Torsion of shaft Objective: To determine the relationship between the applied torque and the angle of twist and

hence obtain the shear modulus. Theory: Basic Torsion Relationship From the torsion theory the relationship between torque, section property, length, material property, and angle of twist is given by, = = Where T is the torque r is the radius of the specimen where stress is to be determined L is the length of the specimen J is polar second moment of area of the section G is the shear modulus of the material is the stress at radius r is the angle of twist in radian From the above equation, --------- 2 ------ 1

Or T= x --------3

Since G, j and L are constant for a particular experiment, therefore equation 3 can be written as follows; T= constant x By plotting the graph of torque versese the angle of twist, the value of the constant can be determined from the slope of the graph.

Limiting value of Torque in the Elastic Range When the user does not wish to test the specimen to failure, the magnitude of torque applied to the specimen must be such that the resulting stress remains in the elastic region. The torsional stress at yield is usually taken to be elastic range it is recommended that the resulting stress do not exceed 0.3 times the tensile yield stress. Typical value for shear modulus: Material Aluminium Brass Steel Shear Modulus (GPa) 26-28 36-41 70-81

Apparatus: 1. Torsion apparatus 2. Specimens 3. Vernier caliper

Procedure: 1. The digital protractor was switched on and the systems were warmed by the load indicator. 2. The length (only the round section) and diameter of the specimen was measured. 3. The torsiometer was mounted approximately at the center of the specimen and the dial gauge reading was set to zero. 4. The top screw that is attached to the specimen setting bar was loosened. 5. A socket was attached to the end of the specimen setting bar. 6. The specimen was placed in the socket. 7. Another socket was placed in the socket. 8. The specimen setting bar was pushed towards the other socket. Once the specimen is in contact with the socket, try to push the specimen so that it slides into the socket. If this is not possible, turn the handle to rotate the socket slightly so that the specimen can slide into the socket. 9. Once the socket and the specimen are in line pushed the specimen until the whole the hexagon portion is completely inside the socket. 10. When the hexagon is completely inside the socket, the position of the specimen setting bar is locked by tightening the top bottom screws. 11. The load indicator reading was set to zero by pressing the tare button. 12. The digital protractor was set to zero by pressing the R button. 13. The torsiometer reading was set to zero by turning the dial indicator face. 14. The handle was turned until the load cell records a small reading (approximately 5 Newtons) and the specimen is tight. This is a preload condition. 15. The load indicator was set, the digital protractor and the torsiometer reading to zero by pressing the tare button, the R button and turning the face of the dial gauge respectively. 16. Torque was applied to the specimen by turning the handle. 17. The load cell was recorded, the digital protractor and the torsiometer readings initially for every 5 division of the torsiometer. 18. The applied torque was increased and for each increament record corresponding angles of twist. 19. When the torsiometer reading starts to increase rapidly, the torsiometer was removed to avoid damage. 20. Increasing the load was continuing until the specimen breaks. 21. Of the experiment is to be conducted in the linear range only, it is advisable that the torsional stress should not exceed 0.3 the yield stress of the material. (see manual for the stress limitation value) 22. When the conducting test to destruction, the torsiometer was removed when the specimen approaches yield.

Result & calculation Steel Aluminum Length of specimen (m) 0.086 0.085 Diameter of specimen (m) 0.0062 0.0062 Polar moment of inertia (m) 1.45 x 1.45x Gauge length torsiometer (m) 0.05 0.05 Torque arm, L (m) 0.1 0.1 Table 1: Information of the Steel and Aluminum specimen.

For the torsiometer, 1 division represents 0.015 degrees Steel Applied torque T = W x 100 Nmm 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 Angle of twist (Torsiometer) 1.78 x 2.83 x 3.98 x 8.64 x 12.0 x

Div 6.6 10.8 15.2 33.0 46.0 Table 2

Aluminum Applied torque T = W x 100 Nmm 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 Angle of twist (Torsiometer) 1.15 x 9.53 x 29.0 x 51.3 x 77.8 x

Div 4.4 36.4 111 196 297 Table 3

Applied Torque,T
3

Graph of T against Angle of Twist of Steel

y = 231.9x

2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014

Angle of Twist

Applied Torque, T 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 0.02

Graph of T against Angle of Twist of Aluminum

y = 36.479x

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

Angle of Twist

For Steel,

For Aluminum,

Percentage of Error, Steel

Aluminum

Discussion 1. The applied torque increased, the angle of twist also increased. 2. There are error percentage occurred from the experiment, the error percentage between theoretical and experimental of shear modulus of steel is 69%. And the error percentage between theoretical and experimental of shear modulus of Aluminum is 23.6%. 3. There are several possible sources of error during the experiment that is parallax error when recording the reading. Besides, shaking of the table will also affect the result of the experiment. The condition of the equipment will also affect the experiment. 4. The failure surface of steel will is like flatten as show it the 4 (b), and the surface of the aluminum will be sharpen (cup and cone fracture) as show in the figure 4 (a). The failure surface reflected the type of material (brittle or ductile) being tested obviously. Aluminum (ductile material) The failure of many ductile materials can be attributed to cup and cone fracture. This form of ductile fracture occurs in stages that initiate after necking begins. First, small microvoids form in the interior of the material. Next, deformation continues and the microvoids enlarge to form a crack. The crack continues to grow and it spreads laterally towards the edges of the specimen. Finally, crack propagation is rapid along a surface that makes about a 45 degree angle with the tensile stress axis. The new fracture surface has a very irregular appearance. The final shearing of the specimen produces a cup type shape on one fracture surface and a cone shape on the adjacent connecting fracture surface, hence the name, cup and cone fracture as shown in the figure 4 . Steel (brittle fracture) Brittle fracture, cracks spread very rapidly with little or no plastic deformation. The cracks that propagate in a brittle material will continue to grow and increase in magnitude once they are initiated. Another important mannerism of crack propagation is the way in which the advancing crack travels through the material. A crack that passes through the grains within the material is undergoing transgranular fracture. However, a crack that propagates along the grain boundaries is termed an intergranular fracture and as shown in 4 (b).

Conclusion In a nut shell, the applied torque is increasing with the angle of twist if there is no any error. Reference -Introduction to Materials Science, Chapter 8, Failure. http://people.virginia.edu/~lz2n/mse209/Chapter8.pdf -Virginia Tech Materials Science and Engineering, DavidBailey, 4/25/97. http://www.eng.vt.edu/eng/materials/classes/MSE2094_NoteBook/97ClassProj/exper/bailey/ww w/bailey.html