Trevor Mickelson His 170: Foreign Relations to 1898 The War of 1812: Madisons War of Economic Coercion The

War of 1812 is widely considered to be an extension of the American Revolutionary War. Although Americans claimed independence and drafted the Declaration of Independence, Englands actions throughout the late 18th century show that, as a state, they were not ready to accept the United States sovereignty. It wasnt until after the Treaty of Ghent was signed in 1814 and the war came to a close that the British began to acknowledge the independence of the United States. But what was it that drew these two forces to war? There is a great deal of speculation about this issue and it was the focus of two essays written by Garry Wills and Walter L. Hixson, respectively. Wills claims that America attempted to use commerce as a means of gaining the respect of the European powers and when this plan backfired, President James Madison convinced a hesitant Congress to declare war. Hixson, on the other hand, makes the argument that the American peoples anxieties and fears led to a war that would ultimately reaffirm a national identity. While both authors make solid arguments, I think the argument made by Wills is more practical and supported by a wider variety of primary documents. In Wills essay, Economic Coercion and the Conquest of Canada: Madisons Failed Diplomacy, the author argues that James Madison tried to use trade and commerce as a tool to further break away from British rule and when this was unsuccessful, he turned his sights on Canada,

which the British had become more reliant on in the midst of the Napoleonic Wars. Although Congress was initially hesitant, Madison eventually persuaded them to enter war, outlining five main reasons war was necessary. The reasons were British impressment of American soldiers, blockades preventing safe departure from the American cost and safe arrival at foreign shores, confiscation of neutral trade at sea at the hands of the British and the increase in Indian hostility in the west. Ultimately, it seems clear that it came down to Madison wanted to prove that his belief that England was dependent on American was right. This however, was not the case. Throughout the essay, Wills looks at different tactics employed by America in order to gain neutral trading rights with the European powers. Wills outlines the failures of the Embargo Act of 1807 and the Non-Intercourse Act shortly thereafter. He also explains how Madison was tricked by Napoleon into thinking that the French were obedient to Macons Bill Number 2. All of these failures only brought America closer to the brink of war with England, even when it was England who actually met the terms of Macons Bill Number 2. One of the ironies that Wills shows regards the issue of impressment. While the Americans viewed this as one of the main reasons of going to war, it was something that quite possibly could have been prevented. Wills shows that the British Navy was unable to survive the Napoleonic wars if its seamen kept abandoning them and going aboard American ships. While the U.S. could have refused British employment on its ships that would

have solved the problem of impressment, the U.S. had become overly reliant on these British sailors to maintain its own navy. The last argument, and perhaps one of the most important, that Wills makes is that the goal of America in the war was to capture Canada. Again, commerce was the root of this goal. Through the Napoleonic wars, England had become more reliant on Canada so Madison thought it the U.S. could control Canada, it could gain neutral trading rights. Obviously, however, the U.S. never gained control of Canada and rushed into a war extremely unprepared and it nearly cost them everything. The Patriotic War by Walter Hixson views the War of 1812, or what he calls the Patriotic War, and its causes in an entirely different light than Wills. While Wills places control and blame for the war on the politicians and people running the country, Hixson contends that it was the anxiety and virtues of the citizens that pushed the politicians into this war. A war in which they entered with an inadequate army, insufficient federal funding, an angry enemy aided by revanchist Indian allies, and internal opposition. Hixson makes similar arguments to Wills by pointing out that part of the reason for this war is that the United States is not given neutral rights on the open seas by some of the European powers. The essay also mentions the Embargo Act of 1807 and the impact it had on America. Hixson points out that Great Britains refusal to obey the embargo infuriated and humiliated many American citizens who felt slighted that Great Britain thought that the people who tamed the

frontier were going to be pushed around by any European power. In this respect, the author talks about how constant confrontations and issues with the English led to a sense of manliness among Americans and the idea that they had something to prove. This, he feels, is one of the main reasons for war. Even after the war started and the U.S. had suffered several defeats, a victory at the Battle of New Orleans boosted spirits and invigorated manly national identity. Hixson feels the wars purpose was to bring back feelings of patriotism and liberty than to gain neutral rights on the sea. As Hixson puts it, the impact of the Patriotic War was an emotional reaffirmation of national identity, and it seems that in his mind, it was nothing more than that. In my opinion, the essay by Garry Wills makes a much stronger argument and is supported by greater evidence. While there may be some legitimacy to Hixsons argument that manly national identity helped lead to the War of 1812, or Patriotic War, I view this national identity as more of a product of the war rather than a cause of it. To me, Hixsons argument is made with little evidential support and is more of an opinion than anything else. The main support Hixson has comes from Henry Clays grievances against Britain that shows hints of the attitudes of the citizens by saying that we are called upon to submit to debasement, dishonor, and disgrace, and that we are a man against whose insatiable thirst we are warned. Otherwise, Hixson just speaks about the attitudes and beliefs of the general public, which I think is

always cause for concern. His generalizations may be accurate but they certainly do not hold true for all of the American citizens. On the other hand, the arguments made by Wills can be linked to a variety of primary documents. Wills main argument surrounds itself around the issue of trade and commerce and how it advanced Americans toward a war. The wording in both the Embargo Act of 1807 and the Non-Intercourse Act support Wills argument. The Embargo Act of 1807 says that no U.S. ship would leave U.S. ports for any foreign place and that U.S. ports were not open to vessels from other states. The Non-Intercourse Act says that any cargo found on board foreign vessels in U.S. ports were subject to be seized and condemned. The wording of these two documents show the importance of trade and neutral rights to the United States and make it very logical that denial of these rights at the hands of European powers such as Great Britain would be a major issue in the U.S. Another reason Wills gave for the war was the matter of impressment, something that is addressed in Madison Protests British Impressment of Americans from the Chesapeake in 1807. One line in particular supports Wills argument: the blood of Citizens so wantonly and wickedly shed, demands in the loudest tone, an honorable reparation. This language shows the serious nature of impressment and Madison also states in his protest that all negotiations with the British would be suspended until the U.S. received proper reparation for the impressment of American seamen. Even

Shawnee Chief Tecumsehs message to the U.S. reaffirms Madisons concern about British and Indian alliances, which was his fifth reason to go to war. In the message, Tecumseh addresses a variety of grievances against the U.S. and claims that if the U.S. doesnt change their ways, that he is close to the British and would probably make them a visit. Lastly, President Madison Urges Congress to Declare War on Great Britain supports Wills essay. It verifies all the reasons provided by Wills for the war and shows how Madison was indeed trying to convince a hesitant Congress to go to war. While the War of 1812 may be remembered because it led to the Americas National Anthem or it made a national hero out of Andrew Jackson, perhaps the most intriguing aspect of this war was how it started. Essays by Garry Wills and Walter Hixson provide different viewpoints as to why the war started, but ultimately I think it is Wills who makes a stronger argument supported by a wider range of evidence.