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INDIAN MATHEMATICS
R.
KAYE
D^J-
INDIAN MATHEMATICS
R.
KAYE
8A
CONTENTS.
/i
I.
1.
The
orientalists
who
exploited Indian:
-histC'Ty
a 'Ul
literature
their
and consequently promulgated many errors. Gradually, however, sounder methods have obtained and we are now able to see the facts in more
methods
In particular the early chronology has
been largely revised and the revision in some instances has
correct perspective.
Bailly,
towards
Laplace,
basing his arguments on figures given by Bailly considered that some 3,000 years B.C. the Indian
astronomers had
to
one
;
William Jones argued that correct observations must have been made at least as early as 1181 B.C. and so on but with the researches of Colebrooke, Whitney, Weber,
;
Thibaut, and others more correct views were introduced and it was proved that the records used by Bailly were quite
modem and
original
It
tendency
2
2.
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
j
Hindu
tradition ascribe
the invention of the nine figures with the device of place to make them suffice for all numbers 'to the beneficent
Creator of the
univtirf^e
'
and
this
of
This is a particular the very great antiqiiitj of the system i>^'an;attituile that was quite general, for early .illtistr^ltipA
Indian works' claim either to be directly revealed or of divine One consequence of this attitude is that we find origin.
absolutely no references to foreign origins or foreign influence.*
We
that proves conclusively that foreign influence was very real indeed Greek and Roman coins, coins with Greek and
etc.,
etc.
and
the implication of considerable foreign influence occurs in certain classes of literature and also in the archseological
but although
he gives accounts of the Romaka and the Paulisa siddhdntas he never makes any direct acknowledgment of western
influence.
* It may be noted that beyond the vague pseudo-prophetic references in the Puratia.^, no early Indian writer mentions the invasion of Alexander the Great.
II.
3.
the
history of
The
S'ulvasiitra
period
with upper
limit
c.
A.D. 200
(II)
(Ill)
The astronomical period c. A.D. 400600. The Hindu mathematical period proper, A.D. 6001200.
of course, perfectly
We
might
have prefixed an
of the
earlier, or Vedic,
Vedic age does not exhibit anything of a mathematical nature beyond a few measures and numbers used quite infor-
remarkable fact that the second and third of our periods have no connection whatever with the first
mally.
It is a
or
S'lilvasutra
period.
The
later
Indian mathematicians
to
We
earlier
and
state that
is
no Indian writer
to
century
known
may
be considered as
The S'ulvasutra
'
period.
'
The
the
in
term
S'lilvasutra
means
and
is
name given
which the
to the
The period
S'ulvasu-
4
authors.
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
Max Muller
;
R. C.
B.C.
as
Buhler
probably
of the
Apastamba school
and Baudhayana somewhat earlier Macdonnell gives the limits as 500 B.C. and A.D. 200, and so on. As a matter of fact the dates are not known and those suggested
by
different
authorities
It
circumspection.
must
must be used with the greatest also be borne in mind that the
,
contents of
the S'ldvasutras
as
;
known
to
us, are
taken
and that in matters of from quite modern manuscripts have probably been extensively edited. The detail they editions of Apastamba, Baudhayana and Katyayana which
have been used for the following notes, indeed, each other to a very considerable extent.
differ
from
The SulvasTdras are not primarily mathematical but are rules ancillary to religious ritual they have not a mathe-
No
proofs or demonstrations
is
nothing
facts.
that contain mathematical notions relate to (1) the construction of squares and rectangles, (2) the relation of the
diao'onal to the sides, (3) equivalent rectangles
(4)
and squares,
equivalent
5.
circles
and squares.
(1)
In connection with
is
and
(2)
the
Pythagorean
by a
:
theorem
stated
quite generally.
It is illustrated
number
of
examples which
may
be summarised thus
= 252
52+12^=132
152
82
+ 352=^392
+ 152=172
122
+ 352=372
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
Katyayana gives no such rational examples but gives (with Apastamba and Baudhayana) the hypotenuse corresponding to sides equal to the side and diagonal of a square, i.e., the
triangle a, a\/2,
2^
rt/y/S,
1^
+ 3' = 10,
and
+ 6'=: 40.
There
is
that the
Sulvasfitra
rational
examples were
is
Incidentally
of a square
which
may
i
be represented by
+3+
3 4
3.4.34^
and 34 (and
is
Baudhayana actually
an
feet
it is
only
expression of a direct
measurement
obtained by
and
;
or
it is
possible
that
the
was
the
approximation
it is
'J,
^ a
quite
tion
is
no such process was known to the authors of the The only noteworthy character of the fracthe form with its unit numerators. Neither the
nor this form of fraction occurs in any later
value
itself
Indian work.
There
is
one
other
to
point
connected
viz.,
with
the
Pythagorean theorem
of
be noted,
the
occurrence
an
indication
of
the
formation
of
square by the
relating to this
The text
twenty-five
of
these
bricks
and
To these
sixty-four
more are
is
to be added.
With
formed.
The
side of the
Thirty-three
6
bricks
sides
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
still
are placed on
all
This subject
matical works.
The questions
theorem, and
irrational
(b)
(a)
of this period
had
the
the
Pythagorean
of
ritualists
but the
who coinposed the Sulvasutras Avere not interested in the Pythagorean theorem beyond their own actual wants, and it
is
complete understanding
modern
The
fanciful suggestion of
his geometrical
Burk
that possibly
Pythais
goras obtained
not
tance with the theorem over a thousand years B.C., and the
and conse-
Pythagorean theorem,
(1)
(2) (3) (4)
of
;
(5)
Again we have to remark the significant fact that none any later Indian
Work.
The
first
two are
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
the rule
c-=ar~h^
form
ay 2 and
^
6
;
construction for
^^j
not
{'')
and corresponds
to Euclid, II, 5
the
fifth is
4.
The
Circle.
to square the
circle,
in the Sulvasutras
problem,
and
its
The
solutions
is
offered are
very
pretence of accuracy.
Denoting by a the side of the square and by d the diameter of the circle whose area is supposed to be a^ the rules given
may
be expressed by
(a)
(/3)
da-\-^{ax/2a)
a=d-l^d
Neither of the
first
two
rules,
tamba and Baudhayana, is of particular value or interest. The third is given by Baudhayana only and is evidently obtained from (a) by utilising the value for a' 2 given in
paragraph 5 above.
We
3
thus have
a_
_
j_
8.-29.6
:\
_
1
12;24
139:^
_ i4--i s
^8.:i9
^ 8.2i).6.8
41
S.-jg.e.S.lSQH
is the value given in rule (7). This implies a knowledge of the process of converting a
fraction into partial fractions with unit numerators, a knowledge most certainly not possessed by the composers of the Svlmsfifras for as Thibaut says there is nothinf^ in
;
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
and there
is
no indication
with the process and in no later works are fractions expressed in this manner.
It is
worthy
mathematicians
the
record no attempts
at
the
solution
of
problem
of
III.
S'ulvasutra
of
mathematics
and
later
Indian
developments
the
subject.
is
further
western
astronomical
Siddhdntika
which
astro-
of the five
most important
form not
in use.
earlier
afterwards
collection
Varaha Mihira's
ment "not
of
may
scientific treat-
astronomy
in India.
Hindus learned from the Greeks, he at any rate mentions certain facts and points of doctrine which suggest the dependence of Indian astronomy
directly stating that the
of
Alexandria
and, as
we know already
employs terms
of
Varaha Mihira
Siddhantas
writes
* '
the
Paulisa, the
accurate,
near to
far
somewhat important bearing on the date of the example, the date of their composition were accepted as 500 B.C. a period of nearly 1,000 years, absolutely blank as far as mathematical notions aie concerned, would have to be accounted for.
has
S'nlcasvtras.
If, for
10
INDIAN MATHEMATICS^.
5).
Tho
Pancha
Siddhdntikd
contains
material
of
considerable mathematical interest and from the historical point of view of a value not surpassed by that of anv later
Indian works.
Siddhanta
is
The mathematical
perhaps of the most
section
of the
Paulisa
be
interest
and may
' (1)
The square-root
parts,
of the circumference,
is
the diameter.
part of a sign
" (2)
[is
to be found].
of the radius
and
it is
call it
the
of
[the square
The constant square is to be lessened by the square of Aries. The squareroots of the two quantities are the sines.
Aries.
" (3)
deduct
it
from
square
Thfr
half the
sine
double
is
the
arc.
square-root of the
sum
"
3 45'
and by
"
Aries
"
is
indicated the
first
sign "
of .30.]
(for
The
rules given
may
unit radius) as
(1)
7r=VTo"
Sin-^
(2)
Sin 30=|,
'
Sin
60= v^I^T
(3)
(^)
^(1-Sin(9(^2,)y
by
inter-
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
did Ptolemy, Paulisa divides
siw
it
,,
11
parts
,
iuto
,
120
for
i
as
.
a ^ =
chord a
^
,.
nim to
Aryabhata gives another measure for the radius which enabled the sines to be expressed in a sort of
circular measure.
We
(a)
The chords
Ptolemy, or
or
sin
ch'da
with
= 6U
^=120
(I
(6)
The Paulisa
sine
~
n
-^
- -^-^^
3
A with
ch'd
(c)
The Aryabhata
sine or
sin
with r=3438'
To obtain
(c)
the value of
earliest
- actually
u.sed
was
fSi(
=3.14136)
Thus the
period.
known
works
of this
At one time
the invention of
this
function
was
now know
this to be incorrect
given.
n
It
may
j^
be represented by
15l!!:JL where
=
+
1
a
is
Sin a
A " - 8in
a Sin (h l)a,
This
Aryabhata.
Tradition
places
Aryabhata
(born
and
first
first
matter.
12
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
astronomer and as such tried to introduce sounder views of that science but was bitterly opposed
He was renowned as an
by the orthodox. The mathematical work attributed to him consists of thirty-three couplets into which is condensed
a good deal of matter.
Starting with the orders of numerals
involution,
volumes.
shadow problems,
rules
then a set
some simple
be termed
algebraic
The remaining
may
very
last
which
that
it is
As a
it is
mathematical treatise
is
some record
far as
of the state of
knowledge at a
critical period in
;
because, as
we know,
;
it is
the earliest
it
matics
and because
earliest records
known
The
is
minates of the
no doubt as to
general aim.
may
be considered as
ment
in
of this
the works of
noteworthy rule
Brahmagupta and Bhaskara, Another given by Aryabhata is the one which contains
of the ratio of the circumference
viz., tt
= 3 ^^^ (=3-1416)
but
it
INDIAN MATHEMATICS,
matician
before
15
Indian
the
12th
century
and that no
this
value.
Other
of solids
e.g.,
the volume
pyramid
;
is
the base
same radius
.
and
the root of
this
area,
later
or t-^J^
Similar
were
not
uncommon
in
Indian works.
The
known
is
type of definition that occurs in no other Indian work, e.g., " The product of three equal numbers is a cube and it also
has twelve edges."
IV.
delinite bias to
Of
tlie
writers them-
we know very
if
little
but some
not
:
all
been preserved
Brahmagupta
Mahavira
S'ridhara
'
9th century.
991.
*'
'
'
born A.D.
Bhaskara
Bhaskara
undeservedly
is
so, for
Brahmagupta's work
is
is
possibly sounder
mathematically and
of
with
and
used by
all
the others.
matician,
One
in the
treatment
of geometry.
Brahmagupta
deals
fairly
completely with
cyclic quadrilaterals
by the time
Bhaskara
it
has
ceased
to be understood.
The most
indeterminate equations
rational
[(n) the
right-angled
triangle;
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
Of these topics
it will
15
is
no
real connection
and
Indeterminate Equations. The 12. names and dates connected with the early history
minates in India are
:
of indeter-
16
532).
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
effect of
their visit
may
show.
1.3.
The
state of knowledge
Some
of the
those of Hypatia
are lost to us
achieve
deoree.
is left
on what
of the
integral
solutions
(A)
{B)
ax
by
Du'
is
=c +1=
t-
The
solution of (A)
x=
where
t
is
same cq-bt, y= + cp + at zero or any integer and ^V? i^ the penultimate conas
ajb.
vergent of
+1=
:
may
be summarised as follows
If
where
is
any suitable
integer.
Also
where n
is
The complete integral solution is given by a combination given by Brahma(a) and (6) of which the former only is
INDIAX MATHEMATICS.
gupta, while both are given by Bhaskara
later).
(five
17
centuries
The
and
(b)
'
method by composi-
tion
'
the
'
cyclic
method.
'
Of the
)
'
cyclic
the combination of
all praise
:
(a)
and
(6)
Hankel
says,
it is
in the
Lagrange."
He
attributed its
Tannery, Cantor,
Heath)
Greek
origin.
dealt with
in
The following consjjectus of the indeterminate problems by the Indians will give some idea of their work this direction and although few of the cases actually
;
now laiown
ax
hy
^^ c
ax -^ hy X ^^
a,
cz
-{-
=
...
Mod.
-{-
6i
^ =
=D
rt^
Mod.
h^
+ By Z)w- + 1 =
Ax
Du'
Cxy
^2
(8)
(9)
(10) (11)
(12) (13)
t^
^2
s'',
-">,
7, S,
12
14
century.
18
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
(14) aa; (15)
(16) ax''
(17)
bx
t^
{'x'
{x'^
t'
by''
t-
(18) x^
(19) aa;^ (20)
=
s"-,
Mod.
c
t'\
(21)
(22)
(23)
(24)
(25)
(26)
(27) (28)
<3
a;2
?/2
^'^
cc
s,
a;3
t^
0)8
_(_
^2^
(^.
:^
^2
t'
-{-
-\-
-\-
z)
a;3
a;
+
-
?/
= S-, a;
+ 3=
^8,
a;"'
?/-
4 =. M^
a;2
I/'-!
12
=
v
^;^
^ +y = w\
+
'2
s-\-t-\-u
(29)
vj
z'
-v^?!^
+ V^MT' +
i/a;+?/+2
i/x-^^-^
^x'-y^ + ^ = f
(30)
w +
w'a;
a^
a;
6-,
c",
ft
+ 18 =: e, a;^ + 18 = P, ^2 + 6 + c + + e + /+ + 11 = 13.
(Z
+ 2 = + 18 =
(^^
g\
5r
14.
The Indian
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
19
20
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
Other problems connected with the rational right-angled
by Bhaslcara are of some historical interest The sum of the sides is 40 and the area 60, (2) The (1) sum of the sides is 56 and their product 7 X 600, (3) The area hypotenuse, (4) The area is is numerically equal to the
triangle given
e.g.,
is
characterised
by
(2) (3)
all
There
is
no mention
of
parallels
and no theory
of proportion
(4)
uncommon
(5)
is
On
y-={ab-\-cd) {ac-\-bd)l{ad^bc)
where x and y are the diagonals of the cyclic quadrilateral This {ii) is sometimes designated as Brahma{a, b, c, d).
*
gupta's theorem'.
16.
The absence
of definitions
and
indifference to logical
may
be
Whereas
is
on the one hand the Indians have been credited with the
invention of the sine function, on
the other
there
no
The presence
with correct ones
of triangles
of a
number
by
side
is significant.
The one
viz.,
and
quadrilaterals,
the area
equal to the
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
product of half the sums of pairs of opposite
21
sides, strangely
enough occurs
in
Mahavira,
it is
By
is
based
is
fvirther
emphasized.
iVryabhata gives an
rule
for
the
volume
pyramid
sphere are
common
all
to Aryabhata, S'ridhara
For cones
Mahavira gives
and area
an
ellipse
and
so on.
17.
Brahmagupta
mathematician from
definite
lateral
end
in
view
whom
^the
The
some
in
indeed condemns them outright as unsound. "How can a person " he says " neither specifying one of the perpendiculars, nor either of the diagonals, ask the rest
?
Such a
he who
questioner
is
still
more
so
is
and
(ii)
graph
15,
Brahmagupta
formula
(in) ^
(iv)
'
2r=-^-^ SlU A
If
hy,
etc., '
and
a^
a^-\-b'c' and
cjj,
teral {ay,
Co) is cyclic
angles.
This
figure
is
sometimes
the triangles
trapezium."
From
and
(39,
(5,
12, 13) a
22
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
etc.
He
also
introduces a proof
{in,
from triangles
{a, b, c)
and
(a,
/3,
y,)
new triangles
60,
65).
and uses the actual examples given by Diophantus, namely (39, 52, 65) and (25,
{ac, (3c, yc,)
and
18.
An examination
now
of the
Greek mathematics
of
the
we
are
was
in a state of decay.
rical
After Pappus
(c.
work
of
much
Greeks and
it is
acquainted with
many
had ceased to
predominated.
of
Brahmagupta
is
it is
not a
is
exposition
V.
19.
We
historically
For points
but we here
briefly indicate
we a somewhat
have achieved
the
20.
Brahmainterest,
GUPTA
with
the
ordinary
arithmetical
;
operations, square
and cube-root,
but
also
including
elementary
solids,
the
circle
elementary mensuration of
and positive
ties
;
indeterminate equations
the
first
simple
equations of the
first
little
is fuller but more elementary on the The ordinary operations are treated with more completeness and geometrical progressions are introduced
MahavIra's work
whole.
many problems on
is
made
of the
It is
algebra.
and it contains no formal the only Indian work that deals with ellipses
'
cyclic
method
'
(inaccurately).
2-i
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
is like
Mahavira's
but he
is
^^quations, etc.
Bhaskara's Lilavatl
is
besides the topics already mentioned, deals with combinations, while his Vlja-ganita, being a
sition of the algebraical topics dealt
is
the most complete of the Indian algebras. After the time of Bhaskara (born A.D. 1114) no Indian
mathematical work
is
known.
Even
a
" college
Bhaskara
21.
it,
stating
examples
parti-
rhetorical
all
and even
real
is
in
The only
symbol employed
the
In the Bakhshali
Sarada
script is
first
The
mention
was written
:
Bhaskara says
'
"As
and the colours black (kdlaka), blue (nilaka), yellow (pltaka) and red (lohitaJca) and others besides these have been selected by ancient teachers* for names of
as
{ydvat
tdvat)
'
many
values of
unknown
quantities."
tdvat
is
understandable and so
is
is
the use
The use
and kdlaka
INDIAN MATHE.AIATICS.
(generally abbreviated to yd
25
and
former
is
connected with
quantity,
Diophantus'
the
unknown
'
iMthos
i.e.,
an
pass from
an unlimited number
'
to
as
many
as
'
gination.
and
if
Indians would have had to look elsewhere for terms for the
other
unknowns.
With
M an
'
units
used ru for
a unit.
Ijd
the
first
unknown.
kd
ru
va
kdlaJca,
,,
rupa,
varga,
,,
Icara/ia,
surd.
will
used but
it
In more modern times varga ghana gMta-\ denoted the power, varga ghana, the sixth and so on.
+ G'/(a<a=the product.
26
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
Certain Greek terms are used, e.g.,jdimtra (Gk. diamet-
harija {Gk.
'
orizon),
dramma
of
{Gk. drachme),
dindra
{Gk.
denarion),
etc.
Many
of
these terms,
however, are
number
side with The curious may compare pdrsva 'a rib, which primarily means a claw or horn the Greek pleura ; koti
'
' '
but
is
kdthefos
is
jdtija
which means
'
legitimate,'
'
genuine,
'
but
;
and so on.
I
iff
*?
fir.
^W
ft
if?
r ^i- &
p-
s^"
'^Is P
ii p/ ig:
ft*
r
p.
ir*-
ST.
'^
jsr
"^
".
5..iLi>'.-'.
??rS^tt^^:^ifK-X>:\-
if'i:
^ ^
tf
S.'ff- re
p- i*
cp
H
!? f^
'fe^
t
I
1^
fif
s^
Ft
^<6^ <^ ^ nr
rs^
c^ fe " & sy B^ 5? ft IF
"s^
4v
some
of
which
still
continue to be recorded.
place-value,
The
earliest
orientalists
gave them
but
this error
soon
26 (o)
W'r rdiulmlc this section with a few illustrations transliterated from Sanskrit manuscripts.
Indian Forms.
Equivalents.
yd
6 ru 300
ya 10 rn 100
yam yam
l& yd Q ru 16 yo 9 ru 18
1
yd va va yd va va
yd_
i/(i
yd va 2 yd 400 nl
yiJ
va
n't
n'l
f/n
) 9999
197 io 1644 Aw
'2
ru r 630i{
ka & ka b ka
ka
'i
VI.
22.
of
divine origin.
This
any
rate, the
;
but
not
place- value
modern
niently
(c)
times.
termed
the
KharoshthI,
(d)
(6)
the
Brahmi,.
the word-symbol
notation.
(a)
The KharoshthI
script
is
left
and was
in
It was,
derived
little
direct connection
notations.
is
in fairly
common
many
centuries,
and even to the present day is occasionally used. The symbols employed varied somewhat in form according to time and place, but on the whole the consistency of form
exhibited
is
remarkable.
They
Several false
some
of
which
still
continue to be recorded.
place-value,
The
earliest
orientalists
gave them
but
this error
soon
VI.
22.
of
divine origin.
This
any
rate,
;
the
but
not
place-value
place-value system
modern
niently
(c)
times.
was not introduced until comparatively The early systems employed may be conve(a)
termed
the
Kharoshthi,
(d)
(6)
the
Brahmi,.
the word-symbol
notation.
()
The KharoshtJil
script is written
from right to
left
and was
in
It was,
little
notations.
is
in fairly
common
many
centuries,
and even to the present day is occasionally used. The symbols employed varied somewhat in form according to time and place, but on the whole the consistency of form exhibited is remarkable. They are written from left to
right with the smaller elements on the right.
Several false
some
of
which
still
continue to be recorded.
place-value,
The
earliest
orientalists
gave them
but
this error
soon
"28
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
disproved
letters of
was then suggested that they were initial numerical words then it was propounded that the
itself
;
it
then
it
time Kliaroshthi) of
corresponding
numerals.
These
theories
severally disproved.
The notation was possibly developed on different prinThe first three symbols are natural ciples at different times. and only differ from those of many other systems in consisting
of horizontal instead of vertical strokes.
No
principle of
formation of the symbols for "four" to "thirty" is now evident but possibly the " forty " was formed from the thirty by the addition of a stroke and the " sixty " and
" seventy " and " eighty "
"
appear to be
The hundreds are (to a limited extent) evidently built upon such a plan, which, as Bayley pointed out, is the same as that employed in the Egyptian but after the " three hundred " the Indian hieratic forms system forms the "four hundred" from the elements of
;
and
so
on.
The notation
is
30
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
(c)
Brahml notation
in
having the
left.
and
read from
left to right.
. .
It
may
5
6
be exhibited thus j jh
8
th
Letters
h kh g gh n
1
t
c ch
n
10.
Values
Letters
..
2
tli
7
t
dh
dh n
Values
Letters
.
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20.
p ph
bh
sh
Values
21 22 23 24 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100.
The vowels indicate multiplication by powers of one The first vowel a may be considered as equivalent 100"*, the second vowel ^=100^ and so on. The values of to the vowels may therefore be shown thus
hundred.
:
Vowels
Values
a
1
ri
e
10^*^
ai
au
system
M?/M^/in=(2+30). 10^+4.10*5=4320000
caijagiyinumlchIi=6+30 +3.10^ +30.10'+5.10* +70.10*
(50+7).10^=57,753,336
numbers
The table
of sines
It did
appears occasionally in
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
Initial
31
also.
The
of the twelfth
century.
{d)
Slight
variations occur.
notatioti.
The word-symbol
extraordinarily popular in
India
in
use was
number may be used to denote that number e.g. Two may be expressed by nayana, the eyes, or Jcarna, the ears,
:
tc.
(of
the sun)
;
fifteen
by
tithi,
twenty by
tiakha, the
hands and
;
lunar mansions
(e)
etc.,
etc.
The
modern place-value
The
orthodox
is
it
view
is
now
was
in use in India at a
Hindu
of
God
According
king
!
Brahma (who
figures
An
According to M. Nau,
in Syria in
;
known
in
what he
other
says
about
" Indian"
'
matters.
'
Certain
Indian numbers
held that there
and
is
so on.
On
earlier
'
it is
no sound evi-
The suggestion
of
Ma^oudi
595
is
example
system
is
The
fip;ures
32
later,
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
while there are hundreds intervening with examples
The references
'
in
meterm
diseval
the East
of the
numeration,
etc.)
which has nothing to do with India. Again, it has been assumed that the use of the abacus " has been universal in
India from time
immemorial," but
this
assumption
is
not
its
is
based upon
fact, there
being actually
no evidence
of
modern
times.
Further, there
of
TT
The topic
some
special mention.
The Indian values given and used and the subject is wrapped in
extremely
some mystery.
actually use
it.
Briefly
exhibits
how
Date
Circa.
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
33
Date
Circa.
34
24.
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
orientalists
have
opinions of Chasles, Wcepcke, Hankel and others founded upon such mistakes are now no longer authoritative. In
spite,
made
in historical research
there are
many
" '
casting out nines " is not of Indian origin (a) The proof by and occurs in no Indian work before the 12th century (6) The scheme of multiplication, of which the following is
;
an Indian example
of the
16th century,
was known much earlier to the Arabs and there is no evidence that it is of (c) The Regula duorum Indian origin jalsorum occurs in no Indian work {d) The Indians were not the first to give
;
of the
VII.
25.
we k]iow very
down
his
Brahmagupta's opinion
own
is
We
inscription.
worth recording.
Alberuni writes (1,376)
'
:
Now
his
it
is
own
authority,
;
and with
but he
is
entirely
unfounded
whom
he abuses
And
in this respect I
gupta where he says that Aryabhata has subtracted something from the cycles of Caput Draconis and of the apsis of
moon and thereby confused the computation eclipse. He is rude enough to compare Aryabhata to
the
ters in
it,
of
the
worm
who knows
gazelles.
'
stands
opposite
to
They
him
see their
faces.
'
maltreats him.'
Again
'
''
Aryabhata
differs
of
is
who
from us
an opponent."
On
praises
Pulisa for what he does, since he does not differ from the
book Smriti.'
*
reek.
36
IXDIAX MATHEMATICS.
and.
Aryabhata
a
\'ishnuchandra,
Brahmagupta says
and that
'
:
'
:
If
man
not
allowed/
In former times,
that which
due to themselves. But from this passage of Yarahamihira alone {see paragraph 2 above) you see what a self -lauding
man
he
'
is,
others:
but. in
another place
(ii,
'
:
On
and he
distin-
Would
to
God
all
guished
men
110)
'
:
But look,
Brahmagupta, who
is
of
like a
man whom
If
death
is
about
Brahmagupta
.... is
one
They have denied our signs, although their hearts knew them clearly, from wickedness and haughtiness," we shall not argue with him, but only whisper into his ear "If people must under circumstances
says,
'
whom God
'
give
up opposing the
seems to be your
be pious
if
case),
order people
I, for
to
you
forget to be so yourself"
my
part,
am
inclined to
was something of a calamitous fate, like that of Socrates, which had befallen him, notwithstanding the
intellect,
of his knowledge and the sharpness of his and notwithstanding his extreme youth at the time. For he wrote the Brahmasiddhdnta when he was only thirty If this indeed is his excuse we accept it and years of age.
abundance
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
37 at
Au
Patna, a
refers
Bombay Presidency,
'
:
Triumphant
revered
is
the
Bhaskaracharya whose
feet are
by the
metrics,
.was in poetics
.Bhaskara, the learned, )nultifarious arithmetic and the rest. endowed with good fame and religious merit, the root of the
.
creeper
true
;
knowledge
feet
of the
of learning
whose
us of Bhaskara's grandson
of
to
Bhas-
by members
expounded.'
Bhaskara's most popular work
is
which means
"
charming.
'
He
uses
the
phrase
'
'
Dear
as to a daughter he
is
be
addressing.
The
on algebra
of
Brahmagupta,
and Padmanabha
as
''
too diffusive
" and
"
"'
substance of them in
oratification
of learners."
VIII.
2G.
Chinese Mathematics.
A number
Indian
embassies to
fourth
visits to
and succeeding
centuries.
The records
of
these
visits are
knowledge
of
them
is
in
authorities,
and there
to suppose
no record
way indebted
is
to China for
mathe-
matical knowledge.
and must on no
We
complete
account of Chinese
between
the
two
countries.
This
connection
is
briefly
The
questions
earliest
is
and
it
records
Pythagorean theorem.
is
'
Perhaps
the Chin'
which
B.C.
was composed at
while
second century
it is
known to have been written in A.D. 263. The "' Nine Sections " is far more complete than any Indian work prior to Brahmagupta
Chang T'sang"s commentary on
(A.D. 628) and in some respects
is
in
advance
of that writer.
partnership, extraction of
of
plane figures
first
By Voshio Mikami.
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
degree.
39
The
is
+ ).
where
'
'
the
chord and
'
'
MahavTra's work
in the
are used
of
paragraphs 5 and
the
diameter
for Arya^
)
which
is
given by
all
and the
correct
volume
for
a truncated
pyramid which
reproduced by Brahmagupta
and Sridhara.
One
problems
like
the following
" There
stem.
is
bamboo 10
upper
feet
end
of
from the
problem
exactly
What
is
""
This occurs in
The
about two travellers meeting on the hypotenuse of a rightangled triangle occurs some ten centuries later in
the same form in Mahavlra's work.
The Sun-Tsu
of
Suan-ching
century.
is
an
arithmetical treatise
about the
first
It indulges in big
numbers and
;
Mahaviras work
it
square-root and
contains
degree.
is
first
The example
unknown.
will
' : '
by
5 the remainder
and by
7 the
remainder
is
2.
What
is
be the number
?"'
Indian
example
" What number divided by 6 has a remainder 5, and divided by 5 has a remainder of 4 and by 4 a remainder of 3, and by 3 a remainder of 2 ?"
Mahavira has similar examples.
In the 3rd century the Sea Island Arithmetical Classic was
written.
Its distinctive
40
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
tion
oiven
occurs
in
lies later.
contains the
The arithmetic
of
Chang-Cli'iu-chien
written
in
the 6th
may have
been
The problem
interest.
'
of
'
is
of considerable
:
costs 5 pieces of
Chang gives the following example "A cock money, a hen 3 pieces and 3 chickens 1 piece. If then we buy with 100 pieces 100 of them what will be their respective numbers ?"
No mention
but
it
:
of this
problem
is
made by Brahmagupta,
following
7 cranes
form
for 3
9.
drammas, "
3 peacocks for
middle ages
it
intimacy
;
established.
On
Brahmagupta
and
of indeterminate equait
(in
which
is,
however,
attributed to
nearly six
centuries
earlier.
The
Chinese
had
maintained
intellectual
intercourse
with
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
first
41
many
Indian (Buddhistic)
generally give
works.
They
the source of their information and acknowledge their indebtFrom the 7th century edness with becoming courtesy.
Astronomical Board.
is
no evidence
of
On
the discoveries
made
in
China
Arabic Mathematics.
little
It
with very
justification,
that
Arabs
owed
their
Muhammad
earliest
b.
Musa el-Chowarezmi
The early
(A.D. 782)
is
the
known work
for,
the Algebra.
orientalists
appear
origin to
M.
b.
Musa's work.
is
follows:
' There
nothing in history,"
it,
respecting
Muhammad
ben
individually,
madans.
light
himself or taken
it
As a matter
is
now
well
known that
and
that,
among
Indian
of
writers on
century
wrote
'
You mostly
42
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
Hindus are
order.
in a state of
..
any
logical
.since they
scientific
them some
all
rules of logical
etc."
mathematics,
The
fact
is
certain Indian
On
this basis it
is
Baghdad.
No
gupta preceded M.
is
fact
M.
an arithmetical
by M. As
b.
is
Indorum.
Musa under the title Algoritmi de Numero well known the term India did not in
is
Indeed
its
contents
is
not of
Indian origin.
mediaeval works.
several other
28. From the time of M. b. Miisa onwards the Muhammadan mathematicians made remarkable progress. To
illustrate this fact
of their dis"
Tabit
Qorra
b.
Merwan
Qosta b.
LQka
el-Ba'albeki (died
c.
Damascius,
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
43
rule of
two
errors,
El-Battani (M.
b.
Gabir
b.
commentarv
on
in trigonometry.
Ptolemy and made notable advances Abu Kamil Shoga b. Aslam (c. 850-930)
Abu
Hipparchus. and M.
circle
b.
and sphere,
b. Abdelgalil,
etc.. etc.
Abu Sa
'id,
el-sigzT
(Ahmed
M.
of
hyperbola, the
Lemmata
its
hyperbola and
asymptotes,
Abu Bekr.
el-Karchi
in-
on arithmetic and
Alberuni (M. b.
in
Ahmed, Abu'l-Rihan
el-Blrunl)
was born
and
astro-
nomy
Omar
b.
Ibrahim
el-
Chaijami, the
celebrated
poet,
104(>
and died
in
He
a
commentary on the
on mixtures of metals
and on arithmetical
Brahmagupta and Bhaskara indicates at least considerable intellectual activity and a great advance on the
the time of
all
branches of mathematics
perhaps,
indeterminate
equations.
IX.
29.
works
of the
Bhaskara are
established.
is
now
A somewhat
Indian mathematics
in this direction
is
also established
sections that
may
ment
of
influence
also proved.
their
but the
earliest of
b.
and Indians.
their
they
ol)tained
Indians.
of
way
of China
and by way
it
of
The former
is
not so improbable as
silk
at
first
seems.
light
on the subject.
The
intellectual
critical
well
known
there
able to
sound transworks
were
the
available
we might be
draw more
is
definite conclusions,
now
stands there
of a Chinese source.
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
45
certain
We
visit of
I,
Greek
which at
least
jnstifv the
The Sassanid
remarkable
shows a
somewhat
Crupta period.
" The
who were
con-
nected with
translations,
religion
literature
and who,
in their
Greek
throughout the
of
orient."
Mr. Vincent
Sassanian
direct
influence on India
no
evidence.
it
Although
may
as^
by which any
,
consideration
influence of
evident
not onlv
also in
the
mathematical
work
of
the
Indians but
Mr. Vincent
Smith
refers
"
to the cumulative
between the
civilization of
is
Empire
;'"
and research
The
days of Asoka,
influence of
The numerous embassies to and from foreign countries which were means of intellectual as well as political communication no doubt contributed to the same end
and the knowledge of Greek works displayed by Aryabhata, Varaha Mihira, and Brahmagupta was one of the natural
results of this renaissance of learning.
APPENDIX
I.
In the following
we
difEereut
manners
We
shall explain
how
to
them.
4:
its
the
which
4:
is
the square.
H:
*
of
48.
The diagonal
an oblong produces by
itself
both
sepa-
49.
This
is
and
four, twelve
and
:|c
five,
fifteen
and
eight, seven
and
from another
square cut
smaller square
Draw one
it
side.
Where
off
it
touches
By
the small
square
is
Thibaut.
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
58.
If
47
circle
draw
half
of the cord
in
the
diagonal from
the centre
the third part of that piece of the cord which stands over.
Aryahhafd's gamta
6.
(Circa,
is
A.D. 520).
the product of the
half the base.
The area
of
triangle
perpendicular
common
to the
the
solid
with
4:
4:
10.
Add
The
the approxiis
mate value
thousand.
4:
of the circumference
twenty
4:
4e
13.
The
circle is
produced by a rotation
the triangle
;
their hypotenuses
line.
H:
4:
4:
29. The sum of a certain number of terms diminished hy each term in succession added to the whole and divided by the number of terms less one gives the value of the
whole.
Brahmagupta
1.
(Born
A.D. 598).
rest of
He who
distinctly
measurement by shadows
*
14.
45
is
The principal multiplied by its time and divided by the interest, and the quotient being multiplied by the factor less one is the time. The sum of principal and interest divided by unity added to the interest on unity is the
principal.
48
17.
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
The number
difference
of
terms
less
common
of the
and added
to the first
last.
mean
is
the
sum
21.
sides
being multiplied
is
product
40.
***** *****
of the whole.
Half the
sum
of the last
number
of
terms
The product
and opposite
sides
is
Half the
sum
the
down
together
the
square-root
of
tively multiplied
and
area.
square of
62.
The diameter and the square of the radius respecby three are the practical circumference square-roots extracted from ten times the The the same are the exact values.
its
The integer multiplied by the sexagesimal parts of fraction and divided by thirty is the square of the minutes
is
and
to be *
of the
whole degrees.
*
'
101.
tion.
The
may
may
solve
by the
by
others.
102.
an assembly
of
still
more by
their
Mahdvlrcrs Gatdta-Sara-Sangraha
i.
(Circa.
A.D. 850).
13-14.
ference of islands,
The number, the diameter and the circumoceans and mountains the extensive
;
dimensions of
the rows
of habitations
and
halls belonging to
hell,
all
these are
of
computation.
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
vi.
49
147.
Diminish by the
least
of things.
Now split
divide.
least the mixed and subtract from the given number up (this) into as many (as there are left)
and then
169.
*****
article
purchase.
[This
is
It
as multiplied
by
their colours
24 and 25 below.]
vii.
**:(:*
Area has been taken to be
[See examples
4c
two kinds by Jina namely, that which is for in accordance with the result practical purposes and that which is minutely accurate.
2. vii,
233.
*****
of
of devilishly difficult
problems.
Sridhara's Trisatikd
1.
(Circa
A.D. 1030).
sum is equal to half the product of the number of terms and the number of terms together with unity.
increasing
by
one, the
32.
the gnomon be divided by twice the sum of the gnomon and the shadow the fraction of the day elapsed or
*****
is
(of three).
With
reference to
inversely proportional
which remains
will
be obtained.
Bhdsham
L.
1.
(Born
this
A.D. 1114).
calculation,
propound
its
easy process of
delightful
soft
by
*
and
correct
and pleasing
to the learned. 4: *
4i
50
L. 139.
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
side
is 'put.
From
some
than the
obtained.
and the
side as
hypotenuse.
L. 189.
*****
put .is subtracted
is
the remainder
termed
'
be the
Such a triangle
genuine.'
Thus, "With
the
same
sides,
may
be
many
have
*
-,
The circumference less the arc being multiby the arc the product is termed first.' From the plied quarter of the square of the circumference multiplied by five
'
subtract
first
that
first
product.
By
The
owing to
intelligent
be
it
discovered
by the
exercise
ingenuity.
Accordingly
lii'
analysis.''
-*):
is
*'
*
',
V. 224.
The
is
arithmetic
spotless
understanding
intelligent
?
algebra.
What
is
there
unknown
it is,
to the
set forth.
V. 225.
calculation
full of
of its principles
,0-
'>.'-
APPENDIX
Examples.
1.
II.
One-half, one-sixth,
are
Two
Answer
2.
hastas.
'^.
23.
The quarter
dmmma
a person from
whom
if
he asked alms.
how many
?
cowries
L. 32.
Out
of a
swarm
on a blossom
numbers
flew to a
bloom
of kutaja.
One
air,
about in the
allured at the
jasmine
same moment by the pleasing fragrance of a and pandanus. Tell me, charming woman, the
?
number
of bees
Answerlb
4. The third part of a necklace amorous struggle fell on the ground.
L. 54, V. 108.
of pearls
broken in an
was seen
Six pearls
Z = the
Lilarati,
Bliaskara, J/=Muliavira,
'S'=Siidhara, C=Chaturvecla.
52
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
string.
?
remained on the
lace
Say, of
how many
was composed
AnsH'er~30.
5.
S. 26.
A
is
which
in
j'y
^^^.^'' ^^^^ i^i *^^ course of a quarter of a day ornament of arithmeticians, by 2| aiigulas. its tail grows tell me by what time this same enters fully into the hole ?
o^
Answer
76i
days.
hasta.)
M.
v,
31.
(24 angulas=l
6.
a mes-
In
will
he overtake the
first
person
M.
advances 8 yivas
vi,
327,
A white-ant
less one-fifth in a
day
and returns the twentieth part of an angula in 3 days. In what space of time will one, whose progress is governed by these rates of advancing and receding proceed 100 yojanas ?
^wswer98042553
(8
8.
days.
(7.
283.
yojana).
and 720 dinaras for their wages. Two men stop after going two krosas, after two more krosas three others give up,
and
men
M.
leave.
earn
57,
155,
490.
vi,
231.
krosas=l yojana).
It is well
it
along being
i=the
Lilavati,
F=Vija
Si^Sridhara, r=Chaturvecla
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
harnessed to the yoke.
ijojanas.
J-J
They have
to do a journey
of
70
How many
how many
travels
Answer
40 yojanas.
10.
If
M.
VI, 158.
Answer
11.
25|.
What
is
L. 76,
of 10 years.
Answer1^0.
12.
M.
of a
V, 40.
The price
hundred
bricks, of
settled
we have
what we ought
to
pay?
Answer2d^II.
13.
C. 285.
Two
and seven
will
in height,
consume one
other
drona
of grain.
How much
height and
dimensions
Answer
(64
12
C. 285.
kudavas=16 prasthas=l
One bestows alms on holy men in the third part of a day, another gives the same in half a day and a third disIn what time, keeping to these tributes three in five days.
14.
rates, will
Answer
*
174Lilavati.
^- '^^^^
L=the
r=Vija
J/=Mahavira
S=SrIdhara, C=Chaturveda.
54
15.
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
Say,
mathematician,
and
85,
conducted by them
of
amount
L. 93.
300
for
is
two and
Eighteen
the profit.
What
the capital
Answer 18-^ {^
17.
If
1)=24.
may
nishkas.
and a pah
dramma and
wood for the eighth part wood also for the eighth
dramma, good merchant, give me the value of one nishka in for I wish to prepare a the proportions of 1, 16 and 8
;
perfume
Answer
(16
18.
PricesDrammas 14|,
nishka).
half
f,
f + i, V' %"
-^-
^^^
drammas =1
If three
and a
mdnas
of rice
may
price,
be had for
take these
and one
of
beans
and give me we must make a hasty meal companion will proceed onwards ?
:
for
-J^.
L. 97, F. 115.
kakinis=l dramma).
If
month be
?
6 drammas, in
lent be tripled
C. 287.
20.
five
If
on the
sum with interest at the rate of hundred by the month amount in a year to one
the principal the principal and interest respectively
375.
?
thousand,
tell
Answer 625,
*
L. 89.
iS'=Sndhara, C'=ChaturYecla.
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
21.
55
and
man became
M.
vi,
months.
What
is
the capital
Ansiver
60.
known.
64.
22.
interest not
The
interest of that
money
same
for four
months was
accumulated
rate
and
it
months to
78.
on the principal
Answer m.
23.
C. 288.
Subtracting from a
sum
hundred
The time
of
?
alike
and the
amount
of
interest
equal
8.
Answer
24.
Principal
is 1
F. 109.
There
part of
varm,
part of 2 varms,
part
of 3
of
the
make them
mixed gold
all
?
into one
of the
Answer 101.
[The term varna corresponds to
' '
^carat
'
^^'
^'^^'
or
measure of
purity of gold.']
25.
Gold
1,
2,
3,
4 suvarnas,
and
losses 1,
2,
3,
mashakas.
The average
loss is
hl+^l^^+M==^,
Bahhshdli Ms. 27.
Z = the
Lilavati,
F=Vija
.V=Mahavira
.'s=Sridhara,
C=Chaturveda.
S6
26.
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
Of two arithmetical progressions with equal sums
of
terms the
first
3,
sum
15.
Find
Answer
27.
3.
A
I,
merchant pays
different places.
second
he gives ^ of the goods, at the and at the third ^. The total duty paid is 24.
first
At the
What was
the original
amount
of the
goods
Answer
28.
40.
' '
:
One says
I shall
Give
' '
be twice
The
ten to
me
40
and
170.
F. 106, 156.
gives twice as
as A,
as
3 times as
total
is
much
etc.
as B,
gives 4 times as
much much
132.
4,
gives
Bakhslidli
Ms.
54.
Four
jewellers
possessing respectively
rubies,
from
his
own
and
gratification at
of stock of precisely
and thus they became owners the same value. Tell me, friend, what
meeting
;
Answer
24,
16, 1,
31.
The quantity
and
pearls
*
five, eight
and seven
i=the
F=Vija
-S^Sridhara, C=Chaturveda.
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
respectively.
57
The number of like gems belonging to another is seven, nine and six. One has ninety, the other sixty-two rupees. They are equally rich. Tell me quickly, then,
intelligent friend,
of each sort of
who gem ?
Answer
14, 1,
'
1, etc.
'
V. 105
relative values.]
&
156.
[Bhaskara
assumes
32.
and
eight
to
them
and one their mules are eight, and the oxen owned by them are seven,
Tell
me severally,
rest
?
and the
Answer 85,
33.
V. 157.
Say quickly,
friend, in
what portion
fill
of a
day
will
a cistern, which,
fill
it in
third
Answer
34.
yV.
of Pritha,
L. 95.
The son
With
Salya
;
How many
L. 67, V. 133.
For 3 'panas 5
jjalas of
ginger are
obtained,
for
pams
*
and
i=the
F=Vija
'S:=Sridhara,
C=Chaturveda.
58
pepper.
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
By means
of the
?
quickly obtain 68
Ansiver
pahs
M.
pepper 44, pepper
4.
vi,
150.
36.
seven
the
V. 158-9;
M.
vi,
152.
Answer VviQeQ
Birds
5,
3, 40,
21, 36.
56, 27,
12.
900 A.D.).
was treated fully by Abu KamilSee H. Suter Das Buck der Selten:
37.
of a
bud
was seen
half a hasta
it
the water.
two
hastas.
Answer \K
38.
If a
L. 153
F. 125.
bamboo measuring
tip of
it
ing
upon
level
ground be broken
of the
hastas, say,
mathematician, at how
?
many
hastas
from the
root
it is
Answer
*
S
12.
L. 148.
i=the
by Bhaskara, 7l/=Mahavira,
= Sridhara,
C =Chaturveda.
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
39.
59
9
hastas
snake's hole
is
is
perched on the
summit.
Seeing a
many
Answer
40.
12.
L. 150. high,
From
monkey
distant,
the space
by them be
equal, tell
me
quickly, learned
man, the
if
Answer m.
41.
L. 155; F. 126.
travels to the east
moves
at the rate
of 2 yojanas,
man who
The
travels
northward moves
In
latter
5 days turns to
how many
211.
days
will
man
Answer
42.
13.
M.
vii,
The shadow of a gnomon 12 angulas high is in one place 15 angulas. The gnomon being moved 22 angulas further its shadow is 18. The difference between the tips
of the of the
shadows
shadows
is
is
of the light
;
Answer im.
43.
C. 318
Ar. 16
L. 245.
The shadow of a gnomon 12 angulas high being lessened by a third part of the hypotenuse became 14 angulas. Tell, quickly, mathematician, that shadow ?
Answer221.
*
^' 1^^'
<S=Sridhara, C=Chaturveda.
60
44.
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
Tell the perpendicular
intersection
summits
of
standing
upon
Answer
45. of four
6.
L. 160.
is
the square
flanks
and the face two hastas and altitude twelve, the and
fifteen,
thirteen
what
is
the area
AnsiverlOS.
46.
S.
77.
moon
the middle
length
is
is
three hastas.
By
?
splitting
up
into
Ansiver
47.
24.
sides of a quadrilateral
S. 83.
The
with unequal
sides
13x15, 13x20 and the top side is the cube of 5 and the bottom side is 300. What are all the values here beginning
are
Answers U^D,
If
M.
^2
vii,
59.
^2
aC,
and a2 4- J2 = f-z then the quadrilateral Ac, Be, is cyclic and the diagonals are Ah -\- aB and Aa + Bh,
C2,
is
the area
(ABc^
25
;
B=
20,
;
+ ahC^), &c. In the present case ^ = 15, = 5, b = 12, r = 13. The diagonals are
For
full details see
315, 280
193.
the LVavatl,
48.
friend,
who knowest
ments, and then think out and mention quickly the numbers
side,
hypotenuse
That
is
Answer IQ,
where
*
ni
30, 34.
M.
vi^
vii,
94.
)i^,
iii''^-\-/i.'^>
5,
>i
3.
r4anita,
iS=Sridhara, (7=Chaturveda.
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
49.
61
figure the
perpendicular side
is
73.
What
Answer
50.
M.
if
vii,
121,
Intelligent friend,
Lllavati, say
is
what
is
a net upon a ball, the diameter being seven, and the solid
Answer
Area 38
If^gty
surface 153
|if;;
51.
is
ten,
what
is
the cir-
cumference
the area
?
If
tell
me
also
Answer
52.
x/ 1,000,
/v/6250.
S. 85.
The measure
7.
of
Rahu
is
moon
25,
Answer
is 2,
that of the
moon
5.
C. 311.
This
is
an eclipse problem and means that circles of diameters 52 and 2.") intersect so that the portion of the line joining the two centres common to the two circles is 7. The common
chord cuts this into segments of 5 and
2.
53.
of the
is
measure
1116.
of the circumfer-
Tell
me what
the
circumference
is,
area,
diameter
36.
M.
vii,
32.
The
rule
given
is
64)
*
y^ 64
tS=Sridhara, C=Chaturveda.
62
54.
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
are
?
18
in
number.
How many
The
Ansiver31.
rule given is
M.
n =^-
289.
^^-^
is
where
c is
the
number
Tell
me,
if
Answer
1|4.
S. 93.
is
The
56.
rule
given
v=d^ (^+^^8^is
sacrificial
altar
It is 6 hastas long, 3 half a hasta broad and one hasta long. Tell me rightly, wise hastas broad and half a hasta high. man, what its volume is and how many bricks it contains.
Answer^,
72.
S. 96.
24 aiigulas=l hasta.
57.
If
thou knowest,
tell
me
mound
hastas
?
of
36
and height
S.
Answer
144.
is
102.
is 6.
The
measure
of the
bow
is
not known.
friend.
M.. vii, 75.
Answer ^/'360
59.
the string
24 in measure, and
its
arrow
is
taken to be 4
in
?
measure.
^2.
ac/v/10.
.
i=the
(xanita,
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
60.
63
and eight
five.
^wsit'er V9+>v/450+v75+v54.
61.
V. 32.
What
is
the
number which
and
multiplied
by
five
and
and the
and a
than
less
seventy
Answer
The
therefore r
48.
L. 51.
solution
may
be summarised
this:
./'(.'
)=fiS,
/(3)
= 17 4
=48.
//4
62.
of a
troop of monkeys
delighted
squared
was
skipping in a
grove and
seen
with
hill
their sport.
on
the
amused
in all
with
?
How many
were there
AnsiveriS or
63.
16.
V. 139.
The
fifth
having climbed
on a branch.
Answer
50
V. 140.
" the second
is
it is in-
alisolute
64.
five
times
Say quickly what the number is which added itself divided by thirteen becomes thirty ?
to
Answer"^-.
V. 168.
65. A certain unknown quantity is divided by anotlier. The quotient added to the divisor and the dividend is fifty-
three.
What
is
the divisor
8,
Answer b,
*
M.
vi,
274.
Z=the
Lilavati,
F Vija
iS=Sridhara, C=Chaturveda.
64:
INDIAN MATHEi\LA.TICS.
66.
by nought and added to half itself and multiplied by three and divided by nought amounts to the given number sixty-three ?
is
What number
that which
multiplied
Ansicer
67.
14.
L. 46.
is
What
four
numbers
who
unknown
V. 210-
quantities
Answer 5.
4.
2,
11.
for three of the quantities
and gets
you are conversant with operations of algebra tell the number of which the fourth power less double the sum of the square and of two hundred times the simple
68.
If
number
is
Ansusr II.
This
V. 138.
(a;2+200
a:)
may be
= 9999.
It is the
only
power occurs.
of
69.
The square
of the
is
sum
sum
;
equal
to
sum
of
their
cubes
Ansiver1, 20
70.
5,
76, etc.
F. 178.
Tell
me,
if
multiplied respectively
to
Ansicer b, 10 and
71.
11,
6.
Sav quickly, mathematician, what is the multiplier by which two hundred and twenty -one being multiplied and sixty-five added to the product, the sum divided by a hundred and ninety-five becomes cleared
Ansu-er5, 20, 35 &c.
*
?
L. 253
F. 65.
<S'=Sridhara,
C=Chaburveda.
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
72.
five,
65
What number
Answer
73.
59.
Br. xviii, 7
F. 160.
What
having one
be a square
7. 82.
Here
Stt^
35, etc.
t=\l
99, etc.
74.
and
added
to the product
an exact
square
who does
92 w2
+1=^2
(2)
83 m2 +1=^2.
(2)
<=9, ^=82.
What
is
seven and one being added to the product will yield a squareroot
;
and what
is
do so likewise
'
Declare
it,
be thoroughly
mind
V. 87.
(1)
67 v? +1="'.
(2)
61 u -\-l=t\
(2)
w=226,153,980,
76.
me
quickly, mathematician,
sum
of their
of the
sum
of
their
L=thQ
Lilavati,
F=Vija
=Sridhara, C=Chaturveda.
66
squares,
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
and those extracted from the sum and difEerence increased by two, and that extracted from the difierence of their squares added to eight, being all five added together
may
eight?
F. 190.
Answersx=8
1677/4
15128, etc.
?/=6, 41
246, etc.
CHKONOLOGY.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
(For a more complete bibliography see that given in the
Journal of
First Period.
Thibaut, G.
1875.
(Benares) 1875-6.The
76.,
1882.
BiiRK, A.
Das
;
1901
56, 1902.
Second Period.
Burgess, E. and Whitney, G.
Jour.
Am.
The
Surya
The
Pancha-
RoDET, L.
Kaye, G.
R. Aryabhata,
Third Period.
Colebrooke, H.
suration
T.
from
of
Brahmagupta and
Rangacarya, M.
viracdrya,
The
Ganita-Sdra-Sangraha of Mah^-
Madras, 1908.
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
69
The Trisatika
Notations.
Buhler, G.
Bayley,
London, 1882.
WoEPCKE,
Kaye,
F.
la
G. R.
Arithmetical
Notations, J. A.
of the
S.B.,
7,1907.
The Use
Abacus
in
Old
Indian Antiquary,
Fleet,
J.
F.
Aryabhata's
/. R. A.
S.,
system
1911.
of
expressing
of the
Numbers,
The Use
Abacus
Smith, D. E.
in India, J. R.
A.
S., 1911.
and Karpinski,
L. C.
Other Works.
Sachau, E.
Thibaut,
Grundriss
9,
der
Indo-Arischen
Philologie,
III,
1899.
Hoernle, R.
quanj, XVIII,
Kaye, G. R.
Methods,
Bib. Math.,
1911.Hindu Mathematical
Education
Methods,
Indian
1910-1913.
S.,
The
1910.
J. A. S. B., VII, 9,
70
INDIAN MATHEMATICS.
Heath,
T, L.
Diophantus
of Alexandria, Cambridge,
1910.
of
Mohammed
ben Musa,
H.
Die
Mathematiker
und Astronomen
der
YosHio Mikami. The development of Mathematics China and Japan, Leipzig, 1912.
in
The general works on the history of mathematics by Cantor, Gunther, Zeuthen, Tannery and v. Braunmuhl and the articles by Woepcke, Rodet, Vogt, Suter and
Wiedemann
XI
82.
INDEX.
Chasles, 34.
43, 58.
70,
Chosroes
Circle,
I, 15,
45.
see
el-Chowarezmi
the,
7,
M.
b.
ilusa,
Alexandria,
Algoritmi de
9, 15, 22.
8, 11, 12,
32-33,
47-48, 61-62.
Apastamba,
Angles, 20.
squaring, 7-8.
value of
TT
]],
12, 32-33,
47-48.
70.
Colebrooke,
Cossali,
1,
41, 68.
41.
value notations).
Delian problem,
7.
Baudhayana,
Bhaskara,
4, 46, 68.
Diophantus,
68.
Egyptians,
6.
Brahmagupta,
47-48. 68.
Brahmi numerals,
Biihler, G., 3, 69.
27, 29,
Euclid, 7, 19.
Eutocius, 42.
Examples,
Fractions, 5, 51.
Geometry,
Chang T'sang,
38.
72
Greek terms,
Gunther,
9, 26.
INDEX.
Punchu Siddhantika, the, 9-11, 68. Pappus, 22.
Parallels,
S., 70.
20.
2, 10.
Hankel, H.. 17, 34. Heath, Sir T. L., 17, 70. Hoerule, R.. 69. Hypatia. 15. 16.
Inaccuracies, 20-21, 40.
Problems, 52/.
Progressions, 23, 48, 49, 56.
12, 15-18,
Indeterminate equations,
Inscriptions, 31, 37.
Ptolemy,
40, 65-66.
Pulisa, 35.
Qosta
Jambliehus, 42.
Jones, Sir W.,
1.
b.
Luqa, 42-43.
16-18, 24,
Quadratic equations,
63-66.
Quadrilaterals, 20-22, 60-61.
Kali^a
iSiitras, 3.
el-Karclu, 43.
Karpinski, L.
C,
69.
60.
Macdonnell,
4.
9.
39; 40,
Rule Rule
two
errors, 34.
Muhammad
Rihau
Miiller,
b.
Ahmed, Abu
Sine function, 9.
Sines, table of
43, 69.
10, 11.
4.
6.
Musa),
42.
Squares, construction of
,6 7, 46.
Squaring the
38-39.
Notations,
2,
27-32, 69.
Sulvasutras, the,
1,
Omar
b.
Paimauabha,
the, 1, 9, 68.
INDEX.
Tabit
b.
73
13, 21, 61, 62.
Qorra, 42.
Volumes,
Terminology, 24-26.
Thibaut, G., 1, 7, Triangle, area of
9, 68, 69.
,
70.
Word
numerals, 31.
Trigonometry, 9-10.
Trisatika, 24, 27, 69.
Varaha Mihira,
lMS!Smm:L.
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