Math Problem-Solving: Combining Cognitive & Metacognitive Strategies

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Solving an advanced math problem independently requires the coordination of a number of complex skills. The student must have the capacity to reliably implement the specific steps of a particular problem-solving process, or cognitive strategy. At least as important, though, is that the student must also possess the necessary metacognitive skills to analyze the problem, select an appropriate strategy to solve that problem from an array of possible alternatives, and monitor the problem-solving process to ensure that it is carried out correctly. The following strategies combine both cognitive and metacognitive elements (Montague, 1992; Montague & Dietz, 2009). First, the student is taught a 7-step process for attacking a math word problem (cognitive strategy). Second, the instructor trains the student to use a three-part selfcoaching routine for each of the seven problem-solving steps (metacognitive strategy). In the cognitive part of this multi-strategy intervention, the student learns an explicit series of steps to analyze and solve a math problem. Those steps include: 1. Reading the problem. The student reads the problem carefully, noting and attempting to clear up any areas of uncertainly or confusion (e.g., unknown vocabulary terms). 2. Paraphrasing the problem. The student restates the problem in his or her own words. 3. Drawing the problem. The student creates a drawing of the problem, creating a visual representation of the word problem. 4. Creating a plan to solve the problem. The student decides on the best way to solve the problem and develops a plan to do so. 5. Predicting/Estimating the answer. The student estimates or predicts what the answer to the problem will be. The student may compute a quick approximation of the answer, using rounding or other shortcuts. 6. Computing the answer. The student follows the plan developed earlier to compute the answer to the problem. 7. Checking the answer. The student methodically checks the calculations for each step of the problem. The student also compares the actual answer to the estimated answer calculated in a previous step to ensure that there is general agreement between the two values. The metacognitive component of the intervention is a three-part routine that follows a sequence of Say, Ask, Check. For each of the 7 problem-solving steps reviewed above:

The student first self-instructs by stating, or saying, the purpose of the step (Say). The student next self-questions by asking what he or she intends to do to complete the step (Ask).

The student concludes the step by self-monitoring, or checking, the successful completion of the step (Check).

While the Say-Ask-Check sequence is repeated across all 7 problem-solving steps, the actual content of the student self-coaching comments changes across the steps. Table 1 (as well as the attachment at the bottom of the page) shows how each of the steps in the word problem cognitive strategy is matched to the three-part Say-Ask-Check sequence: Say-Ask-Check Metacognitive Prompts Tied to a Word-Problem Cognitive Strategy (Montague, 1992) Cognitive Metacognitive Say-Ask-Check Prompt Sample Metacognitive SayStrategy Step Targets Ask-Check Prompts 1. Read the Say (Self-Instruction) Target: The Say: I will read the student reads and studies the problem problem. I will reread the problem. carefully before proceeding. problem if I dont Ask (Self-Question) Target: Does the understand it. student fully understand the problem Ask: Now that I have read Check (Self-Monitor) Target: Proceed the problem, do I fully only if the problem is understood. understand it Check: I understand the problem and will move forward. 2. Paraphrase Say (Self-Instruction) Target: The Say: I will highlight key student restates the problem in order to words and phrases that the problem. demonstrate understanding. relate to the problem Ask (Self-Question) Target: Is the student question. able to paraphrase the problem I will restate the problem in Check (Self-Monitor) Target: Ensure that my own words. any highlighted key words are relevant to Ask: Did I highlight the the question. most important words or phrases in the problem Check: I found the key words or phrases that will help to solve the problem. 3. Draw the Say (Self-Instruction) Target: The Say: I will draw a diagram student creates a drawing of the problem to of the problem. problem. consolidate understanding. Ask: Does my drawing Ask (Self-Question) Target: Is there a represent the problem match between the drawing and the problem Check: The drawing Check (Self-Monitor) Target: The contains the essential parts drawing includes in visual form the key of the problem. elements of the math problem. 4. Create a plan Say (Self-Instruction) Target: The Say: I will make a plan to

solve the problem. Ask: What is the first step of this plan What is the next step of the plan Check: My plan has the right steps to solve the problem. 5. Predict/ Say (Self-Instruction) Target: The Say: I will estimate what student uses estimation or other strategies the answer will be. estimate the to predict or estimate the answer. Ask: What numbers in the Answer. Ask (Self-Question) Target: What problem should be used in estimating technique will the student use to my estimation predict the answer Check: I did not skip any Check (Self-Monitor) Target: The important information in my predicted/estimated answer used all of the estimation. essential problem information. 6. Compute the Say (Self-Instruction) Target: The Say: I will compute the student follows the plan to compute the answer to the problem. answer. solution to the problem. Ask: Does my answer Ask (Self-Question) Target: Does the sound right Is my answer answer agree with the estimate close to my estimate Check (Self-Monitor) Target: The steps in Check: I carried out all of the plan were followed and the operations the operations in the correct completed in the correct order. order to solve this problem. 7. Check the Say (Self-Instruction) Target: The Say: I will check the steps student reviews the computation steps to of my answer. answer. verify the answer. Ask: Did I go through each Ask (Self-Question) Target: Did the step in my answer and check student check all the steps in solving the my work problem and are all computations correct Check: Check (Self-Monitor) Target: The problem solution appears to have been done correctly. to solve the problem. student generates a plan to solve the problem. Ask (Self-Question) Target: What plan will help the student to solve this problem Check (Self-Monitor) Target: The plan is appropriate to solve the problem. Students will benefit from close teacher support when learning to combine the 7-step cognitive strategy to attack math word problems with the iterative 3-step metacognitive Say-Ask-Check sequence. Teachers can increase the likelihood that the student will successfully acquire these skills by using research-supported instructional practices (Burns, VanDerHeyden, & Boice, 2008), including:

Verifying that the student has the necessary foundation skills to solve math word problems Using explicit instruction techniques to teach the cognitive and metacognitive strategies Ensuring that all instructional tasks allow the student to experience an adequate rate of success

Providing regular opportunities for the student to be engaged in active accurate academic responding Offering frequent performance feedback to motivate the student and shape his or her learning.

A cognitive strategy is a mental process or procedure for accomplishing a particular cognitive goal. For example, if students' goals are to write good essays, their cognitive strategies might include brainstorming and completing an outline. The cognitive strategies that students use influence how they will perform in school, as well as what they will accomplish outside of school. Researchers have found that effective learners and thinkers use more effective strategies for reading, writing, problem solving, and reasoning than ineffective learners and thinkers.

SOME IMPORTANT DISTINCTIONS

Cognitive strategies can be general or specific (Pressley & Woloshyn, 1995). General cognitive strategies are strategies that can be applied across many different disciplines and situations (such as summarization or setting goals for what to accomplish), whereas specific cognitive strategies tend to be more narrow strategies that are specified toward a particular kind of task (such as drawing a picture to help one see how to tackle a physics problem). Specific strategies tend to be more powerful but have a more restricted range of use. Effective learners use both general and specific strategies. Strategies have been distinguished from skills. Although skills are similar to strategies, they are different in that they are carried out automatically, whereas strategies usually require individuals to think about what strategy they are using (Alexander, Graham, & Harris, 1998). Effective learners develop the ability to use strategies automatically while also reflecting upon those strategies when necessary. People who are able to reflect upon their own cognition and cognitive strategies are said to have metacognitive awareness. One factor that determines whether students use a strategy is whether students know what the strategy is and how to use it. Strategy use can be influenced both by knowledge of what the strategy is and how to use it, and by belief in the effectiveness of the strategy (Chinn, 2006). One reason why students may not use an effective strategy is that they do not know about it. For example, students who study simply by reading a textbook chapter a second time may not know that more effective strategies include actively trying to summarize the text and trying to explain challenging ideas to themselves. A second reason why students do not use strategies is that they may not believe the strategy is effective or worthwhile. The student who is encouraged to summarize the chapter may not believe it will really improve learning, or the student may agree that it will improve learning but that the amount of additional learning is not worth the time that summarizing takes.

STRATEGY USE AND THEORIES OF LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT

The role of effective strategies in learning and thinking is emphasized by most theories of learning and development. Information processing theorists treat strategies as procedures that act on information in working memory in ways that improve memory and understanding through better interconnections with existing knowledge. For example, elaborating information is an effective strategy because it integrates new information with other information retrieved from long-term memory. Constructivists emphasize the role of strategies as learners construct new knowledge. Strategies such as identifying problems with one's own understanding can help learners construct new understandings. Students who learn effectively will have a wide range of effective strategies for constructing knowledge at their disposal. Lev Vygotsky (18961934) developed a sociocul-tural theory of development that emphasizes the role of groups in enabling learners to master strategies. Learners internalize strategies after first encountering them in group conversations. For instance, students may internalize the strategy of critiquing their own writing after participating in collaborative discussions in which peers critique each other's writing. Social cognitive theorists emphasize the role of efficient strategy use in becoming a selfregulated learner. Self-regulated learners are those who are adept at controlling their own learning processes without outside supervision or help. Self-regulated learners are able to set goals for learning (e.g., study for an exam), select strategies to achieve these goals (e.g., outline each chapter and make sure each main idea is understood), monitor whether they are achieving these goals (ask themselves questions about whether everything makes sense), and make adaptations if goals are not being achieved (e.g., going back and rereading some hard-tounderstand sections).

IMPORTANCE OF COGNITIVE STRATEGIES IN LEARNING AND THINKING

There are several lines of research that support the importance of cognitive strategies in learning and thinking. One prominent line of research compares experts with novices or proficient students with less proficient students (e.g., Chan, Burtis, Scardamalia, & Bereiter, 1992; Chi, Bassok, Lewis, Reimann, & Glaser, 1989). Researchers using these methods have found significant differences in strategy use between more and less proficient learners, reasoners, and problem solvers. A second line of research experimentally examines the effects of training students to learn by employing a strategy or set of strategies (e.g., Graham, MacArthur, & Schwartz, 1995). Many such studies have demonstrated that students who learn the new strategies outperform those who did not learn the strategies.

A third line of research comes from long-term classroom experiments or quasi-experiments (Brown, Pressley, Van Meter, & Schuder, 1996; Guthrie et al., 2004). These studies usually last many months, often a whole school year. They contrast a traditional school curriculum that does not focus much on strategy instruction with curricula that teach students many different cognitive strategies. These studies have shown that with carefully designed instruction, students' performance on measures of learning, reasoning, and/or problem solving improves. Finally, researchers have compared high-performing schools with low-performing schools to see if they differ in their emphasis on strategy instruction (e.g., Langer, 2001). A number of studies have found that higher-performing schools do in fact focus more on helping students learn effective cognitive strategies than lower-performing schools do. Much of the research on cognitive strategies has sought to identify particular strategies that are effective on different kinds of tasks. The remainder of this entry will examine strategies that have proven to be effective in comprehension, writing, problem solving, and reasoning, and discuss several effective domain-general strategies for general self-regulation.

COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES
Comprehension strategies are strategies that help students understand and remember material such as texts and lectures. Most of the research on comprehension strategies has focused on learning from reading texts. Five strategies that have been found to be useful for enhancing comprehension are monitoring, using text structure, summarizing, elaborating, and explaining. One widely studied comprehension strategy is monitoring (Markman, 1979). When students monitor their understanding, they review as they read in order to check that they comprehend what they are reading or learning. This skill develops with age as students' reading proficiency increases. Many unsuccessful learners mistakenly believe that they understand ideas that they do not in fact understanding; they have not mastered the strategy of accurately monitoring their understanding. The strategy of using text structure involves utilizing the organization of a text in order to enhance comprehension (Meyer & Rice, 1984). The structure of a text refers to how ideas are organized. For example, textbooks are often organized by main concepts with several paragraphs of supporting details and peripheral concepts. Editorials are organized as a claim followed by arguments intended to persuade people that the claim is true. Compare-and-contrast essays are organized around a series of points and counterpoints. Authors use cues such as topic sentences, headings, transition words, and underlined or bold-faced font, to highlight their particular text structure as they write. These cues are used by proficient readers to help them organize the ideas they are learning. Ineffective learners make little or no use of text structure cues. Three other important comprehension strategies are summarization, elaboration, and explaining. When students summarize, they choose the most important concepts from the text and express them in their own words. Summarization is not an easy task for students (Dole, Duffy, Roehler, & Pearson, 1991). Poor readers often generate summaries with too much detail and too little focus on key points. In addition to summarization, effective learners elaborate, which means

connecting new information to information that they already know (Gagn, Weidemann, Bell, & Anders, 1984). Elaboration is different from mere paraphrasing. When students paraphrase, they simply reinterpret, in their own words, the text that they have read. In contrast, when students elaborate, they actively link the new information to old information. A student who contrasts a text about democracy to information learned earlier about dictatorships has elaborated, as has the student who connects the text about democracy to the student's own personal experiences serving on student council. Finally, when students explain ideas, they ask themselves why questions and then attempt to answer these questions. For instance, as students read a book on U.S. pioneers, they could try to explain why the pioneers risked so much to travel west. Studies have shown that generating explanations is a highly effective means of learning (Chi, de Leeuw, Chiu, & LaVancher, 1994).

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES
Problems occur when a person has a goal but does not immediately see how to achieve that goal. The person must then apply problem-solving strategies to try to achieve the goal. The mathematician George Polya (18871985) devised four effective problem-solving strategies: understanding the problem, developing a plan for a solution, carrying out the plan, and looking back to see what can be learned. In addition to looking back to see what can be learned, learners can check to make sure that the solution makes sense. If a math problem asks how many 40-seat buses are needed to take 120 students on a field trip, the answer 4,800 does not make sense. Ineffective problem solvers often generate solutions such as this that show little or no reflection on what the problem means. In addition to these strategies, there are other strategies that researchers have found to be highly effective for problem solving. These strategies include representing the problem, identifying sub goals, and noticing commonalities and differences. When representing the problem, problem solvers develop a clear picture of the problem. Sometimes this means literally making a drawing or a diagram. Sometimes it means creating a mental vision of the problem situation. Useful problem representations (a) are complete, (b) embed initial inferences that can be drawn from the problem information, and (c) exclude irrelevant information. Real-world problems tend to be complex; they cannot be solved with a simple one-step solution. As a consequence, problem-solvers must set sub goals that must be achieved on the way to achieving the overall goal (Thevenot & Oakhill, 2006). Effective problem solvers learn to establish sub goals that effectively break down complex problems into manageable steps. Examining and reflecting on contrasting problems can be an effective way to learn how to solve future problems better. By noticing how a difference in problem conditions affects the best solution (e.g., how a change in the wording of a mathematical word problem changes the solution method), problem solvers gain knowledge that can help them solve problems more efficiently in the future.

WRITING STRATEGIES
Writing can be viewed as an ill-structured problema problem with numerous potential solutions but no specifically defined criteria for deciding what counts as a good solution. Therefore, strategies that are useful in writing will be strategies that are more likely to be useful for other ill-structured tasks (such as designing a house or developing a campaign plan) than for well-structured problems with agreed-upon solution procedures. In a 1986 study John Hayes and Linda Flower developed an influential model of writing that has guided thinking about effective writing strategies. Hayes and Flower identified three basic writing processes: planning, sentence generation, and revising. Planning and revising have been the subject of the most research. When students plan, they think about what they are going to write about and organize these ideas before they start writing (Kellogg, 1988). Effective planners both generate ideas and organize those ideas. Effective writers typically generate more ideas than they need; this gives them a reservoir of ideas from which to choose. Organization involves ordering ideas and selecting which to include and which to exclude. Planning can fail either because the writers generate too few ideas or because the writers do a poor job of combining the ideas into a well-integrated fabric. Effective writers spend substantially more time planning than less successful writers. They often start by working at a more general level before fleshing out their ideas with many details. Effective writers are more likely than ineffective writers to make major changes to their plans as they are planning, or even later when they begin writing. Effective student writers tend use a planning strategy called knowledge transformation, by which they take their existing ideas and fashion them anew into new ideas and new structures of thought (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987). Ineffective writers (and younger writers, as well) use a strategy called knowledge telling. Knowledge tellers do little or no planning, and they certainly do not fashion their current ideas into new structures. Instead, they write down ideas on paper exactly in the order that they think of them. Once a draft is composed, effective writers revise their work (Hayes & Flower, 1986). Good writers spend more time revising than poor writers do. But they also differ from poor writers in the quality of their revisions. Poor writers may simply lightly proofread their work, if they do anything at all. More successful writers often make major revisions, perhaps choosing to make major changes to the structure of the paper or rewriting a paragraph to make it more understandable for the reader. Good writers also take the audience into consideration throughout the writing process.

REASONING STRATEGIES
Reasoning strategies are strategies that help people decide what they believe to be true or correct and what they believe to be false or incorrect. There are several strategies that differentiate more successful reasoners from less successful reasoners: generating arguments and counterarguments,

fair-mindedness in evaluating evidence, considering control or comparison groups, sourcing, and seeking corroboration. Generating counter-arguments refers to the ability to come up with arguments that oppose one's own argument. Most adolescents and adults can generate two to three times more arguments than counter-arguments; even the number of arguments generated for one's own claim tends to be fairly low. Researchers have argued that an important reasoning strategy is therefore to learn to consider alternative positions and arguments more carefully (Kuhn, 1991). Ineffective reasoners tend to be biased when evaluating evidence. For instance, they will discount studies that oppose their position by pointing out many flaws in the study, but when they read a similarly flawed study that supports their position, they seem not to notice the flaws at all (Chinn & Brewer, 2001). Effective reasoners tend to consider relevant comparison groups (Stanovich, 1999). If shown data that students who attended a test prep center increased their test scores by 20% in 2 months, they will not jump to the conclusion that the center improves test scores. They will notice the lack of a comparison group and will wonder whether students who did not attend the center also improved their test scores over 2 months. A fourth reasoning strategy used by effective reason-ers is sourcing (considering the source of the information when evaluating it). Students reading historical documents typically fail to consideror even pay attention towho wrote the document (Wineburg, 1991). Thus, they will not notice important issues such as whether the source might have been biased. This is an especially important concern because of the Internet; many sources on the Internet are not credible, yet many poor reasoners do not recognize or consider the credibility of the source. Finally, effective reasoners employ the strategy of cor-roboration, which refers to consulting different sources of information to try to verify what is learned from one source with supporting information from another source (Wine-burg, 1991). For example, a historian would be more likely to believe a former president's account of how a legislative battle was won if this account is corroborated in important details by documentary evidence.

GENERAL SELF-REGULATION STRATEGIES

General self-regulation strategies are strategies that can be used in almost any learning, problem solving, or reasoning situation. Researchers have stressed the importance of a number of general self-regulation strategies (Zimmerman, 1998). Prominent among these are goal setting, selfmonitoring and self-evaluation, time management, and executive control. When students set goals, they are recognizing and identifying what exactly they want to accomplish. Students can set long-term, intermediate-term, or short-term goals. Effective learners will use all three of these types of goals, but pay particular attention to short-term goals as steps toward longer-term goals. Research also supports the value of focusing on process goals (such as the goal of using the summarization strategy effectively) rather than just focusing on outcome goals (such as the goal of getting an A on the test) (Zimmerman & Kitsantas, 1999).

Monitoring has been discussed earlier as a comprehension strategy. As a general self-regulation strategy, self-monitoring, together with self-evaluation, refers more generally to the observing and taking note of the activities that one is engaged in. As students self-monitor, they are evaluating their progress toward achieving their goals. Self-monitoring includes deciding what standards one will use to judge one's own progress (e.g., deciding how to judge whether good progress has been made while conducting a science experiment). It also requires students to determine whether they have attained the goals that they have set. If they find that they are not making good progress toward their goals, they will need to develop a revised plan that will lead to better progress. Effective time management requires students to organize their time effectively in order to accomplish goals. Proficient learners tend to manage their time more effectively than their less proficient peers. Lastly, effective outcomes demand that the learner be skilled at controlling and managing different strategies and using them when appropriate. When learners can manage strategies effectively in this way, they have achieved executive control over the strategies.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
This entry has briefly reviewed some of the main cognitive strategies that enhance comprehension, problem solving, writing, and reasoning. It has also examined several of the many general-purpose self-regulation strategies that can be used on any kind of learning or thinking task. Because less successful learners frequently use less effective strategies, teachers can help students learn by identifying strategies that students are using (assessing strategy use) and, if necessary, helping them learn more effective strategies (strategy instruction). One method for assessing strategy use is to administer formal or informal self-report questionnaires to determine what strategies students themselves say they are using. One type of self-report questionnaire used by teachers is a cognitive strategy questionnaire (such as the widely used Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ), developed by Paul Pintrich and colleagues), which asks students about their strategy use. A disadvantage of selfreport measures is that students might not answer truthfully, they might misunderstand the questions, or they might lack the metacognitive awareness needed to answer accurately. An advantage of self-report measures is that they can be administered quickly to many students. The second general way that teachers can assess strategy use is by listening to the strategies students are using as they speak in class discussions and group work or what they write in their assignments. The teacher can also listen to students' strategy use when working with students individually. Teachers can encourage their students to make their thinking public by thinking out loud as they are reading a text, solving a problem, writing, or reasoning. By listening to what students say in these contexts, teachers can gain an understanding of their students' strategy use. This will enable teachers to set instructional goals to help students learn more effective strategies that will help them become better learners and thinkers.

See also:Critical Thinking, Metacognition

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alexander, P. A., Graham, S., & Harris, K. (1998). A perspective on strategy research: Progress and prospects. Educational Psychology Review, 10, 129154. Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (1987). The psychology of written composition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Brown, R., Pressley, M., Van Meter, P., & Schuder, T. (1996). A quasi-experimental validation of transactional strategies instruction with low-achieving second-grade readers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 1837. Chan, C. K. K., Burtis, J., Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (1992). Constructive activity in learning from text. American Educational Research Journal, 29, 97118.

Examples of Cognitive Strategies

by Alyson Paige, Demand Media

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As small businesses evaluate employee productivity and try to develop workable strategies to improve worker and company performance, companies can implement psychological tools, such as cognitive strategies. Businesses can approach workplace issues with psychological strategies such as cognitive behavioral therapy and appreciative inquiry. Business owners and managers can adapt educational cognitive strategies to learn new jobs and to help employees set and achieve goals.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

Cognitive behavioral therapy is based on the idea that thinking causes feelings. If you create your own emotions, you can feel better by changing your thinking. In a workplace environment, managers can apply CBT techniques to help stressed-out employees examine their thoughts and emotions about workplace issues. You may for example respond emotionally to your assessment of a situation, but you may be thinking about the situation incorrectly. As you discover the facts, you may feel stress reduction, which can affect job performance. Nursing school dean Ian Norman of King's College London maintains that CBT techniques are effective workplace tools for issues, such as stress management and conflict resolution.

Appreciative Inquiry
Appreciative inquiry is a cognitive strategy that may help firms keep employees. A law firm, for example, might apply AI with an attorney who is dissatisfied with his firm. The supervisor attempts to problem-solve by asking the attorney questions with a positive orientation and by using the answers to institute necessary changes. The attorney might explain, for example, why he chose the law firm in the first place. He may describe what he appreciates most about the firm and provide an example of a positive mentoring experience with the firm. AI theory predicts that the lawyer may experience a shift in his feelings by emphasizing what is positive about his work situation. From that shift, the firm and the employee can implement changes and work to resolve differences.

PREP
PREP -- prepare, review, establish and pinpoint -- is a cognitive strategy used to improve study skills that supervisors can implement. Managers may adapt PREP techniques as part of employee training. An employee in training can gather materials necessary to perform a task such receptionist duties, for example. The trainee might collect a list of inter-office extensions, employee names and titles, and computer login information to refer to as she begins training. A supervisor guides the employee through each task, such as transferring incoming calls. After an

hour, the supervisor and trainee can review the tasks performed as the supervisor provides positive reinforcement and establishes the procedure the employee must follow in different situations. The supervisor encourages the trainee to review the materials needed for the job and to identify what she wants to learn about her duties.

Goal Setting
Managers and supervisors can implement cognitive strategy principles by assigning employees who struggle to focus on outcomes. Effective goals are specific; they challenge; and they are achievable within a reasonable period. Companies may adapt goal-setting strategies -- a selfregulation cognitive strategy used by educators. Goals give employees ways to gauge their progress, provide structure and reward with a sense of accomplishment. Employees set achievable and effective goals. Employers and employees review progress on a regular basis.
Distance Learning UniversityAccreditedLifeexperienceDegrees.com Have Experience? Get a University Degree through Distance Learning New Business Opportunitywww.EnigIn.net Run Your Own Energy Saving Business PLC Seeks International Partners Implementing Cognitive Strategy Instruction & Developing Self-Regulated Learners Cognitive Strategy Instruction is a very broad subject but here you will find an overview of the process and practical tips. For more in depth study references are provided. CSI is a tool intended to help students develop the necessary skills to be self-regulated learners. Our purpose is to introduce and explain the Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) model of implementation, as well as provide the foundational basis for its effectiveness. Information presented will include: 1. The steps (how you do it). 2. The purpose behind each step (why you do it). We should stress that the instructional process is what determines the effectiveness of strategy instruction. Definition of a Strategy When discussing strategies it is helpful to dissect the definition. Strategies are: Goals directed and consciously controllable process that facilitate performance. The key parts are: Goals directed - intended to perform a definite function. Consciously controllable processes - directly manipulable and statable: "This how I am doing_______ and this is why_______." This is essential, if the strategy is to be selfregulated. It would not be possible to regulate something that was not conscious.

Facilitate performance - strategies are processes that when matched to task requirements, improve performance. You can do things better, easier, and quicker when you use a strategy. In essence, a strategy is simply a tool used to accomplish a task. A strategy concentrates and enhances effort. Just as using a lever allows us to move heavy objects more easily, so strategies allow for enhanced performance of academic tasks. Most of us use strategies continually, without even realizing it. Strategies are so integrated into everyday life that we are usually not even aware that we are using them. Common strategies include: - Adults write themselves notes - Children are taught a familiar spelling strategy "i" before "e" except after "c" Strategic approaches to tasks separate poor learners from more effective learners. While the use of strategies is common among successful learners the opposite is true for struggling learners and in particular students with learning disabilities. These students may not develop effective strategies, or may use ineffective or inappropriate strategies. Strategies run the gamut from simple to highly complex. Educators need to look critically at any instructional strategy before they choose to implement it, weighing both pros and cons of the strategy. All this may make strategies sound complicated, but that's not necessarily the case. CSI Research Based Unlike many other educational techniques, Cognitive Strategy Instruction is founded on a broad base of research that has validated its effectiveness. The research clearly proves the effectiveness of Strategies Instruction. This research has been conducted in "real" classrooms with "real" students over 20 years. CSI has been used across a wide variety of curriculum areas such as: Reading - Decoding, Reading Comprehension, Vocabulary, Writing, Spelling, Math, Study Skills, and other Content areas. CSI is in the forefront of current educational practices, largely because of its extensive research base. Choosing instructional strategies can sometimes be like a shot in the dark. There are many different reasons why certain strategies and curriculums are chosen: -It's what the district has chosen -It's what another teacher/administrator/college professor recommended -It seemed to work for Mrs. Smith's class -It has pretty pictures However, we would stress that the focus should not be on the strategies themselves, but rather on the implementation process. Even an effective strategy will fail to produce results if it is improperly implemented. Implementing a strategy should be viewed as a "process." This process should be evolutionary and dynamic. The "process" of implementation, the SRSD model, is also based on validated methods. Each step involved in the "process" of implementation is based on research findings and current best practices. Model of Implementation The implementation model that we use follows is based on Harris and Graham's (1996) Self-Regulated Strategy Development model. The goal of SRSD is to make the use of strategies habitual, flexible, and

automatic. This can take a lot of time, practice, and effort.The SRSD model is very comprehensive. This ensures that crucial steps are not overlooked. Following a model such as SRSD has two major advantages: First, it gives you an instructional template to follow. You know how to teach the strategy in a step-bystep fashion. Second, strategy instruction involves a major time and effort commitment. Therefore approaches that have been validated provide more of a cost/benefit balance. The instructional model is a serious consideration when implementing strategy instruction. Not only could a model prove to be ineffective, it could also prove to be detrimental to students. Students With Learning Disabilities Cognitive Strategy Instruction is effective for a variety of learners, but particularly students with learning disabilities. Students with learning disabilities often do not develop the types of strategies necessary to successfully attack tasks. One critical aspect of strategy instruction is to appreciate that children with learning disabilities have problems that go beyond academics, and that these problems can adversely affect academic performance. The Self-Regulated Strategy Development model stresses the need to provide students with essential metacognitive knowledge of the strategies. Students must understand how a strategy works and why each step in the strategy is performed. The Self-Regulated Strategy Development model enables students to understand the process of the strategy. Research shows that students who are actively involved in the education process have better retention, motivation and overall attitudes towards learning. Many struggling learners may never develop strategies, will use ineffective or immature strategies, or fail to employ strategies all together. Strategy instruction can dramatically increase student performance. CSI is flexible and can be used in combination with different self-regulation techniques. These techniques would need to be taught explicitly and combined in the modeling, memorizing, supporting, and independent performance stages. They would need to be incorporated into most of the process. Self-regulation can prove to be an effective way for students to monitor their own progress and see their improvements. It will take a significant investment of time and effort in order to increase student performance to a level, where they are metacognitive and self-regulating. The Self-Regulated Strategy Development Model We chose to present the SRSD model of implementation because of its thoroughness and flexibility. The model is well developed and sequential, yet it allows teachers to use their own professional judgment when employing it. The stages of implementation are set up to ensure that all necessary areas are fully addressed. However, the stages are flexible and may be reordered or combined as deemed appropriate or necessary by the teacher. The stages are intended to be recursive and should be revisited to ensure mastery. This is part of the

flexibility of this model. Stages can and should be revisited as part of the instructional process. Revisiting stages will not only help with mastery, it will also allow students to rethink and develop metacognitive skills. Stage 1: Develop and Activate Background Knowledge Developing background knowledge sometimes seems so obvious that it is often overlooked. Struggling learners may lack essential background knowledge or preskills necessary to successfully complete a task or use a strategy. In many instances, what knowledge a student does have is often fragmented. Students must have mastered prerequisite skills to effectively use a strategy. While developing background knowledge it is necessary to initially define the basic skills needed to perform the strategy, and to make certain that the students understand the terms used in the strategy. In order for students to understand the strategy they need to understand its most basic components. The best way to identify the basic terms and skills necessary for the strategy is to do a task analysis. The task analysis will help teachers to determine whether or not students possess the prerequisite skills necessary perform the strategy. After the task analysis is complete there are many ways that teachers can check students' skills. These include observing student performance, using curriculum-based measures, or simply asking students. Often, instructors will already possess knowledge of student pre-skills. Skill deficits should be addressed prior to introducing the new strategy. Stage 2: Discuss the Strategy Discussion of the strategy is a more involved process than merely going through the steps of a strategy. A major goal of strategy instruction is to bring students to the point where they are self-regulated. In order for this goal to be achieved, students need to be actively involved and allowed ownership in the process. Teachers will need to "sell" the strategy and get students to "buy in." Having the students believe in what they are learning will enable them to be more actively involved, which is the first step in selfregulation. If a student does not want to use a strategy it is fair to assume that they will not. Teachers need to be excited, committed and energized so that students will be too. The use of the strategy should be an easy "sell", it will result in improved academic performance. Provide students with examples of how this strategy or other strategies have improved student performance in the past, and even how strategies have helped you in the past. This may not be enough; you will most likely need to find what motivates your particular students. For example: getting work done so that they can go outside for recess, no homework, making parents proud, impressing friends, or making the honor roll. During this stage it is appropriate for the teachers to explain the benefits of using the strategy; discussing and even providing examples of current performance. Teachers should ask students questions, and ask them how confident they feel in the particular subject or skill being discussed. Then explain how learning the strategy can improve their performance. The final part of this stage is introducing students to the steps of the strategy. Strategy steps should be explained one-by-one. Typically this is where teachers begin, but the SRSD model has allowed much of the ground work to already be laid at this point.

Throughout this process teachers should be monitoring their students' understanding. Part of this process is to work in cooperation with the students and in doing so you must make sure that they are keeping up and understanding what is being explained. Stage 3: Model the Strategy Purpose of modeling is to expose students to the thought processes of a skilled learner. Good modeling goes well beyond merely presenting the steps in a strategy. It provides students with the "why" and "how" of various strategy steps. It also demonstrates that student effort is essential, and shows that strategy use results in better performance. By modeling, a teacher can show not only what to do, but what to think as well. This process is called a 'think aloud'. A think aloud goes beyond just listing the steps in a strategy. While this is useful, it is insufficient. Students need to see the the metacognitive process involved in understanding and using the strategy. By the teacher expressing their thought process while using the strategy the student is able to see how a successful learner uses the strategy and thinks through it. The process involved in a think aloud is much more complex than it may initially seem. For expert learners making the covert overt is extremely difficult and requires a significant amount of practice and preparation. Stage 4: Memorize the Strategy It is critical that the students commit the strategy steps to memory. Memorizing the steps is crucial, because we want students to be able to focus on the task not on remembering the steps of the strategy. Students have a limited amount of cognitive processing capacity, and if that capacity is consumed with remembering the steps of the strategy it will be difficult or impossible to focus on the task itself. Memorizing the strategy steps is something that we should not just work on once or twice; we need to be constantly reinforcing the memorization of the strategy steps, and in various contexts so that it becomes second nature to students. There are many ways to help students memorize the steps of the strategy; the key is repetition and variation. The more practice they get in a variety of settings and situations the more successful they will be at memorizing the strategy. A teacher could use different activities or games to teach memorization of the strategy: for example, they could use round-robin activities or a ball-toss game. Memorizing a strategy goes well beyond parroting back the steps of the strategy. Students need to know and understand what is involved with each step in the process. Stage 5: Support the Strategy Supporting the strategy is arguably the most important step in the SRSD implementation process. Supporting the strategy is done by using a process called scaffolding. Scaffolding involves teachers initially performing all or most of a task, while increasingly shifting responsibility of performance to the student. This, like the scaffolding used when constructing a building, provides support. Teachers need to provide that support to students when using the strategy. With scaffolding, it is possible for a gradual transfer of strategy performance from teacher to student. Students need to be given adequate time and support to master the strategy.

The process of scaffolding is analogous to teaching a child to ride a bike: When teaching a child to ride a bike, first you put on training wheels, and let them practice with a lot of support from the training wheels. Then, you move the training wheels up, for less support and more practice balancing and riding a little bit more independently. Next, you would take the training wheels off and run behind the child holding the seat. Eventually, you would completely let go and let the child independently with out any support, just your supervision. In the supporting stage of the SRSD implementation model teachers need to provide whatever support students need to move from current performance to independent use of the strategy. Teachers and students work together to master the performance of a strategy. Teachers need to be aware of the child's capabilities and their needs in order to achieve an improved level of performance. Supporting the strategy may include: Working collaboratively on tasks while gradually fading help Putting students into small groups Remodeling the strategy Prompting the particular use of a step Providing corrective feedback Collaboration between teachers and students is extremely important in the SRSD process. Collaboration gives the teacher an opportunity to check for student understanding and fill in any necessary information the student may be lacking. It also gives the teacher another opportunity to make sure that the students possess the skills necessary to complete the task successfully. If necessary, teachers may need to go back and teach some pre-skills. This is part of the flexibility of the SRSD model. Stage 6: Independent Performance It is important to remember, the goal of strategy instruction is not for the student to use the strategy explicitly as taught, but for improved academic performance. Often, students may adapt the strategy to meet their needs. This is an acceptable part of the model as long as the teacher is confident the strategy is still successful in completing the task. Independent performance does not mean that a teacher's job is done. Teachers must still monitor students' use of the strategy to ensure they are using the strategy properly. Evaluating instruction should always be part of any curriculum. With current educational initiatives such as state standards and competency tests, accountability is in the forefront of education. Evaluation and assessment is necessary to know whether or not learning has occurred. CSI facilitates meaningful assessment; the interactive, collaborative nature of the process allows teachers to easily assess changes in students' cognition, affect, and performance. Considerations When Evaluating Cognitive Strategy Instruction At a minimum, teachers should know: If students are actually using the strategy Whether or not its use has had a positive effect on performance If students see the strategy as being valuable and manageable The teacher's instruction also needs to be evaluated. Evaluating and adjusting their own performance is

one of the few factors that teachers can have complete control over. Teachers need to make sure that they are effective at all stages of implementation. It may be necessary to go back and do some reteaching of stages and strategy steps. Teachers must also consider and assess how students actually use the strategy as students will often modify the strategy. Modifications can mean that the student is aware of their own strengths and weaknesses and has modified the strategy to better suit their needs. These modifications may still achieve the desired outcome of increased academic performance while others may need to be reconsidered. Teachers should observe students while they use the strategy to determine if they are still effective. Teachers need to make sure that students are aware of opportunities to use the strategies in different situations, and encourage them to do so. Teacher can promote the strategy by doing things such as having students periodically explain how and why they use or would use the strategy, having them keep a record of the times they use a strategy, or how they modify it for other tasks, and reward them for doing so. Student Generalizations It is also important to assess students' use of the strategy over time and in new situations. Do not assume that students will continue to use a particular strategy or successfully adapt it to new situations. Teachers should actively promote the use of the strategy with their students, as well as, with their colleagues. Students will not automatically generalize strategies in different situations; they must be programmed to do so. When evaluating the strategy instruction process, teachers should collaborate with their colleagues, get feedback, and find out if the students are utilizing the strategy in other content areas in a successful manner. A strategy will not be completely successful if students do not generalize it and use it in various, appropriate, situations. To promote the strategy use, other content area teachers need to be made aware of the strategy steps and how the strategy works. This will enable them to use the same kind of language and prompt the students to use the strategy when appropriate. Ways of Evaluating Evaluating student performance can be done in traditional fashions such as tests worksheets, written products, or other such curriculum-based measures. The use of curriculum-based measures provides certain advantages. They can be used to determine a baseline prior to strategy intervention, and can then be used to show the effectiveness of the strategy after implementation. This is an excellent way for students to see the value of using strategies. There are however alternatives to the traditional forms of assessment that can be equally effective. For example: Involve students as Co-Evaluators Increases students sense of ownership Reinforces progress Provides a practical way to reduce a teacher's load Teachers can gain valuable insight into their progress and readiness for advancement

Involving students as co-evaluators can give you a better idea of how the student feels about the strategy, and their performance using the strategy. This is also an excellent way for students to see for themselves the difference that the strategy has made on their academic performance. Utilize Portfolio Assessment Procedures Portfolios are an excellent way for both teachers and students to monitor progress Portfolios offer reflective self evaluation Students learn that development is as important as achievement Portfolios are part of the shift in education. In today's society students need to provide products of the learning. Using these "products" can be an excellent way to show students their own progress and how the use of the strategy has enhanced their academic performance. Practical Considerations and Tips When implementing strategy instruction there are a few practical considerations that should be thought out:CSI - requires time and effort CSI may require substantial time investment Sometimes it is necessary to "loop back" Once the strategy is taught is should not be forgot This is not just something that can be done in "two weeks and move on." Even if the strategy is simple and can be implemented quickly it will be likely that you will need to do some re-teaching, review and modeling periodically. This will require a commitment from both teacher and student.In CSI "Small is Golden"Teachers should use only a few strategies and support their use over a prolonged period of time. Better to teach a small number of strategies well over a long period of time than try to teach a large number less extensively. We suggest considering the following tips: Take it slow Take advantage of strategies students have already developed Collaborate with other teachers and your students Taking it slow will help ensure that all stages have been well addressed. Teachers should be open to change and understand that sometimes even if things don't go as planned they can still be extremely successful. ConclusionTeachers who use CSI construct powerful new knowledge about what works for studentsAlthough this can be a demanding process, it is an exciting one that we hope you will try. Good Luck! Be excited, now you have something that you can use!