district as a whole.

 BASIC POWERS AND RESPONSIBILITIES

y Preparation of plan for economic development and social justice to the people without any discrimination. Implementation of schemes for economic development and social justice in relation to 29 subjects given in Eleventh Schedule of the Constitution.

To levy, collect and appropriate taxes, duties, tolls and fees from goods carriers.

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 THREE-TIER SYSTEM OF PANCHAYATI RAJ

a) Village level panchayat . b) Block (intermediate) level panchayat. c) District level panchayat.

a) Village level panchayat:-

It is called a Panchayat at the village level. It is a local body working for the good of the village. The number of members usually ranges from 7 to 31; occasionally, groups are larger, but they never have less than 7 members.

b) Intermediate level panchayat:-

Panchayat samitis a local government body at the tehsil or Taluka level in India. It works for the villages of the Tehsil or Taluka that together are called a Development Block. The Panchayat Samiti is the link between the Gram Panchayat and the district administration. There are a number of variations of in various states. It is known as Mandal Praja Parishad in AndhraPradesh, Taluka panchayat in Gujarat, Mandal Panchayat in Karnataka, etc. In general it's a kind of Panchayati raj at higher level.

 Constitution
It is composed of ex-officio members (all sarpanchas of the panchayat samiti area, the MPs and MLAs of the area and the SDO of the subdivision), co-opted members(representatives of SC/ST and women), associate members (a farmer of the area, are presentative of the cooperative societies and one of the marketing services) and some elected members. The samiti is elected for 5 years and is headed by the chairman and the deputy chairman.

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 Department

The common departments in the Samiti are as follows:

1. General administration This looks after inter administration of the block level panchayat. 2. Finance The role of this branch is to look after the financial support to the various duties which block level panchayat has to ensure. For example sanitation, roads etc. 3. Public works To construct basic infrastructure and block level like roads, sanitation, street lightning etc. 4. Agriculture To look after proper space for storing of agriculture produce and making sure to set up basic infrastructure for selling that produce. 5. Health For setting up basic health centres to keep check on diseases caused by hepatises A, B and C and diseases like polio and malaria. 6. Education To set up adequate schools according to the population of the area and ensure quality and quantity education. 7. Social welfare Block panchayat have to make sure the betterment of socially and financially backward people in health, educational and housing facilities. 8. Information Technology and others.

There is an officer for every department. A government appointed asblock development officer is the executive officer to the samiti.

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 Functions
1. Implement schemes for the development of agriculture. 2. Establishment of primary health centres and primary schools. 3. Supply of drinking water, drainage, construction/repair of roads. 4. Development of cottage and small-scale industries and opening of cooperative societies. 5. Establishment of youth organisations.

 Sources of income
The main source of income of the panchayat samiti are grants-in-aid and loans from the State Government. Other sources include income from cooperative societies, duties from traders etc.

c) District level panchayat:In the district level of the panchayati raj system there is "zilla parishad". It looks after the administration of the rural area of the district and its office is located at the district headquarters. The Hindi word Parishad means Council and Zilla Parishad translates to District Council. It is headed by the "District Collector" or the "District Magistrate" or the "Deputy Comminissioner" is the link between the state government and the panchayat samiti (local self government at the block level).

 Constitution
Members of the Zilla Parishad are elected from the district on the basis of adult franchise for a term of five years. Zilla Parishad has minimum of 50 and maximum of 75 members. There are seats reserved for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, backward classes and women. The Chairmen of all the Panchayat Samitis form the members of Zilla Parishad. The Parishad is headed by a President and a Vice-President.

LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT

 Functions
1. Provide essential services and facilities to the rural population and the planning and execution of the development programmes for the district. 2. Supply improved seeds to farmers. Inform them of new techniques of training. Undertake construction of small-scale irrigation projects and percolation tanks. Maintain pastures and grazing lands. 3. Set up and run schools in villages. Execute programmes for adult literacy. Run libraries. 4. Start Primary Health Centres and hospitals in villages. Start mobile hospitals for hamlets, vaccination drives against epidemics and family welfare campaigns. 5. Construction bridges and roads and improvement of overall rural infrastructure. 6. Execute plans for the development of the scheduled castes and tribes. Run ashramshalas for adivasi children. Set up free hostels for scheduled caste students. 7. Encourage entrepreneurs to start small-scale industries like cottage industries, handicraft, agriculture produce processing mills, dairy farms, etc. implement ruralemployment schemes. 8. They construct roads, schools,& public properties. And they take care of the public properties. 9. They even supply work for the poor people. (tribes, scheduled caste, lower caste).

 Sources of Income
1. Taxes on water, pilgrimage, markets, etc. 2. Fixed grant from the State Government in proportion with the land revenue and money for works and schemes assigned to the Parishad.

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PROBLEMS IN ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE

Started with great hope and enthusiasm some of the major problems and shortcomings that devoted in the working Panchayati Raj institutions can be identified as:

1. Election are not being held on a regular basis although there is provision of election after 5 years but governments for some reason or the other had sometimes shown cold shoulder to the effective elections being held. 2. Lack of adequate transfer of powers and resources to Panchayati institutions is very adamant. Direct funding like town authorities is not given to panchayats which in return result in slow development and economic growth of rural areas.

3. Lack of Panchayati Raj bodies to generate their own resources such as tax on sale land and share in other duties or cess for businesses which are going on in that area. 4. Non-Representation of woman and weaker sections in the elected bodies is still the issue dispite of provisions for it. The reasons are many like lack of awareness, male dominance, and ignorance of women itself etc.

 RESERVATION FOR WOMEN

The Constitution 73rd Amendment Act in order to revive the existing Panchayati Raj system due to its structural and functional inadequacies has made mandatory on the part of the states that they would reserve a minimum of 30 per cent of seats to woman in their Panchayati Raj institutions so as to involve actively in the decision making process. In accordance with the 73rd Amendment 33 per cent of seats have been reserved for rural woman in the Panchayati Raj Institutions. The Statutory reservation of seats for woman in Panchayati Raj bodies has provided an opportunity for their formal involvement in the development and political processes at the grass root level thereby to enabling them to influence the decision making process in the local governments.

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 IMPLICATIONS OF CONSTITUTIONAL 73rd & 74th AMENDMENT

The 73rd & 74th Constitutional Amendment has been made to many weaknesses. It has certain features which are binding on the state legislature where they resort to discretion: 1. Constitutional Status to Panchayati Raj Institutions. 2. Reservation of Seats for Weaker Section of Society. 3. Direct Election of Panchayati Raj, every five years at all levels. 4. Finance Commission to be set up by State Government to devolve funds and suggest ways of financing Panchayati Raj Institutions. 5. Election Commission at State Level to Conduct Panchayati Raj Elections. But the discretion given to the state for implementing the implications given in amendments has is being problem for panchayat system from past because some states takes it very lightly and ignore the importance of setting up proper system at village levels.

It is thus, important to verify whether the aims and objectives of the Constitutional amendment and the aspirations generated by it have been met and if so, to what extent. Various discussions, debates, conferences are being organized to see and many issues are debated for new experience.

 BURNING ISSUES OF PANCHAYATI RAJ

1. Devolution of finances to PRI's bodies. 2. Exercise of Power and responsibility by Panchayati Raj Institution.

3. What has been the impact of the reservations especially for woman and to what extant this has helped the weaker section of society? 4. Whether the PRI's in the new set up have improved their position regarding devolution of powers and financial resources in view of setting up State Finance and Election Commissions? 5. What sort of training and orientation 18 would be required for the newly elected Panchayati Raj bodies?

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In a net-shell the 73rd Amendment had aroused a lot of expectations and it is to be expected that it would usher Panchayati Raj Institutions in a new and dynamic role.

 CHALLENGES FACED BY PANCHAYATI RAJ

I. Gram Panchayat is not really the lowest unit for implementation.

A majority of the primary stakeholder for the NREGA and the Bonthi PRI Project are unskilled labour in the villages. For these communities, especially those staying in villages other than the Gram Panchayat headquarters, the Gram Panchayat is still an institution at some distance. The opportunity costs for transacting with the Gram Panchayat is often the loss in daily wages. Hence, any programme designed for the unskilled labour should actually detail operational modalities that recognise their livelihood imperatives and enable their engagement. It is in this perspective that the operational modalities from Gram Panchayat to the village/hamlet level advice versa are considered important.

II.

Lack of capacities at the Gram Panchayat for planning, estimation of works.

For realizing demystification of technical estimates, as envisaged in the guidelines, a lot of capacity building initiative needs to focus on the Gram Panchayat and the villages. The role of the civil society is currently very limited in the guidelines. It needs to be strengthened, at least, for aspects of community capacity building, supporting implementation and for strengthening the monitoring and social audit processes. Lack of local capacities for planning and implementation is the biggest impediment for processes that seek to strengthen decentralised institutions. These constraints cannot be wished away they have to be addressed through systematic and sustained capacity building support there are no short-cuts.

III.

Lack of availability of local line department functionaries and lack of local technical skills.

Bonthi Gram Panchayat does not have a full time secretary. An agriculture assistant from the agriculture department is deputed as a secretary with additional charge . He also has additional charge of another nearby Gram Panchayat. Although cooperative in timely disbursal of funds for sub committees, the secretary finds little time to get intimately

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involved in the project activities. The Junior Engineer also shares responsibility with other panchayats. The panchayat relies on these two functionaries for all its activities.

IV.

Lack of information

The current guideline has little stress on an organized information campaign at the village level for the NREGA. In Bonthi, it is found that many misconceptions exist about the programme among the community that are rare clarified through objective sources.

V.

Delays in fund transfer to the Gram Panchayat- low accountability of the higher institutions.

Fund releases from the Zila Panchayat to the Gram Panchayat take a long time to get processed. This despite promises by officials to look into the matter, each time the matter is discussed in the Steering Committee Meetings at the Zila Panchayat. Also, no communication from the Zila Panchayat to the Gram Panchayat is made on the reasons for the delay. For, the Zila Panchayat handling multiple programmes in 175 gram panchayats, this is just another project file. Changes in officials further complicate matters, as new officials require time to understand the project. Donor intervention was required for all fund releases till date. Although the NREGA guidelines provide for punitive action on part of erring Gram Panchayats that delay job creation after a demand has been made, levels above are not equally accountable. This will prove to be a big hindrance for ensuring work as a right as the Act envisages. There are delays of over a year in labour payments reported from at least two villages in Bonthi Gram Panchayat.

VI.

Riders for NREGA: Challenges of backward districts:-

The 200 backward districts where the NREGA is being implemented make the Act more desirable but at the same time less feasible. Their unique socio-economic and governance problems better be understood for the NREGA to be effective. The 200 backward districts, identified by the Planning Commission will pose major challenges to the implementation of the NREGA because of their special problems. They are the least developed areas of the country comprising mostly marginal farmers and forest dwellers. In many of these districts poverty has increased despite consistent focus of several poverty eradication programmes. Governance has little or no presence in most of these districts. The NREGA with the aim to reduce poverty is thus desirable for these districts. The NREGA can target development using huge demand for casual jobs. However, the absence of governance will make the implementation difficult. It is thus imperative to understand the complex socioeconomic and governance challenges of the backward districts. This will help implement the NREGA in an effective way. And for the NREGA, these districts will decide its overall success.
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VII.

Difficult constituencies

Widespread poverty is a major feature with all these districts. A large number of them are located in the arid and semi arid regions with 94 districts covered under the Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP) and 8 districts covered under the Desert Development Programme (DDP). The socio economic indicators of most of these districts are generally below the national average. Out of these 200 districts, 148 have literacy lower than the national average (63.58%) while the rate of female literacy in 154 districts is lower than the national average of 54.16%. Also, the proportion of SC/ST population in most of the areas is higher than in other areas. In 41 of them (which does not include Jamtara, Latehar, Simdega, SraikelaKharsawan districts of Jharkhand for which census 2001 figures are not available) STs constitute majority of the population2.These districts are also the most backward regions in terms of connectivity. There are 21 districts in the Himalayan region and the North East that are completely mountainous. Besides, a number of districts in Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa have hilly terrain. There are also wide variations in the size and population of the districts.

VIII.

Socio-economic profile

These districts are primarily agricultural and in 115 districts, the percentage of agricultural labourers in the total rural working population is higher than the national average of 33 percent, indicating the large-scale landlessness in these districts combined with lack of effective employment opportunities in the non-agricultural sector. The result is lower incomes for a large section of the rural population contributing towards the backwardness of these districts apart from agro climatic and physiographic conditions.

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 CONCLUSION
The NREGA is an ambitious programme with vast transformative potentials. It is important that implementation mechanisms are strengthened to use its full potential. While there is abundant experience with India s bureaucratic set-up, the Panchayati Raj system is of relative recent vintage and project designers/ policy makers have limited hands-on experience of its functioning. Often positions are taken from an ideological perspective than from field experience. The debate on merits of decentralisation needs to be set at rest and all efforts now need to be made to strengthen the capacities of the decentralised institutions and to improve their role clarity following principles of subsidiary. Planning and implementation of NRM based activities, community participation and accountability are best addressed at the habitation level and Panchayats in most states are still too remote an institution for these functions. The governance role of Panchayats needs to be strengthened including accountability of officials at the Zila Panchayat and the line departments to the Gram Panchayat. The civil society has an important stake in the success of NREGA and in contributing to its success which should be harnessed.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY
i. ii. iii. iv. v. Democracy and Social Change in India V.B. Singh. 1999. The Success of India's Democracy, Subrata K. Mitra . Comparative Politics Today, Bingham Powell. Government of Jharkhand survey 2010. Ministry of Panchayati Raj, Government of India.

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