Chapter twelve

Metals, their differences and uses

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 The extraction of iron Cast irons Steel Aluminium and alloys Copper and alloys

Metals are divided into ferrous (based on iron) and non-ferrous (based on metals other than iron). The principal ferrous alloys in use today are those of iron and carbon, i.e. cast iron and steel. The cast irons contain more than 1.7%C, steels contain up to about 1.5%C with structural steels containing only about 0.25%C or less. The main non-ferrous alloys of interest in civil and structural engineering are those based on aluminium and copper.

iron or steel, and by controlled oxidation using an air blast, the carbon content may be reduced to 24 per cent. This is cast iron which, as its name implies, is cast directly into sand moulds. It can be produced in a tough form (SG iron), but usually it is a brittle material and is best used in compression rather than in tension.

12.2 Cast irons

These are used in a variety of applications, the major consumption being in pipes and ttings for services. In civil engineering, an important use is for tunnel segments and mine shaft tubing. The engineer should, however, be aware that cast iron was one of the dominant structural materials in the nineteenth century and will be found as beams, columns and arches in many rehabilitation and refurbishment projects. As we shall see, it should be treated with respect. There are four principal types, whose properties are summarised in Table 12.1.

12.1 The extraction of iron

Like all metals, iron is extracted from naturally occurring ores. These are actually quite complex chemical compounds but, for simplicity, we shall assume that the starting material is iron oxide. High temperatures ( 1600C) are needed to allow the reaction: FeO C Fe CO (12.1)

12.2.1 White cast iron

The carbon here is combined as hard brittle iron carbide, Fe3C, and the cast iron overall is hard and very brittle. This makes it structurally undesirable and its main use is for applications where high resistance to wear and abrasion is required. Typical applications in the civil engineering eld include hard facings to earth-moving machinery.

The CO is collected and used as a fuel in the steelworks. The pig iron, which contains about 4 per cent of carbon, is industrially useless unless processed further. It is remelted, often with scrap

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TABLE 12.1 Material

Representative properties of cast irons Youngs modulus (GPa) 170 100145 165 170 Compressive strength (MPa) 6001200 Yield strength (MPa) 240400 270530 Tensile strength (MPa) 275 150400 400600 450700 %E Brinell hardness (kgm 2) 500 130300 115215 140300 Impact energy (J) 4 CU 850 IU 515 CN 210 CN

White Grey Ferritic SG Pearlitic SG

%E

0 0.20.7 186 72

% Elongation to fracture, CU

Charpy unnotched, CN

Charpy notched, IU

Izod unnotched.

12.2.2 Grey cast iron

Old cast iron structures are almost certainly of this type and it is still the form of cast iron most commonly met. Most of the carbon is present in the form of free graphite akes, which can be quite large. The graphite makes it softer than white cast iron and allows it to be machined. Nevertheless, it is still a brittle material and its use in tension is inadvisable, but it has good strength in compression.

12.2.5 Joining of cast irons

All cast irons are extremely difcult to weld and, all too often, the welds are unreliable and of poor strength. Unless specialist advice is available the engineer should use brazing rather than welding. Riveting is possible, but again needs care for fear of cracking the iron. Bolting is the safest method of joining.

12.3 Steel
Steel making involves some very complex thermochemistry, but the basic reaction is simply that of reducing the carbon content still further (for structural steels down to about 0.2 per cent or lower) by a process of controlled oxidation: 2Fe[C] O2 2Fe 2CO (12.2)

12.2.3 Spheroidal graphite (SG), nodular or ductile irons

The akes in grey cast iron act as internal notches and the metal is brittle in tension. Graphite may be induced to form spherulites by the addition of certain alloying elements and correct casting procedure. These irons have good strength, toughness and ductility. Modern tunnel linings and many other applications are of this type of iron.

12.2.4 Malleable irons

These used to be produced from white irons by annealing which results, again, in nodules of graphite. Depending on the process used, and the composition, they may be described as whiteheart or blackheart (this derives from the appearance of the fracture surface). Both have good strength and resistance to impact. The procedure has been superseded in recent years by the production of SG irons.

To keep the reaction moving to the right a considerable amount of oxygen must be used. Some dissolves in the liquid steel. If not removed this would form hard, brittle iron oxide, FeO, and we would be back at square one. Thus, when the desired carbon content is reached the residual oxygen is xed as an oxide which, after a period of resting, rises to the surface and is removed as slag. The metals commonly used to x the oxygen in this way are manganese and silicon, and steels treated in this way are known as killed steels. Manganese is added for another reason also. One of the most persistent impurities, and one that is difcult to eliminate economically, is sulphur. This could form iron sulphide, FeS. If FeS is

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present, even in small quantities, it can cause a defect known as hot shortness, in which the steel cracks disastrously if it is stressed when hot. Even contraction stresses on cooling can lead to irredeemable cracking. The manganese addition counteracts this by forming relatively innocuous MnS, and so even the simplest steels contain silicon and manganese. The terminology used to describe steels is traditional and far from exact. With up to about 0.25 per cent carbon they are mild steel or low carbon steel (structural steels come into this category). Between about 0.3 per cent and 0.6 per cent carbon they are medium carbon steels or often carbon steels. Above about 0.6 per cent they are high carbon steels. If elements, other than the normal Mn and Si, are added they become alloy steels and, if certain elements, notably chromium and nickel, are added in quantity, stainless steels. We discussed the ironcarbon equilibrium phase diagram in Chapter 2 (Figure 2.11) and it is worthwhile having a look at this and re-reading the accompanying text before reading on.

FIGURE 12.1 Typical microstructure of a lowcarbon (structural) steel.

12.3.1 Structural steels

Structural steels are processed into the required section shapes and lengths by hot rolling and their microstructures are effectively those of a normalised steel. They consist of two phases, ferrite and Fe3C. The Fe3C does not appear as large isolated particles, but combines with ferrite into laminar regions of alternating layers of ferrite and Fe3C (see Figure 8.9). These layers are generally about 0.5 m thick and act as a diffraction grating for natural light. Thus, a steel containing only such regions and properly prepared has a coloured pearly appearance and is known throughout the world as pearlite. The overall composition of pearlite is close to 0.8 per cent carbon. Steels containing less carbon are mixtures of ferrite and regions of pearlite, as illustrated in Figure 12.1. To a working approximation, ferrite contains no carbon and so the proportions of ferrite:pearlite depend linearly on the carbon content between 100 per cent ferrite at 0 per cent carbon to 100 per cent pearlite at 0.8 per cent carbon. It follows that at

high carbon contents (say 0.7 per cent) the properties of the steel are dominated by those of pearlite, high hardness, high strength and poor ductility and toughness. Conversely, at say 0.15 per cent carbon, the pro-perties are dominated by those of the ferrite. This is a typical metallic substance and its properties are governed by its grain size and whether or not it has been strain (work) hardened. From all of this it might be expected that the properties of steels are affected strongly by how much pearlite they contain, or to put it another way, by their carbon content. Figure 12.2 illustrates this.
Tensile strength (MPa) 900 Elongation (%) 600 300 60 40 20 0 0.8 Pearlite (mass%) 100 50 0 0 0.8 Carbon (mass%) 1.4 1.4

Elon gatio n

200 100 0

FIGURE 12.2 The inuence pearlite content, or carbon content, on the strength and ductility of steels (adapted from Rollason, Metallurgy for Engineers, 1961, Arnold, by permission Butterworth-Heinemann, a division of Reed Educational & Professional Publishing Ltd.).

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Hardness

s Ten

ile s

tren

gth

400 300

ness Hard

The tensile strength increases approximately linearly from about 300 MPa at 0 per cent carbon to about 900 MPa at 100 per cent pearlite (0.8 per cent carbon). Over the same range, the elongation to fracture decreases from about 40 per cent to nearly zero. This is a bit of an oversimplication, because the properties of low carbon steels are affected by the grain size of the ferrite that occupies the greater part of the microstructure. However, before going into this, we need to note another very important feature of the behaviour of steels. Steels, especially structural steels, can go through a ductile to brittle transition as the temperature of use changes over ranges which are typical of those due to variations in weather, season and climate. This phenomenon is usually shown up most clearly by impact tests, which give results like those in Figure 12.3. The method normally used is the Charpy test in which a notched bar is struck by a hammer of known momentum and the energy used up in causing fracture is deduced from the follow through of the pendulum. Even though this phenomenon appears to have been rst noted by I.K. Brunel in 1847, it still brings about its fair share of failures. The trick is to formulate steels for which the ductile to brittle transition temperature (DBTT) is low and which can also be joined successfully by welding. To do this, we want the carbon content to be low, a high ratio of manganese to carbon and a small grain size of the ferrite. When we recall that the yield strength is increased by redu-

cing grain size, we have a powerful argument in favour of ne-grained steels. These are summarised in Table 12.2. To produce and maintain ne grain sizes, careful control must be exercised over the temperatures of hot rolling, the amounts of deformation imposed and cooling rates. As might be expected, so-called controlled rolled steels are more expensive than less carefully controlled products. Prior to 1990, the relevant British standard was BS 4360 Weldable structural steels and much steel made to that specication is still in use. It is now superseded by BS EN 10025: 1993 Hot rolled products of non alloy structural steels and BS EN 10113: 1993 Hot rolled products in weldable ne grain structural steels. This division into two standards emphasises once again the importance of grain size. Generally these steels contain 0.16% C, 0.1 to 0.5% Si and 1.5 to 1.6% Mn. They are all designed to be weldable. Extracts from these standards and equivalents between them are given in Table 12.3. In essence, there are four strength grades. The 1993 standards identify them by numbers that are the same as the minimum yield strength of the steel: the older schemes referred to the tensile strength. A number of points arise from these standards: 1. The specied minimum yield strength in grades 235 and 275 (40 and 43) can be obtained by various combinations of carbon and manganese. 2. Sulphur and phosphorous are both deleterious. Maximum permissible values are always specied.

TABLE 12.2 Illustrating the importance of grain size to the properties of low carbon structural steels Grain size ( m) 25 10 5
y

(MPa) 255 400 560

Ductile to brittle transition temperature (C) 0 40 60

FIGURE 12.3 (schematic).

Energy absorption of structural steel

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TABLE 12.3 BS EN 10025: 1993 S 235 S 275 S 355

Extracts and approximate equivalents from British Standards for structural steels BS EN 10113: 1993 Previous BS 4360: description 1990 Fe 360 Fe 430 Fe 510 S 460 BS EN 10113: 1993 40 43 50 55 %C 0.060.22 0.060.22 0.060.22 0.060.22 %Mn (Max) 1.51.6 1.51.6 1.51.6 1.51.6 %Si (Max) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 %P Other (%) Yield strength Tensile strength (MPa) (MPa) 235 275 355 450 340500 430580 490640 550700 Examples BS EN 10025 S275JO 0.05 0.04 0.04 20 40 50 60 30 0.04 0.025 0.03 0.025 BS EN 10025 BS 4360 S355K2 50DD 355 MPa y
max

0.1Nb, 0.1V 0.1Nb, 0.1V %S

BS EN 10025: 1993

Previous BS 4360: description 1990

Temperature (C) at which impact energy is: 27 J 40 J

BS 4360 43C

JR JO J2 K2

N or M* NL or ML*

B C D DD* E* EE* F*

20 0 20

0.05 0.04 0.04

max

275 MPa 430580 MPa 27 J at 0C

y

490 40 J at

640 MPa 20C

normalised or normalised rolled; M

thermomechanical rolled; L

low temperature ( 50C) impacts; *

a grain-rened steel; %

mass%.

3. The lower grade structural steels are normally delivered normalised (cooled in air). The term as rolled implies no further treatment. Frequently, a steel which had been rolled at high temperatures, above 950C and just left to cool naturally, is effectively a normalised steel. 4. The specied yield strength decreases with size of section. This size effect arises from the fact that thick sections cool more slowly than thin ones and, consequently, the grain size is larger and the Fe3C ends up differently distributed. 5. The higher grade steels, 355 and 460 (50 and 55) achieve their enhanced strengths not by increasing the carbon content but by attention to their grain sizes. This is done by adding niobium and/or vanadium to the steel, in small amounts, and by careful control of rolling schedules, i.e. thermomechanical treatment. The small grain size is also required to give a low ductile to brittle transition temperature. To give information about the low temperature performance of steels, a letter code is added according to Table 12.3. 6. All structural steels are designed to be readily weldable, although some care is needed with the higher, grain rened grades if the low temperature performance is to be retained (see below).

colour. It is nding an increasing range of architectural applications as cladding for buildings.

12.3.3 Heat treated steels

With a carbon content greater than about 0.3 per cent, the properties of steel can be varied by heat treatment, that is to say, by fast cooling (generally by quenching in oil or water) from a high temperature, followed by reheating to temperatures not exceeding about 650C (tempering). The fast cooling produces a hard brittle microstructure, known as martensite, in which all the carbon is trapped and which is of little use, except for a few applications such as cutting tools or cutlery. The structure is, however, metastable and the reheating causes the carbon to be precipitated as tiny particles of carbides throughout the matrix. The loss of carbon from the martensite in this way allows it to become softer and more ductile. By varying the tempering temperature and controlling the amount of carbon left in the martensite, great control over the properties can be achieved (Figure 12.4). Such steels do not, however, nd great application in structural engineering. High strength friction grip (HSFG) bolts are one. These are supplied in the hardened and tempered condition. It follows that these should not be reheated (e.g. by welding or ame cutting) or the effects of the heat treatment may well be cancelled. The bolt could easily be embrittled. It is, however, important to note that the higher strength structural steels can also harden in the same way, not to the same extent but enough to compromise their properties. Welding, and especially ame cutting, of these grades should be undertaken with caution and due respect for the specication and any recommendations by the manufacturer of the welding consumables. Better still, consult an expert welding engineer.

12.3.2 Cold rolled steels

Many lightweight sections are produced from cold rolled steel of very low carbon content. Strength is derived from work hardening of the ferrite, and good control over section sizes and shapes is possible. Examples of applications include lightweight lintels, angle sections, hollow square sections made by welding two angles together and so forth. Welding, of course, will locally anneal the material, with consequent changes to properties in the heat-affected zone. Sheet and other sections are available in a special steel (Cor Ten) which contains a small quantity of copper, in addition to the usual alloying elements. When exposed to rainwater it rusts to produce a hard, adherent and subsequently protective oxide layer of an attractive brown

12.3.4 Stainless steel

The term stainless steel covers a wide range of ferrous alloys, all of which contain at least 12 per

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cent of chromium which produces a stable passive oxide lm. Other alloying elements, notably nickel and molybdenum, may also be present. There are three basic types, grouped according to metallurgical structure (Table 12.4):

1. Martensitic. The 410 series are low carbon steels containing 13 per cent chromium. They are heat treatable and can be made very hard. Since they retain a keen cutting edge they are particularly used for cutlery. 2. Ferritic. These (the 430 series) also contain 13 per cent chromium but with very low carbon. They are not heat treatable. They are reasonably ductile middle strength steels. 3. Austenitic. The 300 series are low carbon with a basic composition of 18 per cent Cr and 8 per cent Ni though other additions may be made. Like ferritic steels, they are not heat treatable, are reasonably ductile and have good strength. All these steels offer good resistance to corrosion as long as the passive lm can be maintained. All will corrode in solutions low in oxygen and this has been the cause of some embarrassing disasters. The austenitic steels are the most resistant to pitting corrosion, though they may suffer from stress corrosion cracking in chloride solutions at slightly elevated temperatures. Type 316 (18 Cr 10 Ni 3 Mo) is recommended for all external applications. Ferritic steels should be limited to internal uses. For all practical purposes, martensitic and ferritic stainless steels should be regarded as unweldable, since both undergo signicant changes in structure and properties as a result of the thermal cycle. Ordinarily, austenitic stainless steels can be welded (BS 2926: 1984). However, they can suffer from a form of intergranular attack (weld decay), and grades recommended for welding, i.e. stabilised by the use of titanium, should be specied.

FIGURE 12.4 Variation in properties of 1 per cent Ni steel with varying tempering temperatures. TS: tensile strength; RA: reduction in area; YP: yield point (from O.H. Wyatt and D. Dew-Hughes (1974) Metals, Ceramics and Polymers, by permission of Cambridge University Press).

TABLE 12.4 Representative properties of stainless steels Type Martensitic Ferritic Austenitic Yield strength (MPa) 3501360 280 200 Tensile strength (MPa) 6001800 420 510 % elongation to fracture 333 20 40 Hardness 170450 170 185 Izod impact energy/J 7130

Note: the wide range of properties for the martensitic type reects its ability to be heat treated.

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12.4 Aluminium and alloys

Aluminium and its alloys are used both structurally and decoratively. Pure aluminium and some alloys can be readily rolled and extruded into long lengths with complex cross sectional shapes. Typical applications include cladding, roong, window frames, window and door furniture, etc. Other alloys are designed to be used as castings and are generally fairly strong but not tough. Some alloys can be heat-treated to give high strengths. The high cost, however, is still a limiting factor and aluminium can compete with steel only where the inherent properties of the material, i.e. lightness, strength, durability and appearance, can be exploited. The most economical use of lightweight materials is in structures that have a high ratio of self-weight to live-load, i.e. roofs, footbridges and long span structures, and where the lightness of the material offers advantages in transport, handling and erection. The comparatively good durability of aluminium makes it attractive in polluted and coastal areas where its high initial cost may be offset by reduced maintenance. Aluminium alloys may be cast or wrought while structural sections are produced almost exclusively by extrusion. Because the modulus is signicantly lower than that of steel, 70 GPa compared with 210 GPa, the

deection under a given load is correspondingly greater and, for deection limited designs, deeper beams must be used. At the same time, of course, the density of aluminium is signicantly lower than that of steel (2.7 against 7.9 Mgm 3) so that specic moduli E/ are very similar, 26 GPa/Mgm 3. The thermal expansion of aluminium and its alloys is nearly twice that of steel, but the lower modulus means that the thermal stress developed by a given rise in temperature is less in aluminium than in steel. Unlike mild steel, aluminium and its alloys do not show a denitive yield stress and, for design purposes, the working stress is usually dened as that stress at which a small, but acceptable, amount of plastic deformation has occurred. This is known as the proof stress, generally dened as the stress corresponding to a plastic deformation of 0.1 or 0.2 per cent. The term aluminium is normally used to include aluminium alloys. There are three general types of alloy, those designed for casting, wrought non-heat-treatable alloys and age hardenable alloys. Examples of each are given in Table 12.5. Casting alloys are generally based on a eutectic alloy system, aluminiumsilicon being a widely used example. Solidication is over a narrow temperature range, which makes them very

TABLE 12.5 Representative properties of aluminium alloy types Alloy and treatment Yield strength (MPa) 28 125 270 310 505 Tensile strength (MPa) 70 130 190 330 405 570 % elongation to fracture hardness kgm 2

Pure aluminium: annealed work-hardened Al11.5%Si, as-cast, modied Al2.5%Mg, non-heat-treatable, work hardened Al5.5%Cu, naturally aged Al5.5%Zn, 2.5%Mg, 1.6%Cu, articially aged to best strength

43 6 7 10 15 11

19 35 80 100 150

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suitable for casting into moulds that cause rapid solidication. Wrought, non-heat-treatable alloys are available in a wide range of forms: sheet, rod, extruded sections, etc. Their properties are controlled by how much they have been strain (work) hardened. Age hardenable alloys are those whose properties can be changed by heat treatment. Earlier we noted that plastic ow, by dislocation movement, can be impeded by suitable barriers. The classic example here is the original alloy, rst developed in 1906, Al4% Cu, Duralumin, upon which the whole of the aircraft industry depended, and, in more sophisticated form, still depends. When heated to around 550C the copper dissolves into solid solution in the aluminium and remains in solution when the alloy is rapidly cooled. Thereafter, even at room temperature, a fine dispersion of a hard, intermediate compound CuAl2 forms slowly. Because the particles are small, actually sub-microscopic, and evenly dispersed throughout the matrix, they offer maximum resistance to dislocation movement and the yield stress is consequently considerably higher than that of pure aluminium (Figure 12.5). This process, known as ageing, can be speeded up by reheating to temperatures of about 150C. But, if reheated to too high a temperature ( 250C) the minute particles of CuAl2 coalesce and clump together. They are then more widely separated, the dislocations can pass easily through the matrix and the yield strength is correspondingly reduced. This is known as overageing. This phenomenon places a restriction on the temperatures the alloy can be used at if the properties are not to deteriorate during use. Modern alloys are more sophisticated and capable of use at higher temperatures, but the same principles apply. The durability of aluminium alloys is, generally, greater than that of steel, but their corrosion resistance depends upon their composition and heat treatment. The fully heat treated alloys generally being the most susceptible to corrosion and needing, therefore, some protection.

FIGURE 12.5 Effects of ageing on the strength of an AlCu alloy: (a) naturally aged at room temperature; (b) accelerated ageing at 150C; (c) over-ageing at higher temperature.

It will be clear that welding of casting alloys and non-heat-treatable alloys is possible with the usual care. However, the welding of heat treated aluminium alloys is not without its problems, since the thermal cycle will, inevitably, produce an over-aged structure in the parent metal. Although techniques for welding are now well established, bolting, and to a lesser extent riveting, are preferred, especially for joints made on site. Steel bolts may be used but should be protected by a zinc coating. Cold riveting, using rivets up to 22 mm diameter, is often used and there are many varieties, some solid, some hollow, but limitations of size and the lower shear strength of aluminium require that, compared with steel, more rivets are used. In both bolting and riveting, arrangements must be made to keep the bolts or rivets (if not themselves aluminium) electrically isolated from the aluminium. Otherwise the phenomenon of bimetallic corrosion can lead to rapid attack of the aluminium. Most normal structural forms are available and special sections can be produced by extrusion more readily than in steel, though at some cost, and these are really only justied when large

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quantities are needed. On the other hand, the use of special sections perhaps allows the designer more freedom and scope, the classic example is extruded window frame sections.

12.5 Copper and alloys

Copper nds its main uses in applications where its compatibility with water, high thermal conductivity and high electrical conductivity are important, e.g. domestic water services, heating, sanitation, etc. Also, its high resistance to corrosion combined with the pleasing colour of its oxide lm has seen much demand for roofs, cladding and ashing. Decorative schemes make considerable use of the wide range and variety of colours available in copper alloys. In addition to pure copper, two alloy families are widely used.

main classes are used: alpha brasses, nominally 70 Cu:30 Zn, and alpha-beta, nominally 60 Cu:40 Zn. Both are stronger than pure copper and 70:30 brass is extremely ductile. Neither are heat treatable, both are difcult to weld and are better soldered or brazed. Neither is as resistant as pure copper to corrosion. Brasses are, however, generally cheaper than pure copper.

12.5.2 Bronzes
These are basically alloys of copper and tin, but with a whole range of possible other additions to produce alloys with specic properties, e.g. phosphorbronze, aluminiumbronze, siliconbronze, etc. Gunmetal is bronze containing zinc. Many of the compositions are tractable to forming only by casting, although some of the less highly alloyed bronzes are ductile enough to enable sheet metal working. All are stronger and harder than copper and brasses, have high corrosion resistance, and many are weldable by inert gas processes. All are expensive.

12.5.1 Brasses
These are alloys of copper and zinc with other additions to produce enhanced strength. Two

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