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Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change

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Socio-cultural transformations through tourism: a comparison of residents' perspectives at two destinations in Kerala, India
Leena Mary Sebastian & Prema Rajagopalan
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Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, 600036, India Available online: 07 May 2009

To cite this article: Leena Mary Sebastian & Prema Rajagopalan (2009): Socio-cultural transformations through tourism: a comparison of residents' perspectives at two destinations in Kerala, India, Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 7:1, 5-21 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14766820902812037

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Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change Vol. 7, No. 1, March 2009, 5 21

Socio-cultural transformations through tourism: a comparison of residents perspectives at two destinations in Kerala, India
Leena Mary Sebastian and Prema Rajagopalan
Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, 600036, India (Received 28 July 2008; nal version received 3 February 2009) Kerala, a state in Southwestern India, evolved into a prominent international tourism destination primarily by linking tourism experiences with nature. Although sufcient signicance has been accorded to tourism as a development strategy in Kerala, tourisms contributions to the development processes and the sustainability of tourism activities remain unexplored. Though tourism impacts have been extensively studied, researchers have rarely compared socio-cultural transformations in destinations with and without a planned intervention in tourism. This paper compares residents perceptions on socio-cultural impacts of tourism at Kumily and Kumarakom in Kerala. The article explores whether tourism activities in Kumily, with its planned intervention, are more sustainable than in Kumarakom, without any interventions. The conversion of ex-poachers into forest protectors and the involvement of the marginalized people in community-based ecotourism are a few among the many transformations that have occurred at Kumily while haphazard tourism development at Kumarakom gave rise to several socio-cultural challenges. Primary data were collected through residents survey, and the ndings indicate that Kumily with its planned intervention has a more sustainable tourism development pattern than Kumarakom. Keywords: socio-cultural; residents perceptions; planned intervention; Kerala

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Introduction The socio-cultural impacts of tourism have received increasing attention from researchers since the 1970s. Socio-cultural transformations engendered by tourism on host communities include changes in traditional lifestyles, value systems, family relationships, individual behavior and community structure (Ratz, 2000). Scholars have used stage-related models like Doxeys (1975) irritation index or Butlers (1980) destination life cycle model to analyze tourisms impacts. Studies have examined the inuence of diverse aspects such as monetary benets from tourism, proximity of respondents residence to the tourism zone, duration of stay at the destination and community attachment on residents perceptions on tourism. However, scholars have not compared the socio-cultural transformations induced by tourism in places with and without a planned intervention in tourism.

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ISSN 1476-6825 print/ISSN 1747-7654 online # 2009 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/14766820902812037 http://www.informaworld.com

L.M. Sebastian and P. Rajagopalan

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Tourism is viewed as a viable strategy to foster development in Kerala. The states development experience has won much international acclaim due to its spectacular achievements in the social sphere. However, critics question the sustainability of the Kerala model of development since economic growth lags behind the corresponding social development indicators (Heller, 2000). Conscious efforts are made to expand the service sector in Kerala, and in this context, tourism gained signicance. With 7.70% contribution to the GDP, the tourism sector is a major contributor to Keralas economy (Economic Review, 2007). Planned interventions in tourism are increasingly deployed as sustainable strategies to further develop tourism at several locales in the state. The prominence accorded to tourism in Kerala makes sustainable and responsible tourism practices unavoidable (Netto, 2004). Tourism activities in Kerala are inextricably linked with nature. This paper attempts to compare socio-cultural transformations at two nature-based tourism destinations, Kumily and Kumarakom. It specically looks at whether tourism activities in Kumily, with its planned intervention, are more sustainable than in Kumarakom, where there are no interventions. Residents support is crucial for sustainable tourism development, and hence, this study looks at permanent residents perspectives on socio-cultural impacts of tourism. Literature review Sustainable tourism, a sub-branch of sustainable development, has attained widespread acceptance in academia and practice. Tourism development will be sustainable if only it considers the economic, social, environmental and ethical aspects of the host region (Mbaiwa, 2004). Tourism offers immense opportunities and challenges simultaneously, and hence sustainability should be ensured. Numerous studies consider residents perceptions and attitudes towards tourism (Allen, Long, Perdue & Kieselbach, 1988; Liu & Var, 1986; Mason & Cheyne, 2000). Studies suggest that benets such as employment opportunities, increased revenue generation, infrastructure improvement and enhanced standard of living often motivate local communities to adopt tourism (Archer & Cooper, 1998; Lindberg, 2001; Liu & Var, 1986). Researchers have also dealt with the undesirable consequences of tourism in destination communities such as ination, leakage of tourism revenue, changes in value systems and individual behaviour, crowding, littering and water shortage (Buckley, 2001; Ceballos-Lascurain, 1996; Mathieson & Wall, 1982). Despite the substantial research on sustainable tourism, only a few studies have focussed on states attempts to mitigate the adverse social impacts of tourism in developing countries (Brenner, 2005). Studies show that interventions enable local communities to maximize gains and minimize losses from tourism. Planned intervention refers to policies, programs, plans, projects and its implementation by government and development institutions including research bodies (Long, 1984). Local contextual features into which any intervention is implemented should be well understood, for from this context an intervention takes its meaning and probability for success (Lepp, 2008). In the absence of formalized intervention or planning, the possibilities for communities characterized by unawareness in tourism and outside investments, to benet from tourism is minimal (Campbell, 1999). Long (2001), however, points out that outcomes of an intervention may differ from the initial plan.

Comparison of tourism development scenarios at Kumily and Kumarakom Kumily and Kumarakom were selected for the study as they have approximately similar social settings, which permit comparisons about the effect of planned interventions on

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Figure 1. Kerala tourism map. Source: Prokerala.com.

sustainability (Figure 1). Thekkady, an international tourism destination, is part of the Kumily Gram Panchayat.1 Tourism activities at Thekkady focus on the Periyar Tiger Reserve (PTR). The PTR, with 777 km2, is a biodiversity hotspot in the Western Ghats. Kumarakom is famed for enchanting backwaters, paddy elds, mangroves, bird sanctuary and canals. The Vembanad Lake that forms an integral part of Kumarakom is a signicant constituent of the Vembanad-Kol2 Wetland system. Despite their underlying commonalities (Table 1), Kumily and Kumarakom have dissimilar tourism development patterns. In Kumily, it was signicantly inuenced by a planned intervention ensuing high tourists host interaction, whereas in Kumarakom, tourism was shaped largely by the demand for a backwater destination. The spontaneous tourism growth in Kumarakom resulted in minimal local involvement and tourist host interaction. The hotels/resorts developed by the private sector are exclusive touristic spaces, segregating tourists from locals. Further, most of the hotels/resorts are expensive, typically visited by high-spending tourists. Kumily has diverse accommodation facilities attracting tourists with different spending capacities. To compare, in 2004, 378,830 domestic and 36,543 international tourists visited Kumily. Kumarakom received 30,416 domestic and 16,860 international tourists in 2004.

L.M. Sebastian and P. Rajagopalan

Table 1. Socio-demographic characteristics of Kumily and Kumarakom. Parameters Population Literacy rate in percentage Households below poverty line in percentage Major occupation Kumily 33,722 83.63 57.48 Agriculture, animal husbandry, quarry, daily wage labor, tourism Kumarakom 23,771 96.5 56.68 Agriculture, shery, lime-shell collection, daily wage labor, tourism

Source: Panchayat level statistics Kerala (Department of economics and statistics, Government of Kerala, 2006).

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The two cases: Kumily and Kumarakom Kumily Kumilys evolution into a renowned tourism destination is linked with a planned intervention at PTR. The reserve had several conservational issues such as poaching, sandalwood smuggling, marijuana cultivation and bio-mass dependence. Conicts existed between the Forest Department (FD) and locals regarding the resource use (Gurukkal, 2003). The majority of the fringe area inhabitants are poor. To some extent, forest exploitation could be connected with poverty. Kumily is a transit point to Sabarimala.3 Littering associated with Sabarimala pilgrimage and mass tourism activities were additional concerns. As part of the multi-state India Eco-Development Project, an intervention was implemented at PTR during 1996 2001 with nancial assistance from World Bank and Global Environment Facility. The project aimed at biodiversity enhancement in PTR (Thampi, 2005). The core strategies were reduction in unsustainable resource dependence by providing sustainable livelihoods to nancially marginalized fringe area inhabitants and involving locals in conservation. One among the activities initiated was community-based ecotourism (CBET) that led to positive effects such as community development and conservation. Jobs in Eco-lodges and Tribal Heritage Museum and as guides, patrolling squads, trackers, etc., signicantly reduced the poverty among the scheduled caste (SC)4 and scheduled tribe (ST). The intervention transformed ex-poachers into forest protectors, providing tourism jobs. A major share of the CBET revenue goes to the community welfare fund. CBET programs are conservation-oriented, jointly developed by the locals and FD authorities. During the intervention, numerous capacity building and environmental awareness programs and cleaning campaigns were organized. For instance, on 28th of every month, plastic was removed in Kumily, involving all the stakeholders. Following the CBET, the locals became actively involved in tourism. Tourism activities at Thekkady effectuated small-scale tourism enterprises in Kumily town and nearby regions. The locals offer diverse facilities and attractions such as homestays, plantation tours and elephant safaris. Subsequent to intervention, Periyar Foundation, a state-owned public trust, was established to sustain the activities. Kumarakom Kumarakoms emergence as a Kerala tourism icon could be attributed to the demand for a backwater tourism destination. Kumarakom gained attention when the Taj Group, one of Indias leading hotel chains, opened its heritage resort in 1989. It played vital role to set off private sector investments here. Decline of tourism in Kashmir following the outbreak

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of terrorism shifted the focus of promotional activities at the national level (Kokkranikal & Morrison, 2002). The resemblance of kettuvallams, used to carry cargo through inland waterways, to the houseboats in Kashmir was advantageous to Kerala.The transformation of kettuvallams into a tourism attraction in the early 1990s simultaneously facilitated Kumarakoms tourism. Further, the National Geographic magazines millennium edition describes Kerala as one of the 10 paradises found and its write-up on Kerala features Kumarakom mostly. The socio-economic scenario of Kumarakom in the 1990s was conducive to tourism development. The traditional occupation of villagers such as agriculture and sheries were declining and became an unsustainable means of livelihood,5 especially for the poor. Tourism was well received by the villagers (Padmanabhan, 2006), who anticipated that tourism would enhance their declining economy. Initially, tourism establishments were constructed parallel to the lakefront. Eventually, scarcity of land led to the conversion of paddy elds into tourism sites. Access to the lakefront that served as common property resource was adversely affected by the resort enclaves. As per the Conservation and Preservation Act 2005, Kumarakom was declared a Special Tourism Zone to safeguard against any irreversible impact on its fragile ecosystem. However, the guidelines stipulated for tourism activities and further tourism development have not yet been implemented. Methodology This article is part of a larger ongoing study that investigates multi-stakeholders perspectives on socio-cultural, economic and environmental sustainability of tourism development. However, the present paper focusses on permanent residents perceptions on socio-cultural impacts of tourism. It relies largely on the results of pilot studies conducted at Kumily and Kumarakom. Yin (1994) argues that case study research is pertinent to exploratory studies since it provides an in-depth and rst-hand understanding within real-life context. For this purpose, a case study approach was adopted. The key characteristic of case studies is the use of multiple sources of evidence to attain the best possible answers to the research questions (Silverman, 2000). Though qualitative data are predominant, case studies may adopt both qualitative and quantitative methods (Yin, 1994). Scholars point out that qualitative method is more insightful to understand tourism as a social process (Gjerald, 2005). Since this paper is on socio-cultural transformations, qualitative data predominate. The period of reference of the study was 2000 2007, as signicant changes occurred in Kerala Tourism since 2000. The paper also draws on various government reports and documents, published and unpublished reports and studies pertaining to the study areas. During the rst stage of the study, in-depth interviews were conducted with beneciary and non-beneciary permanent residents. Previous studies identify economic reliance on tourism as a signicant factor inuencing residents perceptions. For the purpose of this study, beneciaries of tourism included respondents employed in tourism and associated occupations. A heterogeneous group of respondents were chosen to ensure maximum variation and richness of data. An interview guide was prepared based on the literature review of similar studies. Some dimensions of the interview guide were perceptions towards tourism and tourists, residents involvement in tourism, tourism and community development, states role in tourism development and the merits and demerits of tourism. Interviews lasted from 20 min to 1 h. They were all taped and subsequently transcribed. To attain a holistic view, informal interviews were carried out with the ofcials of Tourism Department, FD and Gram Panchayat. The researcher also undertook on-site

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Table 2. Respondents at Kumily and Kumarakom. Kumily Respondents Beneciaries Non-beneciaries Total SC 3 4 25 ST 6 4 Others 4 4 SC 4 5 25 Kumarakom ST 3 4 Others 5 4

observation of tourist host interactions and participated in events and discussions linked to tourism. For the second stage of the study, a survey instrument was prepared based on the insights from the rst stage of the study and a review of relevant literature (Gezici, 2006; Gjerald, 2005; Mbaiwa, 2004; Ying & Zhou, 2007). Most questions were a combination of multiple choice questions, followed by open-ended queries. For instance, respondents were asked about their attitude towards tourism activities, merits and demerits of tourism and tourisms inuence on children at the destination. The questionnaire also measured quantitative aspects such as the income of the respondent and household. The respondents were selected using purposive snowball sampling based on the following criteria: (i) adequate representation of SC, ST and others; (ii) should be residing permanently at the destination from 1999 onwards and (iii) should include both beneciaries and non-beneciaries of tourism (Table 2). Based on the above criteria, a total of 50 respondents were chosen at both the study areas. The researcher identied and interviewed a few respondents who met the study criteria. As with snowball sampling, the early participants in turn recommend others who they know meet the study criteria. The questionnaire was administered orally to the household heads. The interviews lasted approximately from 30 min to 1.5 h. Fieldwork was undertaken during the months of May and June 2007. As in similar studies, the number of respondents from various social categories was decided on the basis of informational redundancy (Gjerald, 2005). Both the study areas have substantial number of households below poverty line. The incidence of poverty among SC and ST households is signicantly higher than among others (Department of Economics and Statistics, Government of Kerala, 2006). Additionally, intervention at PTR focused on ST and SC. Consequently, it was relevant to explore the perceptions of various social categories. The study seeks to elicit the changes at the study areas during 2000 07, and hence selected residents living in the study area permanently from 1999. The rationale for including both beneciaries and non-beneciaries of tourism was to obtain a balanced perspective. Socio-cultural transformations through tourism Socio-cultural impacts of tourism are the effects on host communities with direct or indirect contact with tourists and the tourism industry. These are subjective, not always apparent, and are often difcult to measure, as, to a large extent, they are indirect (Ratz, 2000). Consequently, this study explores socio-cultural transformations invoked by tourism through residents perceptions rather than attempting to measure the actual effects. Perceptions towards tourists and tourism The following section analyses residents attitude towards tourists and tourism over signicant dimensions.

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Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change Type of tourists preferred

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All respondents in Kumily and Kumarakom held favorable attitudes towards tourists visiting their community. Most respondents (Kumily: 84%; Kumarakom: 67%) preferred international tourists to domestic tourists. Respondents said that international tourists spend more money and give tips. At both the places, there are instances where international tourists have sponsored childrens education. They also pointed out that Western tourists are well mannered and friendlier. Conversely, respondents criticize North Indian tourists as rude, arrogant and bargaining. In Kumily, 16% of respondents preferred domestic tourists because they buy more local products Kumily is challenged by exposure to health hygiene sanitation risks during the Sabarimala pilgrimage. Residents reported that over the past few years the Panchayat took measures to clean Kumily immediately after the pilgrimage season. Residents feel that, though cleaning activities are primarily due to the presence of international tourists, it has improved their quality of living. In contrast, 78% of the respondents were concerned about the way tourism has developed in Kumarakom. For instance, . . . . whoever (tourists) come and stay in the resorts, we see them only when they go in houseboats (Female respondent, 38 years, Kumarakom). At Kumarakom, 22% of the respondents prefer domestic tourists because they do not appreciate the dress code of the international tourists. A few (8%) respondents said that only domestic tourists should visit Kumarakom since foreigners bring AIDS. Lack of knowledge of foreign languages was also mentioned as a reason. Young day-trippers to Kumarakom are perceived as a threat as they come solely for alcohol consumption and make sexually suggestive remarks at women. A few cases of immoral activities and abduction by day-trippers were mentioned. Young day-trippers are not considered as tourists by residents. Tourists and community activities To comprehend the extent to which local culture was incorporated in tourism experiences, respondents were asked about tourist presence during festivals and other cultural activities. Ninety-four percent of the respondents in Kumily stated that foreigners often come for festivals and marriages. All respondents expressed pleasure in sharing their culture with tourists. One spoke of an incident in which a group of tourists who went to watch a movie shooting ended up acting in it. He felt that it was an experience that the tourists will never forget. Respondents also mentioned that cultural shows are offered on a commercial basis as the tourists are enthusiastic about Keralas art forms. While visiting the tribal colony, tourists enter houses if ceremonies occur. Tribals expressed happiness and pride in entertaining foreigners. A few tribal art forms were revived for tourism. This respondent represents the view of most tribals,
Our children are excited to see them. Even we enjoy their presence. We perform traditional dance for them. Some come to our temple. Only after people started coming to our colony, we learned to communicate. Earlier we were shy and scared, and used to hide seeing outsiders. (Male respondent, 39 years, Tribal, Kumily)

However, a tribal woman expressed dislike over tourists taking their photographs without permission. Conversely, in Kumarakom, only a few tourists attend community entertainment programs. Respondents said that they would be happy if tourists attended local functions. A few residents perform in hotels and resorts for tourists. Residents also mentioned

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that foreigners get married in temples in a traditional manner, where they often give big donations. Tourists rarely go for village tours escorted by guides who are not from Kumarakom. Residents consider it an honor, if foreigners visit their marriage or festivals. Tourists within the destination Another resemblance is that residents have no dislike towards tourists presence at both the destinations. In Kumily, the dominant attitude is that tourists should be everywhere, they are our livelihood source. Respondents residing away from the tourist zone wish that more tourists would visit. For security reasons, outsiders are not encouraged within the tribal colony, located in the PTR fringes. Hence, tribals are not permitted to operate homestays within their colony.
Foreigners should come to our colony. Facilities should be developed inside the colony to attract them. The department doesnt permit tourists to stay within the colony. We had proposed a tree house, but they (forest department) opposed. Many locals are constructing houses like tribals and making money . . . but we cannot. (Male respondent, 60 years, Tribal, Kumily)

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However, in Kumarakom, respondents said that tourists hardly come out of the resorts. They see tourists only when they travel in taxies or houseboats. Most respondents expressed their desire to see tourists near their locality. Merits and demerits of tourism Respondents were asked about the primary merits and demerits of tourism. Residents in Kumily perceive more benets than costs from tourism. Most (88%) respondents in Kumily did not report any demerit. Most residents reported more than one benet from tourism. For 84% of the respondents, including tribals, economic opportunities from tourism constitute the primary merit. Additionally, infrastructural development, foreign language skills, cleaning activities at Kumily, environmental awareness and increased demand for spices are perceived as the merits of tourism.
Kumily was a backward region. Now most people have money. Every house has vehicle. All these changes are because of tourism. We know how to handle guests. Even those who havent gone till seventh standard speak seven languages. Now we manage household things better . . . . (Male respondent, scheduled caste, 53 years, Kumily)

Another resident perceives the availability of better educational facilities in Kumily as the merit. According to him, Kumily lacked educational institutions. On completion of 10th standard, residents went to other places for further studies. Now, people from other places come to Kumily for education. This change in the educational scenario was facilitated by infrastructure, which was developed for tourism. However, a few respondents said they lack resources to invest in tourism businesses. A Panchayat authority stated that tourism is benecial only for the capitalists. The major demerits are pollution from vehicles and plastic and crowding. One respondent expressed fear that in future Kumily might become infamous like Kovalam.6 In Kumarakom, there was a reversal in the response pattern with 76% reporting that there are no merits for the locals through tourism. Some respondents (17%) consider increase in land value as the most important benet of tourism. Other merits mentioned

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were the international fame Kumarakom has earned, better roads, jobs in resorts and tips to houseboat employees. A few (7%) said that sher folk have gained due to the increased demand for sh. Nonetheless, increase in sh prices has made sh that constituted a signicant part of local communitys diet unaffordable. Ninety-two percent of the respondents perceive that tourism gave rise to several demerits at Kumarakom. Seventy percent of the respondents consider the contamination of backwaters with garbage and oil from boats as the biggest threat. Kumarakom forms a part of Kuttanad, a predominant rice growing region in Kerala. Respondents felt that the conversion of paddy elds into resorts adversely affects their livelihoods. Other demerits of tourism were increase in immoral activities, alcoholism and an increase in the cost of living.
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Future tourism activities Respondents (92%) in Kumily desire increased tourism development, as it leads to overall community development. The respondents pointed out that tourism boosts local economy, improves living standards, generates more jobs, develops new transportation facilities, raises land values and improves communication skills. Nonetheless, one tribal expressed anxiety that if tourism becomes lucrative, tribals might be relocated. Those who disfavored tourism expansion were anxious about outsiders settling permanently, particularly Kashmiri handicraft dealers. Handicraft traders from other states of India, predominantly from Kashmir, have settled in Kumily to engage in tourism trade. Eighty-six percent of the respondents anticipate an increase in tourist numbers, and the rationale was again community development. In Kumarakom, 72% of the respondents disapproved further tourism development. They stated that tourism has engendered severe environmental damage. A few (18%) respondents felt that with further expansion of tourism there will be no jobs for the locals. Livelihoods of most of the residents were dependent on Vembanad Lake. Hotels and resorts dump garbage into the backwaters, and this leads to depletion in shery resources. Fifty-six percent of respondents felt that the number of tourists should not be increased. One respondent pointed out that with the rise in land value, the locals are unable to purchase any land in Kumarakom.
In the past, Kumarakom was a much better place to live. If we further promote tourism what has happened in Nandhigram5 will happen here. Locals do not have enough jobs with tourism. If possible the entire tourism activities should be stopped in the village.

Those who desire tourism development in future anticipate more job opportunities, better infrastructural facilities and increase in land values. Inuence of tourism on community life Relationship among members While most respondents in Kumily felt that tourism has not effected much change in the relationship among the members, a few involved in tourism business felt that cooperation has increased. Two tribal communities, Mannan and Paliyan, relocated from PTR to Kumily, are descendants of aboriginals who came to Kumily from Madurai district in Tamil Nadu in the seventeenth century and are not aboriginals of the area. Interaction between tribals and other residents was minimal in the past. The tribals observed a change in the attitude of other residents following the implementation of IEDP. Previously,

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the rest of the community considered tribals uncivilized, unclean and could be easily fooled in their transactions. As they became associated with the FD and obtained tourism jobs within PTR, the tribals gained respect from locals. The tribals stated that, due to better mathematical skills achieved through the intervention, they are not cheated by locals in transactions. On the other hand, residents in Kumarakom felt that relationships among community members have decreased due to out-migration. Also, residents who sell part of their land or paddy eld become rich unexpectedly and many of them have settled in interior areas of Kumarakom. Respondents observed that these residents do not mingle much with the rest of the community, since they feel their social status has improved. The tribals in Kumarakom mentioned that they do not maintain relationships with other members in the community, though this situation was not a consequence of tourism. Communitys identity and pride Residents at Kumily and Kumarakom perceive that the communitys identity and pride have improved through tourism. Despite this general optimistic view, one respondent expressed her surprise at how an unclean destination like Kumarakom could be on the international tourism map. Residents mobility within the destinations In spite of strict conservational measures at PTR, fringe area inhabitants could access forest for subsistence. Most respondents (71%) were content with the existing control over the reserve as it leads to better conservation. A few residents (13%) engaged in tourism felt that forest ofcials are partial in their approach. They said that the FD is interested in promoting the interests of tribals alone and discourages tourism by charging foreign nationals with higher entry fees. This deters international tourists from visiting Kumily and in turn tourism business suffers. The Vembanad lake front in Kumarakom served as a place for social gatherings but, following the construction of resorts, the locals were denied access. Tribals said they suffered from suffocation due to the restricted movement of air resulting from the huge resort walls. Fishermen also complained about the humiliation faced when they entered resort property following a boat capsize or wreck. A few stated that, in future, to see the backwaters, they would have to travel in boats like tourists. Occupation The occupational patterns at both the destinations are notably inuenced by tourism. In Kumily, residents have diverse opportunities both in formal and informal tourism sectors. Residents are engaged in tourism activities within PTR, hotels, homestays, plantation tours, restaurants, shops and as tourist guides. However, in Kumarakom, tourism employment is conned largely to jobs in hotels and resorts, except for a few homestays. The hotel jobs, available to residents at both places, are generally semiskilled or unskilled, with low remuneration. Gender-wise, women gain more employment in hotels, either in housekeeping or gardening. There is a difference in the attitude towards hotel jobs at both the places. Many respondents (68%) in Kumily said that they dislike jobs in hotels due to the low pay structure, whereas the residents (72%) in Kumarakom complained that locals get very few jobs.

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Respondents in both places said that only catering or hotel management qualied youngsters with inuence got permanent jobs in the formal hospitality sector. Nonetheless, a few hotels give employment in their branches at other places. Respondents view this as a measure adopted by hoteliers to avoid issues such as strikes and trade unionism as it will take time for the employees to get acquaintances in new places. In Kumarakom, residents were involved as daily wage laborers during the construction phase of resorts. The respondents spoke of conicts between residents and hoteliers over the low wage structure. Also, some resorts gave employment to laborers from other places such as Tamil Nadu and Nepal as they were willing to work for lower wages than locals. The construction of a few resorts was halted temporarily due to the involvement of local political parties. Now the wage structure in Kumarakom is decided jointly by hoteliers and trade unions. Residents said that the involvement of political parties has both merits and demerits. For instance, hoteliers are now scared to employ locals. A shift from traditional occupations, especially agriculture, is observed at both Kumily and Kumarakom. A few residents in Kumily offer plantation tours since it is less laborious and has more exibility and prot than farming. Tourism enterprises such as homestays are of high societal recognition in Kumily. Marginalized sections such as tribals are involved in tourism activities within PTR. The tribals feel that those with tourism jobs are accorded a relatively higher status within their community. Also, they perceive that their occupations within PTR made them more acceptable to the local community. Prior to the intervention at PTR, tribals were dependent on forest resources and agricultural labor for subsistence. Respondents also perceive that the spices trade in Kumily has beneted from tourism. In Kumarakom, respondents mentioned that locals are reluctant to engage in paddy cultivation. Agriculture is considered laborious, less remunerative and of low status. Many are selling their paddy elds due to increase in land prices with the development of tourism. A few respondents (9%) said that construction of resorts has caused geographical mobility of laborers from Kumarakom as many are unable to continue with their occupations that were dependent on backwaters. Another related trend observed in Kumarakom is the occupational mobility of non-traditional shermen into shery due to the higher sh price. Out-migration of residents Tourism often generates land requirements and out-migration of residents for various purposes. These aspects were analyzed to realize its magnitude and linkage, if any. In Kumily, 80% of the respondents stated that the out-migration rate is insignicant. Most residents (73%) do not want to sell their homes and leave Kumily. Nonetheless, respondents were happy about the exorbitant land values. Some (19%) felt that, only those who are not able to invest or gain from tourism out-migrates. A few (10%) pointed out that those who have daughters sell their property for marriage expenses including dowry. One respondent voiced that people sell their land as it is difcult to get agricultural laborers. Tribals, in Kumily, cannot sell their property since they have not yet obtained land titles. One tribal respondent said,
we dont have pattayam (land title) for our land, so cannot sell it. We cannot even rent our houses. We could move to places where we will get pattayam. We are not interested to go anywhere. This is the best tribal colony in Kerala. Kumily is the best place for common people to live. If we go elsewhere our people will not get tourism jobs. (Male respondent, 37, tribal, Kumily)

In contrast, 92% of the respondents in Kumarakom reported that the out-migration rate is high. The major reason was economic gain through increased land values. Those who

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sell invest in rubber estates elsewhere. A few who sold land, settled in near-by and interior regions. Investors are interested in purchasing several plots together for resort development. Hence, residents often sell plots together to ensure maximum prot. Respondents perceive that land brokers gain the most in transactions. There were instances of residents losing money earned through land sale, due to incompetence in managing the money. A few migrants came back to Kumarakom since they did not thrive in these places. Residents said that the entire lakefront has been sold out. A few residents sold their property to become houseboat owners and are now well-off. The backwater contamination and drinking water scarcity also led to out-migration. Increased alcoholism and immoral activities with tourism were also causes for out-migration, particularly among those with girl children.
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Perceptions on tourisms impact on standard of living and safety In Kumily, 88% of the respondents perceive that living standards have improved, with 64% relating it with tourism. Tribals view this as the achievement of Eco-Development Committees, an institutional mechanism established to implement the intervention. Ninety-six percent of the respondents consider Kumily safer with reduced crime, poaching, alcoholism and prostitution due to strict surveillance and better awareness. Only one respondent felt that Kumily has become less desirable because of safety concerns. Conversely, in Kumarakom, only 24% of the respondents perceive that the standard of living has improved due to tourism. Sixty-one percent of the respondents said that safety within Kumarakom has decreased with tourism. Respondents said that they felt insecure with strangers around. A few (12%) felt that anti-social elements within Kumarakom are taking advantage of tourism. In general, the respondents felt that crime rate was not affected by tourism. Children and tourism In Kumily and Kumarakom, children are not exploited by the tourism industry, either sexually or as child laborers. At Kumily, children participate in environmental campaigns and cultural activities as part of various tourism activities through their schools. Residents are proud about childrens foreign language skills, acquired due to the interaction with tourists. Residents motivate their children to study well and to learn English in particular for future tourism jobs. Previously, tribal children were reluctant to go to school. But now, tribals encourage their children to complete at least high school for better chances through tourism. A few tribals (7%) said that they did not qualify for tourism jobs within PTR due to insufcient schooling.
Many good change after ECO. Youngsters get tourism jobs. We struggled with elephants in the forests. Now, we are better off . . . . I tried for tourism jobs, they say education is less. Daughter is studying in 10th. At least she will get a tourism job. We are in darkness, our children should escape. (Male respondent, 39 years, tribal, Kumily)

Boating in Periyar Lake forms a major tourist attraction for possible wildlife spotting. Only limited boats are available, and the FD explains this to be in line with the sustainability measures. There is a huge demand for boat tickets, especially during peak season. On most days, tickets are sold out in the morning itself, usually purchased by agents and guides. These are often resold to tourists at higher rates. Agents often hire children to

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stand in queues early in the morning to purchase tickets. Children view it as a source of pocket money as the work is not time-consuming. In Kumarakom, most respondents said that children have no role in tourism. Foreigners give pens and sweets to children and occasionally join children in shing. However, a few respondents (14%) said that tourism is promoting beggary among children. Some respondents complained that children have lost their interest in studies because of tourism activities in the village. Houseboats often halt in front of schools and children get easily distracted by them. Children skip school and go after houseboats and tourists. The tribals mentioned that the rich in the village send their children to study in nearby towns so that they are not distracted by tourism. A few children do small tourism jobs during weekends for pocket money. Alcohol is easily available at these places and employers often encourage children to take drinks. Consequently, alcoholism has increased among school children. A Panchayat ofcial mentioned that there are instances when children were caught capturing sexually explicit photographs of female tourists on mobile phones. Often parents are unaware about these activities, thinking their children are at school. Relationship with other stakeholders in the destination With the intervention, the dynamics of social relations between the residents and FD underwent signicant transformations in Kumily. Frequent conicts between the FD and fringe area inhabitants were resolved, and nancially marginalized were permitted to enter the forest for subsistence requirements. For instance, permits were issued to the traditional sherman among the tribals. Simultaneously, the fringe area community reduced forest exploitation considerably. However, the dispute between local tourist guides and forest authorities prevails. The guides feel that stringent conservational measures at PTR stand in the way of their livelihood. Frequent conicts occur between residents and handicraft dealers. Residents involved in tourism business perceive that, Kashmiris take away the tourism money. Most residents (72%) complained that the Kashmiris do not mingle with locals to protect their business secrets. Respondents perceive Kashmiris to be associated with terrorism, which in turn might undermine Kumilys peace. In Kumarakom, a conict of interest exists among residents and tourism businesses. Respondents reported that resorts and houseboats dump garbage, including human excreta, into the water. Numerous houseboats and speed boats that ply in the backwaters generate a heavy load of waste that pollutes its water and affects sh movements. This has a direct impact on the livelihoods of shermen dependent on lake resources. Further, there are conicts between houseboat drivers and traditional sherman. The shing nets used by the sherman often get entangled with houseboats. Who benets from tourism activities at the destination? Most respondents (72%) in Kumily perceive that the locals benet the most from tourism. The residents view tribals to have beneted the most from tourism. Tribals, on the other hand, had diverse responses. Some felt that residents other than tribals, particularly those in Kumily town, benet the most. While others said that tribals themselves have gained the most through tourism. In Kumarakom, 76% of the respondents felt that outsiders benet from tourism (Figure 2). Outsiders include resort owners, hoteliers and those employed in these establishments from other places. Those who stated that residents gain the most referred to locals who sold their properties.

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Figure 2.

Perceptions on who benets from tourism.

Conclusion It is evident from the study that Kumily with its planned intervention has a more sustainable tourism development pattern than Kumarakom. The intervention at PTR was successful as it considered site-specic socio-cultural features, brought about societal transformations through awareness and addressed communitys socio-economic requirements through sustainable livelihoods. The intervention initiated many institutional changes in Kumily. It resolved the longstanding conict between the locals and FD over subsistence needs and conservational concerns. The CBET enhanced the probability to retain tourism benets within the community. Residents perceive that tourism has engendered better employment opportunities, enhanced the well-being of marginalized people, increased societal acceptance of tribals, revitalized tribal art, reduced alcoholism and immoral activities, facilitated learning of foreign languages and created demand for local produce such as spices. Environmental education instigated positive attitudinal shift towards conservation among the locals. However, concerns such as conict between handicraft dealers and locals due to insufcient trust, unauthorized guiding, rise in the price of essential commodities and crop-raiding that affects the health of tribals prevail. Furthermore, the prominence given to tourism might lead to unsustainable dependence on tourism, abandoning traditional occupations such as agriculture. Conversely, the lack of benets from tourism, backwater pollution by houseboats and hotels and the socio-cultural and livelihood challenges triggered by tourism have generated anti-tourism attitude in Kumarakom. Most villagers are dependent on natural resources for livelihoods. Natural resources were deteriorating due to various unsustainable practices. Tourism activities intensied environmental degradation. The construction of accommodation establishments on the banks of the Vemband Lake rendered backwaters inaccessible to the shermen and shell collectors. The conversion of paddy elds for tourism purposes further undermined the villagers livelihoods. Residents perceive that tourism have increased alcoholism and immoral activities, brought undesired changes in the value orientation of children, altered community structure due to large-scale out-migration and increased the price of essential food products such as sh. The upward social mobility of

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a few members through land sale widened the gap between the wealthy and the poor. Nonetheless, tourism activities resulted in better infrastructure and environmental awareness among the residents. The incomplete agricultural intervention such as the bund, which has adversely affected their occupation, might have inuenced the residents perceptions. In Kumarakom, most of the negative tourism impacts are due to haphazard tourism development and are rectiable. Through spatial planning, areas appropriate for tourism and community activities should be demarcated and developed accordingly. This will improve the quality of life of the residents and prevent conicts between various stakeholders. A planned intervention will increase the villagers possibilities to gainfully engage in tourism. By imparting education to all stakeholders on sustainable environmental practices and by implementing regular cleaning activities, backwater could be conserved. Some aspects of the intervention that could be implemented in destinations with conservational value are linking conservation with tourism, addressing socio-economic concerns through sustainable livelihoods, converting marginalized individuals as tourism beneciaries, shifting environmental attitudes and behavior through education and regular cleaning activities involving all the stakeholders. However, the success of any intervention will also depend on site-specic features. This article has limitations such as the assessment of sustainability based on residents perceptions and socio-cultural dimensions alone and small sample size. At present, Kumily and Kumarakom are part of an ongoing, larger intervention in responsible tourism.

Notes
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Gram Panchayats are local administrative bodies at the village level in India. They constitute the foundation of the Panchayati Raj system. Vembanad-Kol wetland is one of the largest estuarine systems in the Western coastal wetland systems (Parikshit, 2006). Considering the uniqueness of the region and the threat to its environment the wetland was declared a Ramsar Site in 2002. Sabarimala, located in the Western Ghats of Kerala, is a leading pilgrimage center dedicated to the Hindu God Lord Ayyappa. Sabarimala gets crowded with devotees during the main pilgrimage season from November to January. SCs and STs are historically disadvantaged and vulnerable social groups in India. The Indian constitution has various provisions for their development. Kumarakom forms a part of Kuttanad region famous for paddy cultivation. As Kuttanad lies below the mean sea level, a second round of cultivation was difcult. To restrict salt water intrusion during summer and to ush out ood waters into the sea during the monsoon, the Thaneermukkom barrage was constructed. The incomplete construction work and ineffective operations gave rise to ecological concerns such as sh reduction and pollution of the backwaters. Kovalam, one of the earliest beach destinations in Kerala, faced severe socio-cultural and environmental concerns due to disorganized tourism development. Nevertheless, several projects are underway to rejuvenate Kovalam. Nandhigram is a village in the state of West Bengal, India. The governments decision to bring the rural area under the Special Economic Zone policy was opposed by farmers, fearing land acquisitions. This led to violent clashes and loss of life of villagers.

6. 7.

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